UNIT 1

OVERVIEW OF SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND nESIGN

Structure
1.0 1.1 1.2

Introduction Objectives ,4n Overview

1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 What is a system 7 Systems study, Systems analysis and Systems approach Characeristics of a system Elements of systems analysis rLpes of systems Preliminary investigation Determination of syatem requirements Design of system Devdopment of software Systems testing Implementation. Evaluation and Maintenance
From ~ro~ramrners'point view of From Users point of view

1.3

System Development Life Cycle

1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.5 1.3.6

1.4
1.5

Software Crisis
1.4.1 1.4.2 1.5.1

Role of a Systems Analyst

IJ.2
1.5.3

Who is Systems Analyst 7 What a Systcrns Analyst does 7 Attributes of an effective Systcms.Analyst

1.6 1.7

Summary Model Answers

1.0

INTRODUCTION

The study of "SYSTEMS" is by no means a new or even recent endeavour. Systems have been in use for the last thousands of years. The Egyptians used bookkeepingsystem over 5000 years ago for keeping their accounts, while Phoenician astronomers tried to study the systems of stars for making predictions. People freely talk of different types of system in their day to daylife. However, we shall only concern ourselves with those systems which are of direct and immediate concern to a business in the processi'ng of information to generate useful and tneaningful results for management. In other words, we can say that systems analysts will refer to the analysis of business systems. Systems today are very helpful in running the business efficiently. But a system can function in an effective way only if the users such as the accountants, business manager and other responsible individuals within the company make it function in a proper way. Many times, managers are told thatthey only need to know how to retrieve required information, thus making them ignorant of the operations of the system as a whole. In accepting such advice, these managers are, in essence, relinquishing a substantial part of the control of the organisation to the system's designers. It is, therefore, necessary that these potential systems analysts should clearly understand many other things also such as what a system is, what its objectives are, what kinds of systems there are, what goes with their creation and maintenance, what are their costs and benefits and how to analyse and monitor systems.

System Analysis

Arlcr going lhrough his unit, you should bc able lo: dcfinc syslcln, systems study. systcms analysis and systems approach state the conilnon characteristics in all Uic systcms describc thc basic elcments in syslcms analysis classiry dirfcrcnt typcs of systems explain what is system devclopmcnt and what is system devclopmcnt life cycle illustrate the role of a systcms analyst

1.2

AN OVERVIEW

Syskms analysis and design rcrers to Ihc process of examining a business situation with the intenl of improving it Ltlrough bctter proccdurcs and mcihods. Systems devclopmcnt can generally be thought of as having two major components: Systc~ns Analysis and Systcms Design. Syslcms dcsign is h e process of planning a new systcnl or rcplacc or comple~ncnt an existing systeln. But bcfore this planning can bc done, wc must thoroughly uncicrsland the existing system and dctcrmi~~c colnputers can best bc uscd to make its operation how more cffcctivc. Syslcmsanalysis, then, is Ihc process of gathering and intcrprcting facts, diagnosing problems and using thc informalion to rccommcnd improvement to Uie system. In brief, we can say that analysis specifics what the system should do. Dcsign slatcs how to accomplish the objectivc.
Y

1.2.1

What is a systcm?

The word "SYSTEM" covcrs a very broad spectrum of concepls. This is derived fro~n the relationship among Ihc functioning unitsor Greek word syllema, which means an orga~liscd components. In our daily life, we come illto contact with h e transporlation systcm, ~hc communication systcm, thc accounting system, Ltle production systcm, the economic syslcm and for over three decades, Lhe cornputcr systcm. Similarly, business systcms arc the means by which business organisations achieve lhcir prc-dctcnnincd goals. A business system combines politics, personnel, equipment and computer facilities lo co-ordinate the activi(icsofa business organisation. Essentially, a business system rcprcsents an organiscd way of achicving the pre-dctcrmincd objective of an organisation.

