Flexographic Printing & Ink
The flexographic press used in Kodak’s copper micro-wire
manufacturing line is a multi-station press capable of printing
on one or both sides of the substrate. The press has been
enhanced with camera-aided vision systems for in-press web
alignment as well as station-to-station alignment and registration
control. With these modifications, the copper micro-wires not
only have the dimensions required for a given application, they
also are integrated with world-class pattern fidelity and within
device registration.
Kodak’s copper micro-wires are defined by the printing of a
proprietary catalytic ink which both catalyzes the electroless
copper plating and provides visually neutral density between
the support and the copper micro-wires. For consistent print
quality, the press has been further modified to include an ink
delivery control system equipped with ink-property monitoring
and closed-loop process control for consistent ink rheology,
While these modifications drive high-yield for the printed
patterns, the press also has an in-line defect detection and
location logging system, flagging any defective devices prior
to testing. Early identification of defects improves overall
manufacturing yield.
Copper Plating and Environmental Passivation
The electroless copper plating for Kodak’s ultra-conductive
copper micro-wires leverages decades of experience in web-
based processing, chemical handling, and process control.
Standard electroless copper plating lines are not configured to
deliver the necessary quality for a roll-to-roll operation. Kodak’s
manufacturing line includes a customized plating system with a
multiple-section processor providing copper deposition over a
range of micro-wire heights. The system has a fully-touchless
web transport, meaning that the substrate never contacts a
roller within the plating system yielding rolls of low-defect RF
devices. The plating system includes a passivation section
where the copper micro-wires are both chemically passivated
and treated for reflection and color-control.
Kodak’s manufacturing line is designed to provide functional
transparent RF devices that are integration-ready. To ensure
end-use functionality, the manufacturing process includes
end-of-line optical and electrical testing. Testing can be
customized according to customer specifications. After device
characterization, the copper micro-wires are protected by liner
material applied to both sides of the substrate, completing the
fabrication of the ready-to-integrate-devices, which can be
singulated or provided in roll-form.
Image-Science for Concealment
Kodak’s history is rooted in image science, resulting in the
development of proprietary solutions that minimize the ability
to visually distinguish active RF devices from the surrounding
area. Leveraging understanding of human perception and
technical strengths in material science, flexographic inks
and patterns are engineered to visually match the color and
density of the passivated copper micro-wires for different
viewing environments. The multi-station flexographic press
can print multiple types of ink, allowing for non-conductive
image content to be added in-line with, and in registration with,
the catalytic ink for the copper micro-wires. The use of non-
conductive features eliminates performance degradation from
concealment with conductive materials, further differentiating
Kodak’s covert RF devices from other solutions on the market.
Figure 3 illustrates the concept and effect of Kodak’s covert
concealment technology. The left-hand side of the window,
illustrates a transparent antenna isolated on a transparent
window pane; although the RF device has high transparency,
the density of the patterned area is still greater than the
surrounding clear window glass. The lower right-hand pane
of the window in Figure 3 has an antenna with Kodak’s covert
concealment technology. The matching of color and density
of the surrounding field effectively hides the antenna; the
neighboring panes have the same non-conductive uniform
density, for a visually uniform appearance.
Kodak’s Copper Micro-Wires
for Transparent RF Applications
Carolyn Ellinger, Thomas Tombs, Kevin O’Connor, Megan Cucci
Figure 3. Illustration of how Kodak’s covert concealment Kodak has developed a novel manufacturing process for fabricating highly transparent radio frequency (RF)
technology effectively hides RF devices.
devices, such as antennas, RF filters, and electromagnetic interference (EMI) shields. Formed on flexible
Ready-to-Integrate RF Devices substrates, the transparent RF devices are also lightweight and conformable. With low sheet resistance and high
Kodak is seeking strategic partners to utilize the ultra-
transparency, these patterned copper micro-wire RF devices can be integrated with windows, displays, lighting
high conductivity micro-wires formed using the additive
manufacturing line. Products and devices from this and other surfaces where optical transparency is needed. The fully additive, roll-to-roll manufacturing process
features 2- m imaging resolution to produce fine copper micro-wires by first printing a catalytic ink and then
manufacturing line include all benefits discussed above, as
summarized here. electrolessly plating copper. The copper micro-wires are passivated to protect them from corrosion, as well as to
• RF devices with high optical transparency (>85%) from provide neutral color and low reflectance from every angle. This allows film-based RF devices, such as antennas,
ultrafine micro-wire patterns with low effective sheet to be integrated with other transparent surfaces and used in applications where they can be “viewed” from either
resistance for robust performance across a range of radio
frequencies
side.
