Gravity Surveys

Field Operations: Land Surveys

Planning a survey

As application of gravity for various geological problems such as deep

crustal studies, sedimentary basins, for locating or identifying rifts, faults,
dykes, plutons, buried stream beds etc. require different survey
parameters and precision requirements, an effective gravity survey has
to be properly planned and designed so as to make complete benet.

For designing a gravity survey, we have to take into account survey

dimensions, orientation of regional and local geology and strike,
topography, accessibility( road network), knowledge of target ( probable
area and depth) and stringent quality control during data acquisition.
Survey design parameters

Reference Base station

Reoccupation interval of the base station
Station spacing
Traverse length and direction of the traverse
Precision and accuracy

All the decisions are made in order to reduce the total cost while
maintaining a survey design that provide best possible results.
Requirement of gravity reference station (base station)

Since the gravimeters can measure only the relative gravity variations , we
need a
reference station called the base station, where the absolute gravity is
known.
Reference gravity base stations generally will be established by agencies/
institutes
involved in gravity surveys by tying to primary gravity base (In India it is
Dehradun)
through a network of secondary base station.

Useful to eliminate the instrument drift and temporal gravity changes (tidal
effect)

If the area to be surveyed is very large, a number of secondary bases must

be
established keeping the available as a primary reference station.
 Why and how to do Base ties
Why
Allows merging of different survey data sets and for correct application of
latitude correction
How
Ties between base stations are either made by looping ( forward looping
method)
or two fold three way loops closed within 90 minutes
A number of sites exist in India with accurate values tied to the International
gravity standardization Net (IGSN)1971
The earlier base values derived from Potsdam datum can be converted to
IGSN71 system.

Potsdam Dehra Dun

Gravity : 981.274 979.063
Latitude : 520221.9 30 0191.4
Longitude : 13 0041.4 78003 1.2
Height : 87.24 683
(after Rao and Murthy,1978)
Reoccupation of base station

It depends on the drift characteristics of the gravimeter

In general we will reoccupy the base station within 2-3 hours (within the
tidal cycle)

Forward looping
method
Drift has two components

Cyclic component due to effect of the gravitational attraction of Sun

and Moon (causing tides)

Approximately linear component due to instrumental drift

Drift characteristics and errors in base loops allow us to understand
accuracy of
gravity observations. The magnitude of the closure errors is a direct
measure of
the quality of the gravity data for the survey

(after Radhakrishna etal.,1997)

(modified after Nettleton,1971)

Station spacing (station
interval)
Station spacing should be considerably less than expected lateral
dimensions and depth of the target.
Assuming that a tunnel exists at a depth of Z ~ 7.5 to 15m underground.
According to formula of gravity anomaly for cylinder Z=X×0.5, where X is
full-width half maximum of the gravity anomaly i.e., 2Z=15~30m.

At least two samples, better three, should be sampled within this range to
avoid aliasing effects.

Considering three samples correspond to a sampling interval of ~5

to10m, as a safe practice, better to choose 5 meters as the station spacing.

Station spacing is also selected depending on the area to be covered

divided by the number of stations affordable within the budget in
conjunction with known geology.

The distance between the base stations should be selected in such a way
that we will be in a position to reoccupy the base or reach the nearest
base within 2-3 hours after occupying all intermediate points.
Effect of station spacing on gravity anomaly
Selection of traverse length and direction
Traverse length should be selected sufficiently long so that expected
anomalies related to structures are completely mapped.
Generally for survey along proles gravity traverses are considered
perpendicular to the geological strike.
Position and Elevation requirement
In the case of regional gravity surveys, a general practice is to depend on
topographic
maps compiled from toposheets or carryout elevation measurements
using aneroid
barometers (10m accuracy), micro barometers (5m accuracy), digital
barometers(1m
accuracy). It is useful to plan the survey with the help of topographic
maps nalize the
route to be followed and mark locations of stations with the help of land
marks.