There an: various definitions of lhe word systcm, but most of thcm secm to have a colnmon
idca hat suggests hi11a system is a11ordcrly grouping of intcrdependcnt components linkcd together according to n plan to achicvc a specific goal. The word co~nponent may rcfcr to physical parts (cngincs, wheels of car), managerial steps (planning, organising, conlrolling) or a subsyste~n a multi-lcvel structure. The components may be simple or complex, basic in or advanced. They nlay tx: a single cornpulcr with a keyboard, mcniory and printcr or a serics of intelligent tem~innls linked to a mainframe. In cither case, each component is part of the totill system and has to do its own share of work lor the systcm to achieve LIle desired goal, ,
1.2.2

Systems study, Systerns analysis and Systems approach

Systems study may be defined as "a study of the operations of a sct ofconnectcd elcments and of [he inter-conneclions bet~jecn h e s elements". It shows clearly that one cannot ignore my I part or elcment of a systcm without first finding out Ihc crfect lhat clemcnt has on Ltle operation of h e systcm as a wholc. Wc can understand this with lhc help of systems analysis. There is a difference between "systems npproacll'' ant1 L4systcms analysis" also. The systems approach shows a set of procedure for solving a pi~nicular problcm. It applies scicnlific meihods to observe, clarify, idcnljljl and solvc a problern with spccial care being @en lo understand thc intcr- rclatedncss betwccn elements and their systcm characteristic~. However, systems analysis is a management technique which hclps us in designing a new systcm or improving an existing systcm.
1

Ovwvisw of SySyrlenr An~lyplr rnd D sgm el t

Based on thc dclinition of a system, it is observed that following charnclchisticsare present in all systcms: Organisadon irnplics suucture and ordcr. It is thc arrangcmcnt of coma) ~ r ~ a h i s a t i o n : ponents that helps to achieve objectives. In thc design of a business systcm. for example, thc hic~archical relationships starting with ~ ' l prcsidcnt on L p and lmding c o downward to thc bluc-collar workers represents thc ~rg~misation structure. Likewise a computcr systcrn is dcsigncd around an input dcvicc, a central processing unit, an output "dcvicc ant1 onc or n~orc storagc units. Whcn these units arc linkcd togcsher, thcy work as a wholc system for gcneriting 'information.
h)

1nter;lction: Interaction refcrs to the procedure in which each component functions w t ih othcr coniponcnts of thc system. In an organisation, for cxample. purcllasirig must intcract with production, advertising with sales and payroll with pcrsoanel. In a computcr systcm also, the ccritral processing unit must intcract with orher units Lo solve a problem. In turn, the rnairi lncmory holds program, and thc data that the arilhmctic unit uses for computation. Thc intcr-rclationshil) bctwcen hcsc componcnts cnablcs c e computcr t o pcrrorm.

C) Interdependence: Intcrdzpcndencc mcans that co~nponcnt tlc organisation or comof putcr systcm dcpcnd on one anothcr. They arccoordinatcd and linked togethcr in a planned way to achievc an objcctivc.
d) Integration: Intcgration is conccrncd with how a systcna is ticd togcher. It is more than sharing a physical part or localions. It mcans that par&6f dic systcm work togcthcr within the systcm cvcn though each panpcrfoniis a unique function. Succcssful integration will typically produce a bcttcr rcsult as a wholc r a h r than ifcach componcnt works indc'pcndcntly.

c) Central Objective: Central objcctivc is thc listcliar:ictcristic ora systcrn. Objcctivcs may bc rcal or sL7tcd. Allhough a sliltcd objective rnny bc Lhc rcal objcctivc, it is quite common hat 'organisation may sct otic objcctivc and opc~ate achicvc another. The imto poa7nt point is that uscrs must hc awarc about L c ccnual objcclivc wcll in advance. h
1.2.4

Ele~nents Systenis Analysis of

Thcrc arc four hnsic clcmcnts in systclns analysis. Bricf dcscription ofcach clcnacnl has bccn givcn hclow:

a) Outputs: First of all, wc must dclcrminc what thc objcctivcs or goals arc, what do we intcnd to achicvc; what is thc purpose of our work; in othcr words, what is thc main aim hchind thc systcm. Dcfining aim is vcry vital in system work. IT wc do not know whcre wc want to go, wc will not'know whcn wc havc rcachcd thcrc. Wc shall be unnmcssarily wasting our tirnc and cncrgy in thc pmccss. Once we know our air?, wc can uy to achicvc it in thc bcst possihlc way. Thc uscr dcparlrncnt has to dcfinc thcsc objcctivcs in lcrms of ~hcir nccds. Thcsc Brxomc. thc outpli~~ lhc systcms analyst kccps into which mind.
h) Inputs: Oncc wc kriow thc output, wc can casily dclcrminc what thc inputs should be. Sornctimcs, it may happcn that thc rccluircd information lnay not bc nadily available in nrc the propcr rorm. This may bc bc'causc of thc existing for~ns not propcrly designed. h Somctimcs, iirnay not bc possihlc to gct the rctluird informaliop w~lhout c help of top rnanagcrnenl. If the information is vital to thc systcm, wc s5ould makc all p)ssiblc clTor~ rnakc it availablc.'~omctimcs,it might bc to3 cosr.ly LOgct thc dcsircd informato tion. It would bc bcttcr in such cascs lo prcpnrc a cost-bcnefil a11alysiSlo convince the rnanagcmcnt of thc ncccssity for acquiring tllc information. TIIC csscntial clcmcnts of inpuu arc:
-

i)