• Flexible, conformable and lightweight substrates facilitate
Kodak’s patented micro-wire technology delivers fine copper micro-wire patterns with a combination of
integration on-glass, in-glass, and on non-planar surfaces.
transparency (>85%) and extremely low effective sheet resistance (<0.3 Ohms/square) that is unmatched,
• Neutral color and low reflectance from every angle allow
the antenna to be used in applications where they can be enabling high performance across a wide range of radio frequencies. The ability to print non-conductive
“viewed” from either side. patterns in register with the conductive RF patterns allows for the covert placement of devices without
• Visual concealment technology via in-line printing of non- impacting functional performance. Given the criticality of conductivity for RF device performance, Kodak’s
conducting ink enables the hiding of conductive RF devices manufacturing line is notably positioned to provide micro-wire patterns with low effective sheet resistance and
in a visually uniform neutral color field for covert placement of high transparency for a wide range of RF applications.
functional devices.
Contact Information
For more information on Kodak’s microwire technology and
enabling manufacturing process, please contact:
sales.printedelectronics@kodak.com
© 2019 Kodak. All rights reserved. TM: KODAK, EKTAFLEX and SQUAREspot
Why Transparency for RF Applications?
Today’s devices communicate at Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) controlled radio frequencies through an
ever-increasing network of antennas. New RF device designs
are an active area of research and development – both to
further increase the connectivity through the deployment of
more antennas, and to restrict access to information using
EMI shielding to block signals. In addition to functionality,
new designs often face integration challenges for discretely
locating the RF device within a given product or environment.
The development of optically transparent RF devices enables
covert placement on windows, displays, lighting and other glass
surfaces. When optically transparent antennas are lightweight
and conformable, the number of new design options increases
multifold – enabling connectivity (or privacy) with true covert
placement capability.
Generally, there are two starting points to produce the necessary
transparent conductive patterns for RF applications. Printed
circuit board (PCB) and flexible circuit manufactures currently
supply antenna for use at high RF frequency using thick opaque
copper films. Copper antenna represent the benchmark in
performance, however the processes used to fabricate these
antennas are not generally well-suited for producing transparent
conductive films. On the other hand, transparent conductive
film (TCF) manufactures supply films that are embedded in
every touch-enabled device such as mobile-phones and tablets,
but suffer from poor conductivity when measured against the
performance criteria for antennas. For touch panel applications,
the benchmark is indium-tin-oxide (ITO) with a bulk conductivity
fifty times worse than that of the copper currently used for
antennas; while there is a need and a desire to have more
options for placing RF devices, there is no associated relaxation
in performance expectations. Therefore, it is not surprising
that demonstrations to-date have had limited transparency, RF
efficiency, or (more typically) both.
What Sets the Kodak Technology Apart?
Kodak’s demonstrated manufacturing-scale process has
successfully fabricated highly conductive optically transparent
patterns of copper micro-wires, which perform well at RF
communication bands used for cellular and Wi-Fi. The electrical
and optical performance of Kodak’s copper micro-wires makes
them well suited for active RF antennas and other devices. The
micro-wire manufacturing line leverages Kodak’s long history
of innovation in material science, image science, printing,
deposition, and roll-to-roll manufacturing processes to produce
patterned micro-wire films with high transparency, neutral color,
and low reflectance with unprecedented conductivity. The fully
additive, roll-to-roll process features ~2 m imaging resolution
to produce fine copper micro-wires as narrow as 5 m in width,
by first printing a patented catalytic ink and then electrolessly
plating copper to the desired height. The process includes in-line
passivation to protect the micro-wires from corrosion, as well as
to provide neutral color and low reflectance from every viewing
angle. Recently manufactured micro-wire patterns for active
antennas were measured to have the exceptional combination
of high transparency (>88% relative to the substrate), very low
effective sheet resistance (<0.3 Ohms/square), and extremely low
haze (<1%).