For detailed gravity surveys both station location and height will be
measured by the
survey team before/alongwith the gravity survey team using theodolites
which
provide elevation to a precision of 0.1m . Though hand held GPS is useful
for an
Survey procedure - summary
Establish a base or network of bases well in advance to monitor the
instrument drift and tidal effect.
Make the traverses perpendicular to the geological strike of the target
Mark the stations with the desired interval
Measure the latitude, longitude and elevation of the each station (GPS,
etc).
Instrument must be leveled at each station
Reoccupy the reference base or secondary base for every two hours or
at interval demanded by the linearity of the drift curve
Observe the surrounding topography- signicant topography means
that a terrain correction may be needed
To achieve the accuracy of 0.01 mGal the precision required for
intermediate stations is 2-5 cm in elevation and 12m in horizontal
position.
Data Reduction on Land
In order to convert eld measurements into gravity anomalies that are
meaningful and caused by geological structures, a series of correction
have to be employed
Drift and Earth tide correction
Station measurements between different base loops have to be
corrected by assuming linear drift.
In order to accurately correct for instrument drift and tidal effects, the
time measurements during the data acquisition are very important.
 Using the appropriate calibration chart, the gravimeter scale readings can
be converted into relative gravity values in mGals. At the end of these
corrections, base ties with a reference primary base provide us with
absolute gravity values (gobs ) at each eld station.

Spatial variations in the gravity values can be ascribed to variations in

earth’s topography, normal gravity variations on the surface of a earth and
anomalous sources of geological interest.
Latitude correction
The gravity varies with latitude and correction for this effect is applied by
substituting the theoretical gravity values (gØ ) at any given latitude (Ø ) dened
by appropriate International gravity formula.
For exploration purposes, any post-1967 version is usually adequate

For example
International gravity formula 1980

Where Φ is the latitude

Free-air correction
This correction is applied when the gravity measurements are made
above or below the mean sea level (MSL).
Free air correction accounts for the difference in gravity between the sea
level and at an elevation h without considering rock masses in between.
From McCullah’s formula , we know that

Where R is the radius of the Earth;

Considering R at the equator as R=6378km

per each meter

= -0.3104mGal/m
Considering R at the poles as R=6357km
per each meter

= -0.3073mGal/m
For an ellipsoid Earth, precise formula taking into effect of latitude(Φ) is

In practice, general correction factor is -0.3086 mGal/m

Free air anomaly

where δF.C =0.3086.h, h is height in meters

Bouguer correction

In this the observed gravity is reduced to sea level by making a correction

for station elevation and removing the mass above sea level assuming the
mass as an innite horizontal slab of density ρ with thickness equal to
station elevation

The appropriate formula for the effect of innite horizontal plate of density
contrast ∆ρ and thickness h is
δBouguer slab = 2π G∆ρh
= 0.04193 ∆ρh ;

where ρ is in g/cm 3 and h in meters

 For a point above the sea level, this effect increases gravity, so in
order to remove its effect, subtract δ Bouguer slab from the observed
gravity. And if the point is below mean sea level, this effect
decreases gravity, so in order to remove its effect, add δ Bouguer slab to
the observed gravity

The Bouguer correction is always opposite in sign to the free-air

correction

Simple Bouguer anomaly

∆g B.A = (gobs + δF.C – δB.s ) – g Ø

Bouguer anomaly (complete)

The assumption of innite Bouguer slab would be almost valid in areas

of subdued topography without much undulations. However in the areas
of rugged topography, considering Bouguer slab having thickness equal
to station elevation leaves voids below the plane of calculation as well
as hills above this plane and both produce negative effect at the station.
Therefore in the continental regions terrain correction
is always positive.
Terrain Correction
In areas of high relief, detailed topographic corrections must be made.

In the gure below, the topographic mass (Hill) above the gravity station
exerts an upward pull on the gravity meter, the effect is negative and the
correction is positive.