Accuracy: If Lhc data is not accwalc, thc o11tp11ls w

c wrcng.

ii) Timeliness: If dam is not oblaincd in tirnc, thc entire syslcln Fdls into &=rwrs. lii) Proper format : Thc inputs must bc availilblc in prol)si formix.

Systeni Analysis
C)

iv) Economy: The data must be produced at the least cost. Files: As the word implies files are used t store data. Most of the inputs necesrary for the o system may be historical data, or it may be po~ible Ulese are gcneraled from within the that system. These are stored in filcs either in terms of isolated factsor in large volumes.

d) Processes: ~ c r we come to the dctnils of how the inputs and files are converted into c outpuls. This involves the programs and the way in which data is processed through he computer. The processing involves a set of logical steps. Thcse steps are required to be instructed to the computer and this is done by a series of instructions called "programsm,
1.2.5

Types of Systems

Systems have been classified in different ways. Common classificationsare: i) Physical or abstract systems ii) Open or closed syslcms iii) Deterministic or probabilistic systems iv) Man-made information systcms (i) Physical or Abstract Systems: Physical systems are kqngible entities that may be static or dynamic in opention, Abstract systems are conceptual or non-physical entities which may be as straighlfonvard as formulasof relationships among sets of variables or models - thc abstract conceptualization of physical situations. (ii) Open or Closed Systems: An open systcm continually interacts with its environments. It receives inputs from and dclivers outputs output t the outsidc. An information syso tem bclongs to this category, since it must adapt to the changing dcmands of the uscr. In contrast, a closed systcm is isolated from cnvuonrnenta1 influcnccs. In rcality complelely closed systcms are rare. (iii) ~iterministic Probabilistic Systems: A delcrministic syslcm is one in wliicli themor currcnce of all events is pcrrectly predictable. If we gct thc description of the system statc at a particular time. the next state can bc easily predictcci. An cxample of such a systcm is a numerically controlled machinc tool. Probabilistic systcm is one in which the occurrence of events cannot be pcrfwtly predicted. An examplc of such a system is a warchousc and its contents. (iv) Man-made Inlhrmation Systems: It is gcncrdlly bclicvcd that information reduces uncerulinty about a state or event. For examplc. information Lhal tlic wind is calm reduces the uncertainly that a trip by boat will bc enjoyable. An information system is h e basis for interaction bctwcen the uscr and the analyst. It dclcrmincs the nature of relationship for among decision makers. In fact, it may bc vicwed as a dccision.cen~re pcrsonnel at all Icvels. From this basis, an information system may be dcfined as a set of devices, procedures and operating systems dcsigned around user-based criteria t produce inforo mation and communicate it to h e uscr for planning, control and pcrlormance. Many practitioners fail to recognise that a business has several information systems; each is dcsigncd for a spccific purposc. The major information systcrns arc : formal information systcms informal information systems computer bascd information syster:, A Formal inl'orrnation system is based on the orgm[sation represented by the organisation o hart. 771~ chart is a map of positions and their authority relalionships, indicated by boxes and connected by s~aight lines. It is concerned with thc pattcrn ofauthori~y, communication and work flow. An InrOrmul information systcm is an employee-bwd system dcsigncd to mect personncl and vocational nccds and to hclp in the solution of work-rclutcd problems. It also f~nncls infortnation upward through indirect channels. In this way, it is considcrcd to be a uscf~l sYstcm kcausc it works within tlic framework of thc busincss and its statcd policies.

Thirtl category of information systcrn dcpcnds mainly on the cornputcr for handling busincss applications. Syslcms analysts dcvclop scvcral diiicrcnt typcs of information systems to rneel a variely of busincss needs. Thcre is a class of syslcrns known collcctivcly as Computer llased 1nli)rmation Systems. As we havc diffcrcnt types of transportation systems such as highway syslcms, railway syslcms and airlinc syslcms, cornputcr bascd information syslcms arc of loo many Lypes. They arc classificd as;

Ovcrvlew of System Analysis and Design

I

. .
..