Limitations: Practical vs. Physics
Antennas for a connected world predominately operate in either
the Ultra High Frequency (UHF) band (300 MHz to 3 GHz), or, the
Super High Frequency (SHF) band (3 GHz to 30 GHz). It is well
known that as the operating frequency increases, the minimum
achievable effective sheet resistance increases due to skin depth
limitations. Skin depth has the units of length and is a measure
of how close to the surface of a material the electric current
flows. The higher the operating frequency the smaller the skin
depth hence the higher the minimum achievable effective sheet
resistance.
All conductors suffer from the effect of skin depth when used
at high frequency. The conductivity of the material impacts
the skin depth, and for a given operating frequency the more
conductive the material the smaller the skin depth and the lower
the minimum achievable effective sheet resistance. Minimizing
skin depth via conductivity results in a higher percentage of
the current flowing at the surface, simultaneously minimizing
the necessary material height and the minimum effective sheet
resistance. Similarly, films of less conductive materials have a
greater skin depth and a higher minimum sheet resistance. A film
of a lower conductivity material will have a higher absolute height
and sheet resistance than a film of higher conductivity material
at the same multiple of its skin depth, and will therefore require
more absolute height change to impart the same fractional
change in sheet resistance. As an example, a material with a
conductivity of 40% bulk copper cannot reach the minimum
effective sheet resistance obtainable by a material at 80% bulk
copper, regardless of height of material used. Not only is the
minimum sheet resistance inferior for materials with poorer bulk
conductivity, but the film height required to achieve this value is
also considerably higher.
While the application dictates the operating frequency, the
conductivity of the antenna material is directly related to the
process and conditions used to deposit it. It is extremely difficult
to deposit thin metal films (less than 4 m) with conductivity
close to that of bulk metal. Kodak’s additive manufacturing line
utilizes electroless copper plating to deposit highly conductive
copper on temperature sensitive plastic substrates such
as polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Alternative deposition
techniques, such as physical vapor deposition or sintered
nanoparticles are typically limited in their ability to deliver high
conductivity due to thermal management requirements imposed
by the flexible film. Sintered nanoparticles often have their
conductivity further reduced by porosity, trapped bi-products
and polymer agents. While the conductivity of electroless plated
copper is dependent upon film height and process conditions,
typical conductivity on flexible transparent plastics is significantly
higher than either physical vapor deposition or sintered
nanoparticles. Kodak’s custom touchless copper deposition
system delivers best-in-class copper conductivity, enabling the
formation of highly transparent metal patterns.
Why Transparency for RF Applications?
Today’s devices communicate at Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) controlled radio frequencies through an
ever-increasing network of antennas. New RF device designs
are an active area of research and development – both to
further increase the connectivity through the deployment of
more antennas, and to restrict access to information using
EMI shielding to block signals. In addition to functionality,
new designs often face integration challenges for discretely
locating the RF device within a given product or environment.
The development of optically transparent RF devices enables
covert placement on windows, displays, lighting and other glass
surfaces. When optically transparent antennas are lightweight
and conformable, the number of new design options increases
multifold – enabling connectivity (or privacy) with true covert
placement capability.
Generally, there are two starting points to produce the necessary
transparent conductive patterns for RF applications. Printed
circuit board (PCB) and flexible circuit manufactures currently
supply antenna for use at high RF frequency using thick opaque
copper films. Copper antenna represent the benchmark in
performance, however the processes used to fabricate these
antennas are not generally well-suited for producing transparent
conductive films. On the other hand, transparent conductive
film (TCF) manufactures supply films that are embedded in
every touch-enabled device such as mobile-phones and tablets,
but suffer from poor conductivity when measured against the
performance criteria for antennas. For touch panel applications,
the benchmark is indium-tin-oxide (ITO) with a bulk conductivity
fifty times worse than that of the copper currently used for
antennas; while there is a need and a desire to have more
options for placing RF devices, there is no associated relaxation
in performance expectations. Therefore, it is not surprising
that demonstrations to-date have had limited transparency, RF
efficiency, or (more typically) both.
