Lecture-2

Discrete Mathematical Structures

(22B21MA113)

CO1
Module: Set theory and Relations

Reference for the lecture

Kolman, B., Busby, R. C. and Ross, S., Discrete
Mathematical Structures, 6th Edition, Pearson
Education India, 2015.
.
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 Review of last lecture
Preliminaries

➢Sets
➢ Definition, Representation
➢ Types of sets
➢Cardinality of sets
➢Power set
➢Venn diagram
➢Operations on sets
➢Properties on sets

In cont…
First we discuss the problems based on preliminaries part.

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Solved examples
Examples-1: Let A = {0,1, 2, 4} and B = {3,5, 7,8,9}. Find n( A  B), n( A  B), n( A − B).
Solution: A  B = {0,1, 2,3, 4,5, 7,8,9} and the number of elements in this set is 9. Therefore
n( A  B) = 9. A  B = {} and n( A  B) = 0. A − B = {0,1, 2, 4} and n( A − B) = 4.

Examples-2: Let A = {x : x  N , 4  x  8} and B = {x : x  Z , − 2  x  4}. Find the cardinality of

A  B, B − A, A − B.
Solution:Here, A = {4,5, 6, 7,8} and B = {−2, −1, 0,1, 2,3, 4}. A  B = {−2, −2, 0,1, 2,3, 4,5, 6, 7,8}. The
cardinality of A  B is 11. B − A = {−2, −1, 0,1, 2,3} and its cardinality is 6. A − B = {5, 6, 7,8} and
its cardinality is 4.

Examples-3: Let A = {x : x is a vowel of English alphabet} and B = {x :x is a consonant of English

alphabet }. Find | A |, | B |, | A  B | .
Solution: | A |= 5. | B = 21. The A  B is the set of English alphabet and | A  B |= 26.

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Example-4: In a group of 45 students, 20 students choose the Physics, 15 students choose Physics but
not Chemistry. Find the number of students who have taken both Physics and Chemistry. Find the
number of students who have taken Chemistry but not Physics. Draw its Venn diagram also.
Solution: If we choose the set A for Physics and the set B for Chemistry then we have
n( A  B) = 45, n( A) = 20 and n( A − B) = 15.
Now, n( A − B) + n( A  B) = n( A)
 15+ n( A  B) =20

 n( A  B) = 5.
Now, n( A  B) = n( A) + n( B) − n( A  B)
45=20+ n( B) − 5  n( B) = 30.
Using, n( B − A) + n( A  B) = n( B)
n( B − A) = n( B) − n( A  B)
n( B − A) =30-5=25.

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Example-5: In a town of 260 people, 64 read Hindu and 94 read Indian Express and 58 read Times
of India, 28 read Hindu and Times of India and 26 read Hindu and Indian Express and 22 read Times
of India and Indian express and 14 read all three type of news paper. How many people were
surveyed who had read none of three types of news paper? How many had read only Indian Express?
Draw its Venn diagram also. Ans. 106, 60.
Example-6: A sports academy is awarded 38 medals in Hockey, 15 in Badminton and 20 in Cricket.
If the total number of medals awarded to 58 people and only 3 people got medals in all the three
sports. Find how many received medals in exactly two sports? Ans. 9.

Practice questions
1. Show the following through the Venn dia gram, A  B, A  B, A − B, B − A, A  B  C.
2. Let A = {a, b, c, d , e}, B = {d , h, i, j}, C = {a, k , m, n}. Find n( A  B), n( B  C ), n( B − C}.
Draw the Venn diagra m of A  B, B  C , A − C.
3. If A = {}, B = {a,{b}} then write A  B and P( A  B).
4. In a group of 1000 pe ople , 750 can speak Hindi, 400 can speak Bengali. How ma ny can
speak Hindi only? How ma ny can speak both the languages?
5. Let 63% people like mangoes and 76% like pears. What percent of pe ople like both the
fruits? What percent of people like only ma ngoes?
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Relation
❖Definition
❖Ways of presentation of a relation
❖Operations on relations
❖Types of relations
❖Equivalence relation
❖Partial order relation
❖ Hasse diagram

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 ❖Definition

Cartesian product: The Cartesian product of two non-empty sets A and B is the set
of all ordered pairs and in each ordered pair, first element is from set A and second
element is from set B and it is denoted by A x B.
If A ={1,2,3} and B ={a, b} then A x B = {(1,a), (2,a), (3,a), (1,b), (2,b), (3,b)}

Relation
Definition: A relation R from a nonempty set A to another non-empty set B is defined
as a subset of A x B. Mathematically we write it as R : A → B, R  A  B. For example,
see the adjacent fig and state the elements of relation.

Amit Sinha
Ram Sharma
Geeta Gupta

Domain of a relation: The set of first element of each ordered pair in a relation is
called the domain of a relation, it may be written as DOM(R).
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Range of a relation: The set of second element of each ordered pair in a relation set
is called the range of the relation and it is denoted as Range (R).

Co-domain of a relation: The set B in a relation R defined from A to B is called

co-domain of R. Range is the subset of co-domain.

Note: If the set A contains m elements and the set B contains n elements then the
number of possible relations will be 2mn.