Transaction Processing Systclns (TPS) Managcmcnl Information Syslcms (MIS) Dccision Support Syslcms (DSS) OfTice Automalion Syncms (OAS).

Thc figurc 1.1 shows the organisr~tron chart oicornpulcr bascd information syslem (CBIS) and figure 1.2 shows h c hicrarct~icnlvicw oiCBIS. PLANNING, CONTROLLING AND DECISION MAKING

DECISION MAKING

4
DSS

APPLICATION PROGRAM

TPS t

t
-

SALES, RECEIPT

CLERICAL TASKS

Figure 1.1: CBIS in an Organisational Context

DSS Middlc managcmcnt First linc managcmcnt Clcrical Pcrsonncl

-

MIS
TPS
OAS

Figure 1.2: The Hierarchical View of CBIS 'fransilction Processing Systems: Thc mosl fundanlcn~al cnmputcr bascd syslcm in an organisation pertains to Lhe processing o busincss transactions. A transaction processing systcrn can bc defined as a cornputcr S basc(l syslcln hat caplurcs, clnssiiies, slorcs, mainlains, updalcs and rclrieve's transaction d a ~ a record keeping and ror input LO otl~cr Ibr tylxs of CBIS. Transaction Processing Systclns cu-c iri~ncd improving thc routinc business aclivilies on which all organisations nl dcpcnd. A transaction is any cvenl or acdvily lhalarrwls the whole organisalion. Placing ordcrs, billing customers, hi Ang o i cmployccs and dcposiling chcqucs are some of the common transaclions. Thc typcs of tn~nsaclions occur vary from orgarlisation to organisation. that

System Analysis

But this is truc that all organisations process tran~actions a major patt of thcir daily busias ness activities. The most successful organisations perforln this work of transaction processing in a very systematic way. Transaction ~rocessing systems provide speed and accuracy and can bc programmed to follow routines without any variance. Management Information System: Data processing by computers has been exuemcly effectivebecause of several reasons. The main reason being that huge aniount of data relating to accounts and oLher uansactions can bc processed vcry quickly. Earlicr most of the computer applications were concerned with record keeping and thc automalion of routine clerical processes. However, in recent years, increasing atlention has been focusscd on computcr applications providing information for policy making, management planning and control purposes. MIS are more concemcd with management function. MIS can bc described as information systcnl that can provide all levels of management with information essential to the running of smooth business. This infor. mation must be as relevant, timcly, accurate, complcte and concisc as is economically f ~ i b l Decision Support Systems: It is an information systcln that offers the kind of information that may not bc predictable, the kind that busincss professionals may need only once. Thcse syslcms do not produce regularly schcdulcd management reports. Instdd, they arc designed to rcspond to a wide range of rcqucsts. It is r u e [hat all Lhe dccisions in an organisation are no1 of a recurring nature. Decision support systems assist managers who must make dccisions h a t are not highly structured, oftcn callcd unsuucturcd or scmi-structured dccisions. A dccision is considered uns~uctured thcrc arc no clcar procedures lor making rhc dccision and if not all thc factors if to be considered in h e dccision can bc readily idcntificd in advancc. Judgement of the manager plays a vim1 rolc in dwision making whcre the problem is not suucturcd, The decision support system supporls, but docs not replacc, judgcmcnt of manager. Office .Automation Systems: Officc automation systems are among the ncwest and most rapidly expanding computcr bascd information systcms. They arc bcing dcvclopcd with the hopes and expcclittions that they will incrcasc the cflicicncy and productivily of office workers-typists, secrclarics, administrative assistants, staff professionals, managers and Lhc like. Many organisations have hkcn thc first step toward automating thc,ir ofliccs. Oftcn this step involves the use of word proccssing equipment to facilitate the typing, storing, revising and printing of tcxtual materials. Another dcvclopmcnt is a computcr bascd communications system such as clcctronic mail which allows pcople to communicatc in an electronic lnodc tllrough computer terminals. An office automation system can be described as a multi-function, intcgratcd compulcr bascd system that allows many office activities to be perlormed in an clcctronic mode.

Categories of different information systems with thcir characteristics have been described briel'ly in table 1.1 :
Table 1.1 : Categories of 1nfol.niation Systems Category of Information System Transaction Processing Syslcm Managcmcnt Infonnation Systcm
I

Substitutes computcr-based processing for manual procedures. Deals with well structured routine processes. Includes record-keeping applications. Provides input to be uscd in Lhe managerial decision process. Dcals with supporting well smcturcd decision situations. Typicd infom~ation rcquircments can be anticipated

Decision Support System

Provides information to managers who make judgements abolit particular situations. Supports decision makers in situations that are not wellstructured. It is a multi-function, integrated computer based system, that allows many office activities to be performed in an ellcuonic mode.