What Sets the Kodak Technology Apart?
Kodak’s demonstrated manufacturing-scale process has
successfully fabricated highly conductive optically transparent
patterns of copper micro-wires, which perform well at RF
communication bands used for cellular and Wi-Fi. The electrical
and optical performance of Kodak’s copper micro-wires makes
them well suited for active RF antennas and other devices. The
micro-wire manufacturing line leverages Kodak’s long history
of innovation in material science, image science, printing,
deposition, and roll-to-roll manufacturing processes to produce
patterned micro-wire films with high transparency, neutral color,
and low reflectance with unprecedented conductivity. The fully
additive, roll-to-roll process features ~2 m imaging resolution
to produce fine copper micro-wires as narrow as 5 m in width,
by first printing a patented catalytic ink and then electrolessly
plating copper to the desired height. The process includes in-line
passivation to protect the micro-wires from corrosion, as well as
to provide neutral color and low reflectance from every viewing
angle. Recently manufactured micro-wire patterns for active
antennas were measured to have the exceptional combination
of high transparency (>88% relative to the substrate), very low
effective sheet resistance (<0.3 Ohms/square), and extremely low
haze (<1%).
Limitations: Practical vs. Physics
Antennas for a connected world predominately operate in either
the Ultra High Frequency (UHF) band (300 MHz to 3 GHz), or, the
Super High Frequency (SHF) band (3 GHz to 30 GHz). It is well
known that as the operating frequency increases, the minimum
achievable effective sheet resistance increases due to skin depth
limitations. Skin depth has the units of length and is a measure
of how close to the surface of a material the electric current
flows. The higher the operating frequency the smaller the skin
depth hence the higher the minimum achievable effective sheet
resistance.
All conductors suffer from the effect of skin depth when used
at high frequency. The conductivity of the material impacts
the skin depth, and for a given operating frequency the more
conductive the material the smaller the skin depth and the lower
the minimum achievable effective sheet resistance. Minimizing
skin depth via conductivity results in a higher percentage of
the current flowing at the surface, simultaneously minimizing
the necessary material height and the minimum effective sheet
resistance. Similarly, films of less conductive materials have a
greater skin depth and a higher minimum sheet resistance. A film
of a lower conductivity material will have a higher absolute height
and sheet resistance than a film of higher conductivity material
at the same multiple of its skin depth, and will therefore require
more absolute height change to impart the same fractional
change in sheet resistance. As an example, a material with a
conductivity of 40% bulk copper cannot reach the minimum
effective sheet resistance obtainable by a material at 80% bulk
copper, regardless of height of material used. Not only is the
minimum sheet resistance inferior for materials with poorer bulk
conductivity, but the film height required to achieve this value is
also considerably higher.
While the application dictates the operating frequency, the
conductivity of the antenna material is directly related to the
process and conditions used to deposit it. It is extremely difficult
to deposit thin metal films (less than 4 m) with conductivity
close to that of bulk metal. Kodak’s additive manufacturing line
utilizes electroless copper plating to deposit highly conductive
copper on temperature sensitive plastic substrates such
as polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Alternative deposition
techniques, such as physical vapor deposition or sintered
nanoparticles are typically limited in their ability to deliver high
conductivity due to thermal management requirements imposed
by the flexible film. Sintered nanoparticles often have their
conductivity further reduced by porosity, trapped bi-products
and polymer agents. While the conductivity of electroless plated
copper is dependent upon film height and process conditions,
typical conductivity on flexible transparent plastics is significantly
higher than either physical vapor deposition or sintered
nanoparticles. Kodak’s custom touchless copper deposition
system delivers best-in-class copper conductivity, enabling the
formation of highly transparent metal patterns.
