Origins and Development of Intellectual Revolutions that

Define Society

Copernican Revolution:
Copernican Revolution, a shift in the field of astronomy from
a geocentric understanding of the universe, centered around Earth, to
a heliocentric understanding, centered around the Sun, as articulated by the Polish
astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century. This shift marked the start of a
broader Scientific Revolution that set the foundations of modern science and allowed
science to flourish as an autonomous discipline within its own right.

Darwinian Revolution:
Traditionally, the Darwinian Revolution was a revolution in scientific
thought that took place in the years following the publication of Darwin's findings on
evolution. The Darwinian Revolutions may be seen as the two stages of the one
Scientific Revolution. It jointly ushered in the beginning of science in the modern sense
of the word: explanation through natural laws. Charles Darwin is centrally important in
the development of scientific and humanist ideas because he first made people aware of
their place in the evolutionary process when the most powerful and intelligent form of
life discovered how humanity had evolved. Although heliocentric theories had been
considered by philosophers as early as Philolaus in the 5th century BCE, and while
there had been earlier discussions of the possibility of Earth’s motion, Copernicus was
the first to propound a comprehensive heliocentric theory equal in scope and predictive
capability to Ptolemy’s geocentric system. Motivated by the desire to satisfy Plato’s
principle of uniform circular motion, Copernicus was led to overthrow traditional
astronomy because of its inability to be reconciled with the Platonic dictum as well as
its lack of unity and harmony as a system of the world. Relying on virtually the same
data as Ptolemy had possessed, Copernicus turned the world inside out, putting
the Sun at the center and setting Earth into motion around it. The reception of
Copernican astronomy amounted to victory by infiltration. By the time large-scale
opposition to the theory had developed in the church and elsewhere, most of the best
professional astronomers had found some aspect or other of the new system
indispensable. Copernicus’s book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri VI (“Six Books
Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs”), published in 1543, became a
standard reference for advanced problems in astronomical research, particularly for its
mathematical techniques.
Freudian Revolution:
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who is perhaps most
known as the founder of psychoanalysis. Freud developed a set of therapeutic
techniques centered on talk therapy that involved the use of strategies such as
transference, free association, and dream interpretation.  His theories on the inner
workings of the human mind, which seemed so revolutionary at the turn of the century,
are now widely accepted by most schools of psychological thought. The psychoanalytic
approach to adult personality development has its roots in the theories of Sigmund
Freud. His theories encompassed four domains—level of consciousness, personality
structure, defense mechanisms, and stages of psychosexual development. 6,7 Freudian
theory postulates that adult personality is made up of three aspects: (1) the id, operating
on the pleasure principle generally within the unconscious; (2) the ego, operating on the
reality principle within the conscious realm; and (3) the superego, operating on the
morality principle at all levels of consciousness. The interplay of these personality
structures generates anxiety that must be reduced through various defense
mechanisms. These mechanisms act to obscure the true, anxiety-laden reasons for one's
behavior. Although seminal in the expansion of our understanding of the human
psyche, Freud's specific theories receive little attention in the scientific study of
personality today.6 His theories are not easily amenable to scientific inquiry in that they
frequently lead to nonspecific hypotheses, wherein failure to find expected effects may
simply be a result of unknown defense mechanisms. Additionally, having postulated
that personality development associated with his stages of psychosexual development
essentially ends in adolescence, Freud's theories have limited applicability to the fields
of gerontology and geriatric medicine.

Cultural and Societal Impacts of the Intellectual Revolutions

>The Copernican Revolution made lasting impacts on the worldview of

Western civilization that last to this day. At first, it challenged the view that Earth, and
by extension humans, are at the center of the Universe. By demonstrating that the Earth
orbits the Sun, just like the other planets, people began to question established religious
dogma. The discoveries of Copernicus and other scientific theorists occurred around the
same time as the Reformation. Therefore, this was already a time when Europeans were
challenging the Catholic hierarchy. As a result, freedom of thought expanded
throughout the continent. When Copernicus published his theories and findings,
established thought underwent a shakeup. If Earth's place in the cosmos could be
revised, so too could long-held notions like the Divine Right of Kings and the
supremacy of the Church. As a result, more Europeans began questioning scientific,
political, and religious ideas. Many even began to formulate new theories into the
nature of society as a whole. Therefore, it should come as no surprise the Enlightenment
Period followed closely on the heels of the Copernican Revolution. In short, the idea of
divine legitimacy lost much of its power. The Church fought back by banning the
writings of many scientists and philosophers. It was not until the nineteenth century
that Catholic authorities finally permitted the open discussion of many of these earlier
theories.

The impacts of the Copernican Revolution can be felt to this day. While
religious institutions still have a lot of influence, they no longer hold the monopoly on
"truth" that they once did. Scientific inquiry is promoted, or at least supported, by most
educated people. The idea that long-held beliefs need periodic revising as new
information is discovered has become a driver of human progress.

>The Darwin Revolution allowed us to gain a better understanding of

our world, which in turn allowed us to change the way that we think. By being able to
apply this to other animals, it changed the way that people thought about life on earth
and opened new doors for science in the future. Another benefit of Charles Darwin's
work was his teachings on the power of natural selection and mutations. He discovered
that mutations can prove as beneficial to a society by allowing a species to adapt to
environmental changes. The example Darwin used was finches on separate islands of
the Galapagos.

>Freud's most obvious impact was to change the way society thought
about and dealt with mental illness. Before psychoanalysis, which Freud invented,
mental illness was almost universally considered 'organic'; that is, it was thought to
come from some kind of deterioration or disease of the brain. Freud may justly be called
the most influential intellectual legislator of his age. His creation of psychoanalysis was
at once a theory of the human psyche, a therapy for the relief of its ills, and an optic for
the interpretation of culture and society. Freud understood culture, as he did dreams
and symptoms, as an expression of desires in conflict with one another and with
society. He thought religion, art, and science could be richly rewarding. But he
emphasized that culture is the product of impulses denied a more directly sexual or
aggressive satisfaction.