Overvlew of Systcm Anrlysls

and Dcsign

Office Automation System

C'BlrcEc Yt'apana. b'rac::iiae..;s 1.

B
6 ~ y ap~~~.okach'* 'kyseenns aaena$ysisn? ~ ~ ~ l n and ~

Wl~nt is

dlt' 1);lsih: flii'B'ct{:nccb~.vecn 6

2.

What arc 111e ehur hasic clcrllents in systcnals analysis?

Bnsal Systcnf? : . What is a Go~np~~lca- ~nfonn,?tiain i

4.

Whcn is a ticcisinn corlsidercd to be unstcucturcd?

1.3

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

System development, a process consisting of h e two major steps of sysrcms analysis and design, starts when management or sometimes system development personnel fcel lhat o ncw system or an improvement in the existing system is required. The systems development life cycle is classically thought of as he set of aclivities hat analysts, designers and users carry out to develop and implement an information system. The systems development life cycle consists of Lhe following activities:

~rel'iminar~ investigation Determination of system requirements Design of syslem Development of sofiware Systems testing

.,

Implementation, evalualion and maintenance -

System Analysis

1.3.1

Prelinlinary Investigation*

A request to take assislance from information systems can be made lor many reasons, but in each case someone in the organisation initiates the request. When the request is made, the firs1 systems activity the preliminary investigation begins. This activity has three parts:

i)

request clarification

ii) feasibility study iii) request approval Request Clarification: Many rcquests from employees and uscrs in the organisations are not clcmly defined. Therelore, it becomes necessary that project request must be examined and clarified properly before considering systems investigation. Feasibility Study: An important outcome of the preliminary investigation is h e determination h a t system requested is feasible. There are three aspects in thc feasibility study portion of the preliminary investigation: (i) Technical Feasibility: Can the work for the project be done with current equipment, existing software technoloby and available personnel? If new technology is needed, what is h e likelihood that it can be developed? (ii) Economic Feasibility: Are there sufficient benefits in crating the systcm to make the costs acceplitble? Or, are thc cosh of not crating thc system so great that it is advisable LO undertake h e projcct? (iii) Operational Feasibility: Will the system be used if it is developed and implemented? Will here be resistance lrom uscrs that will undermine the possible application benefits? Thc feasibility study is carried out by a small group of people who are Familiar with information systems techniques, understand the parts of the business or organisation that will be involvcd or affected by lhe projcct, and are skilled in the systems analysis and design process. Request Approval: It is not necessary hat all requested projects are desirable or feasible. Some organisations receivc so Inany project requests lrom employees that only a lew of them can be pursued. However, those projects that are feasible and desirable should be put into a schedule. In somc cases, development can start immediately, although usually systems staff members are busy on other ongoing projects. When such situation arises, management decides which projccts are most urgent and schedules them accordingly. After a project request is approved, its cost, priority, completion time, and personnel requirements are estimated and uscd to determine whcrc lo add it to any existing project list. ~ a kon, when the r other projects have been complclcd, theproposcd application development can be initiated.
A funher discussion on preliminary investigation is covered in section 2.5 of unit 2.

1.3.2

Determination of System Requirements

At tl~c hart of systems analysis is a detailed understanding of all importnnt facets OF the business m a under investigalion. Thc key questions are:

What is being done? How is it being done?

How frequently does it occur? How great is the volume of transactions or decisions? How well is h e task being pcrlormed?
*

Docs a problem exist? If a problem exists, how serious is it? What is the undwlying cause?