Transparent Films from Metals
Transparent conductive patterns formed from metallic materials
are influenced by the same factors as uniform films. However,
to achieve transparency the metal only covers a fraction of the
surface. The conductivity of the material directly plays to how
transparent an RF device can be for a given operating frequency.
Kodak’s electroless plating line can produce high-conductivity
copper on a range of flexible substrates, including transparent
PET. Typical deposition techniques for metals on plastics are only
able to reach 50% bulk copper conductivity, and many fall far
short of this benchmark.
Figure 1. Optical transmission plotted versus micro-wire height
for metal mesh conductors on an ideal substrate at conductivities
from 5 to 100% bulk copper at 6 GHz operation and an effective
RF sheet resistance of 0.5 Ohms/square
For RF devices, Kodak’s copper micro-wires are patterned into
an optically transparent mesh pattern. The Kodak micro-wire
mesh can achieve low effective RF mesh sheet resistance at
a wide range of radio frequencies (VHF, UHF and SHF) with
transparencies of greater than 85%. The ability of the copper
micro-wire technology to achieve this unprecedented level
of performance at RF frequencies is directly related to the
extremely high conductivity of the electroless plated copper. To
understand this relationship, Figure 1 illustrates the influence of
metal conductivity on the ability to achieve high transparency at
high operating frequencies. For these calculations, the effective
RF mesh sheet resistance was set to be 0.5 Ohms/square, and
the maximum ideal percent transmission (%T) was calculated
for a given film height. In this calculation, %T assumes an ideal
substrate, and does not include optical effects due to substrate
material or thickness since those are dependent on final product
implementation. The high conductivity of the electroless plated
copper in Kodak’s micro-wires is directly linked to the ability to
offer highly transparent RF devices.
A Complete Process for Functional Transparency
Achieving fully functional transparent RF devices is only possible
with a process that can deliver high conductivity metal and
fine line patterning, as well as control of optical effects and
environmental passivation. The full roll-to-roll process starts
with generating world-class high resolution flexographic
plates. These plates are then used to print a patented catalytic
ink which provides the pattern for the electroless plating and
reduces reflections at the interface of the micro-wire with the
substrate with a matte neutral color. The flexographic process is
capable of printing catalytic and other inks on both sides of the
substrate, resulting in a highly adaptable process. After printing,
the substrate is conveyed through a touchless plating line where
electroless copper is deposited on the printed catalyst pattern.
The deposited copper is treated in-line with an environmental
passivation and darkening agent, simultaneously protecting the
micro-wires from corrosion and minimizing front-side reflection
with a neutral color, all without contacting a roller to minimize
the risk of conveyance related defect formation. The end of the
manufacturing line is equipped with in-line inspection tools for
both electrical and optical measurements, and protective liner is
applied to the device substrate post-inspection.
Flexographic Plates & Resolution
Leveraging decades of imaging expertise and protected by
more than 50 US patents, Kodak has developed a notable
flexographic printing process using an enhanced version the
proprietary KODAK SQUAREspot Imaging Technology. The
commercially available SQUAREspot Imaging Technology
as used in the graphics industry for packaging delivers the
equivalent of 6400 dpi printing. To meet the high-resolution
requirements of printed electronics, EXTAFLEX Functional
Printing Solutions use an enhanced version of the SQUAREspot
Imaging Technology to generate flexographic plates at a
resolution greater than 10,000 dpi. This remarkable level
of detail is achieved using proprietary laser imaging for the
ablation of a thermal imaging layer. Further improvements in
plate handling and processing result in flexographic plates that
are unmatched in the graphics or printed electronics industry.
Figure 2 shows a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image
of an EXTAFLEX plate imaged using the SQUAREspot Imaging
Technology.
KODAK
SQUARESPOT
IMAGING TECHNOLOGY
Figure 2. SEM image of a flexographic plate formed using the
SQUAREspot™ Imaging Technology.