Important points:
(i) Two ordered pair are said to be equal if the corresponding elements in each ordered pair are
same.
(ii) If we take three sets A, B and C then A  B  C is called triplet and it is defined as
A  B  C = {(a, b, c) : a  A, b  B, c  C}.
(iii) If A and B are non-empty sets but one of them is an infinite set then their Cartesian product
will also be an infinite set.

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Examples (for basic concept)
(i) If (a − 1, b + 2) = (3,1) then find the value of a and b.
(ii) Let A = {1, 2} and B = {a, b}. Is A  B = B  A ?
(iii) Let A = {1, 2}, B = {3, 4,5} and C = {3, 6,8}. Find A  ( B − C ), A  ( B  C ), A  (C − B). Is
A  ( B − C ) equals to A  ( B  C )?

(iv) If ( x 2 + y 2 , y ) = (4, 2) then find the value of x and y.

(v) If R represents the set of real numbers then interpret R  R and R  R  R.
(vi) Let A  B = {( x, a), ( x, b), ( y, a), ( y, b)}. Find the sets A and B.

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Solutions
(i) a − 1 = 3 and b + 2 = 1 , by the equality of ordered pair. From these equations, we get a = 4, and
b = −1.
(ii) A  B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)} and B  A = {(a,1), (a, 2), (b,1), (b, 2)}. The Cartesian product
A  B is not equal to B  A as the ordered pairs are not equal.
(iii) B − C = {4,5}, B  C = {3}, C − B = {6,8}. A  ( B − C ) = {(1, 4), (1,5), (2, 4), (2,5)},
A  ( B  C ) = {(1,3), (2,3)} and A  (C − B) = {(1, 6), (1,8), (2, 6), (2,8)}. We see that A  ( B − C ) is
not equal to A  (C − B).

(iv) Given that ( x 2 + y 2 , y ) = (4, 2) , using the property of ordered pair we get

x 2 + y 2 = 4 and y = 2. Put y = 2 in x 2 + y 2 = 4 that gives x = 0. Therefore, x = 0, y = 2.

(v) R  R = {(a, b) : a  R, b  R} which represents all the points presents in two dimensional space.
Now, R  R  R = {(a, b, c) : a  R, b  R, c  R} represents all the points of the 3-dimenional space.
(vi) Pick the first element from each ordered pair and keep it as an element in the first set i.e. A and
second element to the set B. By this way we find A = {x, y} and B = {a, b}.

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Examples on relations

(i) Let A = {1, 2,3} , B = {a, b, c, d } and a relation R is defined from A to B then find which of the
following represents a relation?
(a) R1 = {(1, a), (3, d ), (2, c)} (b) R2 = {(1, d ), (2, c), (3,1), (2, b)} (c) R3 = {(1, c), (2, a), ( a,1)}

(d) R4 =  (e) R5 = {(1, a), (2, d ), (3, d ), (5, a)}

(ii) Find the domain and range of the following relation:
(a) R1 = {(a,1), (c,3), (c, 2)} (b) R2 = {(b, 2), (b,1), ( d , 2), (e, 2} (c) R3 = 

(iii) Let A = {1, 2,3, 4,5} and a relation R is defined from A to A such that
R = {{x, y ) : x, y  A, y = x + 1} . Find the domain, range and arrow diagram of this relation.
(iv) Let A = {1, 2,3, 4,9} and a relation R is defined from A to A such that

R = {{a, b) : a, b  A, b = a 2 } . Write the elements of this relation in roster form. Also give its
pictorial representation. What is the domain and range of this relation?
(v) Let A = {x : x is an odd prime number , x  8} and B = {x : x is a multiple of 3, 1  x  7} and
a relation R is defined from A to B then find the possible number of relations from A to B .

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Solutions
(i) (a) The domain and co-domain are the subset of A and B respectively or R1 is subset of

A  B. Hence R1 is a relation.

(b) The second element of the ordered pair (3,1) does not belong to the set B or R2 is not the

subset of A  B. It is not a relation.

(c) Not a relations as a in (a,1) does not belong to the set A.
(d) Yes, R4 is a relation as it is subset of A  B.

(e) Not a relation because (5, a) does not belong to A  B.

(ii) (a) Domain is the set of first element of each ordered pair, Dom( R) = {a, c} and range is
second element of each ordered pair, Range( R1 ) = {1, 2,3}

(b) Dom( R2 ) = {b, d , e} and Range( R2 ) = {1, 2}

(c) Dom( R3 ) = {} and Range( R3 ) = {}

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(iii) The relation R = {(1, 2), (2,3), (3, 4), (4,5)}.
Dom( R) = {1, 2,3, 4} and Range( R) = {2,3, 4,5}

1 1
2 2
3 3
4
4
5 5

(iv) The relation R = {(1,1), (2, 4), (3,9)}. Dom( R) = {1, 2,3} and Range( R) = {1, 4,9}

1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
9
9

(v) Here A = {3,5, 7}and B = {3, 6}. Now n( A  B) = 6 and the subsets of A  B having 6
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elements will be 26. This gives that the number of elements will be 26.
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