To answcr the abovc questions, systcms analysts discuss with different category of persons lo

collect the facts aboul thc business process and their opinions of why things happen as they do and their views for changing the cxisting process. During analysis, d a ~ are collected on a the available filcs. decision points and transactions handled by the present system. Some tools are used in analysis like data flowdiagrams, inlervicws, on-site observations and questionnaircs. Detail investigations also require the study of manuals and reports. Once the glructureti analysis is completed, analyst has a Kim understanding or what is to be done? 1.3.3 Design of System

Ovcrvicw of Systcm Analysis and Dcslgn

The design of an information system produces the details that clearly describe how a system will mccl the requirements idcntificd during systems analysis. Systems specialists often rcScr to this stage as logical design, in conuast to the process of developing program software, which is referrcd to as physical dcsign. Syslc~ns analysts begin Ihe design process by identifying reports and oher outputs system will producc. Then thc specific dah on each are pinpoi~lted.The systems design also dcscribcs thc data lo bc input, calculated or storcd. Individual data items and dlculation proccdurcs are written in detail. Dcsigncrs sclccl file structurcs and storagc devices, such as m;~grlclic disk, magnetic hpe or cvcn papcr files. Proccdurcs thcy write tcll how to process thc dala and produce the output. The documcnls bonlaining thc design specifickions porhy thc dcsign in many tliffcrent ways-charts, ~ablcs, spccial symbols. The dcbilcd design inand fonnalion is passcd on to Lhc programming staff for thc purposc of software dcvclopment. Dcsigncrs are rcsponsiblc for providing progralnlncrs with complcte and clearly out lincd software specificaitons.
W

1.3.4

Development of' Software

SoStwarc tlcvclopcrs may install purchased soltwarc or bey may develop ncw, customtlcsigncd programs. The choicc dcpcnds on thc cost of cach option, ihc time available to dcvclop softwal~ thc availability of programmcrs. Generally it has bccn observed that anti prograrnrncrs arc part of pcrnmancnl professional staff in a big organisation. In smaller organisation, without prograrnmcrs, outsidc programming serviccs may be hired or retaincd on a conuactual basis. Programmcrs arc also rcsponsiblc for documcnting thc program, providing an explanation of how and why ccrhin proccdurcs are cod& in specific ways. Documcntation is csscntial to test thc program and carry on maintenance oncc thc application has bcen inslallcd. 1.3.5 Systcnls Testing

During syslcms tcsting, the system is uscd cxpcrimentally to ensurc that the software does no1 fail. In other words, we can say lhat it will run according to its spccificalions and in thc way uscrs cxpcct. Special test dam arc input for processing, and thc results examined. A lirnitctl number of users may be allowcd to usc h c system so that analyst can see whclher thcy uy to usc it in unforcsecn ways. It is dcsirablc to discovcr any surprises bcfore Lhc organisalion implcmcnls the systcm and dcpcnds on it, 1.3.6
'

Implementation, Eveluatiorl and Maintenance

Implementation is the proccss of having systcms pcrsonncl check out and put new equiplncnt into usc, train users, install ~lle application and construct any files of data necdcd new to usc it. This phase is less crwtivc than syslem dcsign. Dcpcnding on the size of the ofganisation that will be involved in using Ihe application and Lc risk involved in its use, sysh tcms dcvelopers may choose to tcst the operation in only one area of the firm with only one or two persons. Sometimes, thcy will run b o b old and ncw systcm in parallel way to compare lhc resulls. In still other situations, system dcvelopers stop using Ihe old syslem one &y and skut using thc new one the ncxt. Evaluation of Lhe syslern is performed Ld identify its suengLlls and weaknesses. The actual evaluation can occur along any of the following dirnonsions: (i) Operational Evaluation: Assessment of L e manner in which Lhe system functions, inh cluding case of use, response time, overall reliability and level of ulilization.

System Analysis

(ii) Organisational Impact: Identification and measurement of benefits to the organisation in such areas as financial concerns, operational efficiency and competitive impact. (iii) User Manager Assessment Evaluation of the attitudes of senior and user manager within the organisation, as well as end-users. (iv) Development Performance: Evaluation of the development process in accordance with such yardsticks as overall development time aqd effort,conformance to budgets and standards and other project management criteria. Maintenance is necessary to eliminate emrs in the working system during its working life and to tune the system to any variations in its working environment. Often small system deficiencies are found as a system is brought into operations and changes are made to remove them. System planners must always plan for resource availability to carry out these maintenance funclions. The importance of maintenance is to continue to bring the new system to standards.

1.

What are the activities which cniinlplePc 't4ic system dcvclopaa~cnt (:ysalt.:? life

3.

What are h e t ~ r aof opraticp11:il evalubition ? s

4. Why is maintcnnnce of a system necessary ?

...........................................................