Flexographic Printing & Ink image content to be added in-line with, and in registration with,
The flexographic press used in Kodak’s copper micro-wire the catalytic ink for the copper micro-wires. The use of non-
manufacturing line is a multi-station press capable of printing conductive features eliminates performance degradation from
on one or both sides of the substrate. The press has been concealment with conductive materials, further differentiating
enhanced with camera-aided vision systems for in-press web Kodak’s covert RF devices from other solutions on the market.
alignment as well as station-to-station alignment and registration
Figure 3 illustrates the concept and effect of Kodak’s covert
control. With these modifications, the copper micro-wires not
concealment technology. The left-hand side of the window,
only have the dimensions required for a given application, they
illustrates a transparent antenna isolated on a transparent
also are integrated with world-class pattern fidelity and within
window pane; although the RF device has high transparency,
device registration.
the density of the patterned area is still greater than the
Kodak’s copper micro-wires are defined by the printing of a surrounding clear window glass. The lower right-hand pane
proprietary catalytic ink which both catalyzes the electroless of the window in Figure 3 has an antenna with Kodak’s covert
copper plating and provides visually neutral density between concealment technology. The matching of color and density
the support and the copper micro-wires. For consistent print of the surrounding field effectively hides the antenna; the
quality, the press has been further modified to include an ink neighboring panes have the same non-conductive uniform
delivery control system equipped with ink-property monitoring density, for a visually uniform appearance.
and closed-loop process control for consistent ink rheology,
While these modifications drive high-yield for the printed
patterns, the press also has an in-line defect detection and
location logging system, flagging any defective devices prior
to testing. Early identification of defects improves overall
manufacturing yield.
Copper Plating and Environmental Passivation
The electroless copper plating for Kodak’s ultra-conductive
copper micro-wires leverages decades of experience in web-
based processing, chemical handling, and process control.
Standard electroless copper plating lines are not configured to
deliver the necessary quality for a roll-to-roll operation. Kodak’s
manufacturing line includes a customized plating system with a
multiple-section processor providing copper deposition over a Figure 3. Illustration of how Kodak’s covert concealment
range of micro-wire heights. The system has a fully-touchless technology effectively hides RF devices.
web transport, meaning that the substrate never contacts a
Ready-to-Integrate RF Devices
roller within the plating system yielding rolls of low-defect RF
Kodak is seeking strategic partners to utilize the ultra-
devices. The plating system includes a passivation section
high conductivity micro-wires formed using the additive
where the copper micro-wires are both chemically passivated
manufacturing line. Products and devices from this
and treated for reflection and color-control.
manufacturing line include all benefits discussed above, as
Kodak’s manufacturing line is designed to provide functional summarized here.
transparent RF devices that are integration-ready. To ensure • RF devices with high optical transparency (>85%) from
end-use functionality, the manufacturing process includes ultrafine micro-wire patterns with low effective sheet
end-of-line optical and electrical testing. Testing can be resistance for robust performance across a range of radio
customized according to customer specifications. After device frequencies
characterization, the copper micro-wires are protected by liner • Flexible, conformable and lightweight substrates facilitate
material applied to both sides of the substrate, completing the integration on-glass, in-glass, and on non-planar surfaces.
fabrication of the ready-to-integrate-devices, which can be
• Neutral color and low reflectance from every angle allow
singulated or provided in roll-form.
the antenna to be used in applications where they can be
Image-Science for Concealment “viewed” from either side.
Kodak’s history is rooted in image science, resulting in the • Visual concealment technology via in-line printing of non-
development of proprietary solutions that minimize the ability conducting ink enables the hiding of conductive RF devices
to visually distinguish active RF devices from the surrounding in a visually uniform neutral color field for covert placement of
area. Leveraging understanding of human perception and functional devices.
technical strengths in material science, flexographic inks
Contact Information
and patterns are engineered to visually match the color and
For more information on Kodak’s microwire technology and
density of the passivated copper micro-wires for different
enabling manufacturing process, please contact:
viewing environments. The multi-station flexographic press
sales.printedelectronics@kodak.com
can print multiple types of ink, allowing for non-conductive
© 2019 Kodak. All rights reserved. TM: KODAK, EKTAFLEX and SQUAREspot