The valley ,on the other hand, occupies a region that the Bouguer
correction assumed to be lled with rock that would exert a downwards
gravitational pull. This rock does not exist. The terrain correction must
compensate for an over-correction by the Bouguer plate and is again
positive.
This correction can be done manually
by placing the transparent Hammer
chart on the topographic map with the
center at the gravity station (as shown
in gure) and the difference between
the average height of the terrain and
the height of the station is estimated
for each compartment. The
corresponding corrections are then
obtained from tables .

Computers can simplify this process

but require terrain data in digital form
and may be equally time consuming
unless a digital terrain model (DTM)
already exists.

(after Milson,2003)
 Once the terrain correction is computed, the complete Bouguer
anomaly can be computed as
∆g B.A (complete) = (gobs + δF.C – δB.S+ εt ) – g Ø
This can be simplied as
= (gobs + (0.3086-0.0419.ρ)h+ εt ) – g Ø

Bouguer anomaly( expanded)

It is also known as curvature or Bullard B correction. To account for the
effect of curvature of the earth, the horizontal slab equation is replaced
by a formula for spherical cap of radius166.7 km ( La Fehr,1991) as

εs =2π G∆ρ(μh-λR)

Where R= (R0+h) and R 0=6371km

μ and λ are dimensionless coefficients dened in (Lafehr,1991)

The expanded Bouguer anomaly ∆g B.E is

∆g B.E =(gobs + δF.C – δB.S+ εt + εs ) – g Ø
However, curvature has relatively small effect on local anomaly
variations.
Isostatic anomalies
Genesis
Presence of large negative Bouguer anomaly over the mountains
terrains and large positive anomalies in oceanic areas indicates the
existence of some other components of earth’s crust which is not
seen on the surface.

Requirement to understand how the huge mountainous mass above

the sea level is being supported by the lithosphere above the sea
level over long geological timescale.
Airy hypothesis
Two densities, that of the rigid upper layer, ρu ,
and that of the substratum, ρs.
Mountains therefore have deep roots. A
mountain height h 1 is underlain by a root of
thickness:

Ocean basin depth d, is underlain by an anti-root

of
Pratt’s hypothesis
thickness:
The depth to the base of the upper layer is
constant.
The density of rocks beneath mountains is less
than
that beneath valleys.
A mountain whose height is h 1 is underlain by a
root
whose density ρ1 is
Ocean basin whose depth is d is underlain by a
high density material, ρd , that is given by:
Isostatic anomalies
Different computing schemes have been put forwarded for calculation of
isostatic anomalies observations
Pratt- Hayford method
Airy –Heiskanen isostatic method
Vening- Meinesz regional isostatic method
Pratt-Hayford Isostatic anomaly
To obtain isostatic anomaly the sum of the topographic correction for
all zones is subtracted from observed gravity and sum of
compensation reductions for all zones is added
The current practice is to refer topographic correction for
compartments in zones A to O ( out to 166.7km) to the station
elevation using the complete Bouguer anomaly out to zone O (with
allowance for earth curvature) and to apply spherical formula to
compute topographic effects, refer to a sea level datum and isostatic
compensation zones 18 to1
Pratt-Hayford Isostatic anomaly (Δgi) PH is given by

Airy-Heiskeanen isostatic anomaly

To obtain Airy-Heiskeanen isostatic anomalies the topographic
corrections for zones A to O are computed like Pratt- Hayford
anomalies
Two dimensional, pseudo-isostatic anomaly
It helps to analyze the structure across continental margins which are
over shadowed by an edge effect

Two dimensional line- integral procedure is used to compute the

attraction produced by an ocean lled with rock and to compute the
attraction resulting from the corresponding anti root.

The two dimensional anomaly (δi) 2D can be written as

in which δ F , the free air reduction vanishes at sea; ( δb) 2D , is the two
dimensional line integral value of ocean lled with rock; and ( δic) 2D is the two
dimensional line integral value of the antiroot compensating the 2D lled in
ocean