1.4

SOFTWARE CRISIS

The translation of a familiarity with computer hardware and software into the development of useful commercial or business information systems is not a straight-forward or intuitive task. For the last several decades, tens of thousands of people, usually very intelligent and talented have been involved in the building of computer systems. It is now well-known that the rate at which thc hardware has been more and more accessible and at lower and lower prices, has created a matching demand for development of software in a similar scale. But the traditional intuitive and ad-hoc apprdch fails miserably when the quantities of data involved in information systems exceeds say, 10 MB. This is a typical figure at which systems start crossing the barriers of relatively simple and begin to enter the domain of significant complexity.

This has lead to Lhe coining of the phrase "softwarecrisis", and thc search for methods and techniques to be able to cope with the ever expanding demands for software. The present course, which is an attempt L teach the ingredients of a structured systems development o m c t h ~ d ~ l ~ g yelsewhere in the programme there is a reference to the techniques of and , software engineering as well. Later on in the subsequent years of the MCAprogramme, you wouldalso be cxposed to a full course on Software Engineering. .However,it is still useful and desirable to have some feel for the kinds of problems which the programmer and the user faces and collectively perceive as the sofiwarecrisis. Softwarecrisis can be broadly classified in the following major areas:
1.4.1

Overview of System An:~lysis and Deslgn

From Programmer's Point of View

The following Lypcs of problems may contribute in maximum cases to software crisis:

.
0

Problem of compatibility . Problem of porlability Problcm in documentation Problem in coordination of work of different people where a learn is i~~itiating to dcvelop software.
,

Prqblcms thal arise during acl~lillrun time in the organisation. Some time the errors are not detected during sample run. Problem of piracy of softwme. Custorncrs normally expand their specifications after program design and implementation has mkcn place. Problcrn of maintenance in proper manncr.

1.4.2

From User's Point Of View

There are many sourccs of problcms thal arise out of the user's end. Some of these are as follows: ' How to choose a software from tolal markcl availability How LOensure which software is compatible with his hardware specifications Thc customerised software generally does not mect his total requirements Problem of virus
*

Problcm of software bugs, which comes to knowledge of cuslomer after considerable data entry Ccrlain softwares run only on spccific operating system cnvironment Thc probleln of compatibility for user may be because of different size and density of floppy diskettes.

Problcln in lc&ning all the facilities providcd by the softwme because companies give only selective information in manual Ccrtain software run and create files which expand their used memory spaces and create problem of disk management.

Soflwarc crisis dcvclops when system memory requirement of software is more than the oxisting requircments andlor availability.
15

System Analysis

Problcm of different versions of software (user as well a operating system). Security problcm for protcctcd data in software.

1.5
1.5.1

ROLE OF A SYSTEMS ANALYST

Who is Systenls ~ n a l ~ s t ?

A systems analyst is a person who conducts a study, idcnlifics activities and objectives and determines a procedure to achicve the objectives. Dcsigning and implementing systems to suit organisational needs are the functions of Ihe systems malyst. He plays a major role in seeing busincss benefit from computer technology. The analyst is a person with unique skills. He uses these skills to coordinate thc efforls of different type of persons in an organisation to achieve business goals.
1.5.2

What a Systems Analyst docs?

A system analyst carries out the following job:

I
(a) The first and pcrhaps most difficult task of systems analyst is problem definition. Business problems are quite difficult to define. It is also true that problems cannot be solved until thcy are precisely and clearly defined. (b) Initially a systems analyst does not know how to solve a specific problem. He must consult wih managers, users and olher data processing professionals in defining problcms and developing solutions. He uses various methods for data galhering lo get the correct solution of a problem. (c) Having gathered the data relating to a problem, thc systems analyst analyses thcm and thinks of plan to solve it. He may not come up personally with the best way of solving a problem but pulls together olhcr pcople's ideas and refines them until a workable solution is achieved. (d) Systems analysts cpordinate the process of developing solutions. Since many problcms have number of solutions, h e systems analyst must evduate the merit of such proposcd solution before recommending one Lo Lhe management. (e) Systems analysts are often referrcd to as planners. . A key part of h e systems analyst's job is to develop a plan to meet the management's objectives. '
I

1
i

I
I

(0 When the plan has been accepted, systems analyst is responsible for designing it so that
management's goal could be achieved. Systems design is a time consuming, compl~x and precise task. (g) Systems must be thoroughly tested. The systems analyst often coordinates the testing procedures and helps in deciding whether or not the new system is mecting standards established in the planning phase.
1.53

Attributes of an effective Systenls Analyst I

Systcms analyst must have the following attributes: (a) Knowledge of people: Since a systems analyst works with others so closely, he or she must understand their needs and what motivates them to develop systems properly.

(b) Knowledge of Business functions: Asystems analyst must know the environment in
which he or she works. He must be aware of the peculiarities of management and the users at his installation and realize how they react to systems 'malyst. A working knowledge of accounting and marketing principles is a must since so many systems are built around these two areas. He must be familiar with his company's product and scrvices and management's policies in areas concerning him.

(c) Knonrledgeof Data processing principles: Most systems today are computer based.

The systems analyst must fully aware about the potential and litnilationsof computers. (d) Ability to conlmunicate: As a coordinator, a systcms analyst must co~nmunicale properly will1 pcoplc of diffcrcnt levels within an organisation. Systems analyst must listen carcfully lo what othcrs say and integralc Lhe thoughts oEothers into the systems development proccss.

Overview of Systcrn A ~ ~ n l v s i s nad Design

(e) Flexibility: Systcins analysts must be flexible in heir thinking since they often do not gct thcir own way. Difl'crcnt factions in an organisation have conflicting needs and most h systems arc the result of compromise. Tlic analyst's goal is to produce L e system that will bc the bcsl for his organisation. This requires an open mind and flexibility in his idcas.
(I) An analytical mind: It lakes an unusual person lo see through problcms facing an organisation and dcvelop solutions Lhat will work. Systcms analysts oficn find hemse elves , will1 lnorc data than they can copc with. It requires an analytical mind b selcct pertincnt tiah and conccntratc on thcm in defining problems and forming solutions.

(6) Well e d u a ~ t e d with sI1al.p mhd: Systems qalysls arccallcd upon to work with people at all levels virtually in evcry aspcct of busincss. They must know how to work with all and have sharp mind to lwrn quickly how of thc~n gain thcir confidence. Analysts ir~ust pcople do Lhcir jobs and dcvclop ways for thcm to do it betlcr.

1.6

SUMMARY

Bcforegoing to study Systems Analysis and Systcms Design, an initial overall idca should bc forrncd by ~ h learner about what is n system, what are the characleristics of a systcms, c

System Anelyqis

what is systems approach, whal is systems analysis and what is systems design, what are h e different typcs of a systcm, clc. This unit provides an overview of systems, thc components and activities in he life cyclc of a syslern devclopmcnt. what arc the various sources which contribute a software crisis, and in dchils a characlcristic study of a systcm analyst's attribules, it's difrcrcnt jobs. Aftcr studying this unil, you might Tcel eagcr LO go in details of syslems analysis and design.
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1.7

MODEL ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1

1.

The syslcrns approach shows a set of proccdurc for solving a particular problcm. Systems analysis is a man:lgcmcnt technique which helps in designing a new systcm improving an exisling systcm or solving a systcrn problem. The four basic elemcnts in systcrn analysis are: Outputs, Inputs, Files and Processes. Syslcms analysts devclop scvcral different types of information syslcms which dcpend mainly on the cornpulersfor handling busincss applications. This class of systems is known as Compuler Based Information Systcms.

2.

3.

4. A decision is considered unslructured if therc arc no clear procedures Tor making the decision.
Check Your Progress 2 1. The following activities complclc ltle lifc cyclc: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Prclirninary invcstig:ilion Dclermination of systcm requirc~ncnts Design.of systcm Dcvclopmcnt of sollwarc (v) Syslems testing (vi) Implcmcntation, evalualion and mainlcnance.

2.

The thrcc types of feasibililics studicd in preliminary investigation are: (i) Technical fcasibilily (ii) Economic fcasibility .(iii) Opcralional feasibility.

3.

Assess~nenl the m,mncr in which the system funclions, including case o use, of f response ~imc, overall reliability and level of utilization.

4. . Mainlcnance of a system is necessary to eliminate errors in the working system during its working life and lo rrtkc thc syscem lo all variations wilhin the working environment.

Clieck Your Progress 3

1. There are many sources of problems arises out of the Programmer's end or uscr's end to he sortwares on the systems. These conuibute to software crisis. o available mcmory size is constant and known L the system analyst.

2. Yes, it is also one kind of software problcm that arises from users' ends, bccausc the
3. The most difficuli job ola system analyst is Proble~ndefining, as some business o problems are quite difficult t define and no problcm can bc solved until it is precisely - defined.

4. There are many attributes a systems analyst should have.

Some of which are:

Ovcrvlew o f Systcni Analysis and Dcslgn

(a) Knowledge of business functions

(b) Knowledge of Data processing principles (c) Ability L communica~e. o
(d) Flexibility

(e) An analytical mind