Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1997 Agarwal
1997 Agarwal
65-73, 1997
Pergamon © It~97 Elsevier Science Ltd
Atl rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain
0261-5177/97 $17.1)(I+ 0.1)0
PII: S0261-5177(96)00102-1
Sheela Agarwal
Sheffield Hallam UniversiW, Centre for Tourisrn, Totlev Campus, Totlev Hall Lane.
Sheffield S17 4AB, UK
This paper seeks to contribute to the debate surrounding the applicability of the resort cycle
by testing the model in the context of seaside resort tourism along the south coast of Britain.
A brief review of the resort cycle is followed by discussion which focuses on the main
methodological problems and limitations. In the second part of this paper, using the resort
cycle as the broad research framework, an attempt is made to validate the model empirically,
drawing upon the experience of a particular resort: Torbay, one of the most well-established
seaside resorts in the UK. The results presented here reinforce the importance of 'unit of
analysis' and highlight the difficulty of operationalizing the model. In addition, the study
findings reveal the critical role of regeneration in continued resort evolution. © 1997 Elsevier
Science Ltd
65
The resort cycle and seaside tourism: S Agarwal
versy surrounding the exact shape and pattern of the pattern of growth and decline documented in the
curve, as well as the detail about the specification of resort cycle.
its parameters. A study of the Grand Isle resort of In contrast, however, an examination of tourism
Louisiana, undertaken by Meyer-Arendt, confirms in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania by Hovinen
the model's applicability? Wilkinson's examination found that the Butler model did not adequately
of the resort cycle based on tourism in the Carib- describe the industry's evolution.' Not only did the
bean Islands of Aruba, St Lucia, Antigua and the shape of the postulated curve of growth numbers of
US Virgin Islands also revealed a similar pattern of visitors through time significantly differ from that
growth and development to that postulated by proposed in the resort model, but the sequence of
Butler? Furthermore, Smith's '~ application of an stages was also noted to be different. In addition,
earlier study of tourism in Coney Island by Snow the study also revealed that many of the charac-
and Wright, H suggests that it displays a similar teristics associated with each stage did not match
those documented by Butler. A later study of Port
Stephens in the Great Lakes, undertaken by Baker,"
Figure 1 The resort cycle of evolution also displaycd many disparities in terms of stage
characteristics, whilst Cooper's examination of
tourism in the Isle of Man found that the overall
RejuvenatJon
shape of the curve and the sequence of stages did
t "6 s Ss A sB not conform to the pattern suggested by the resort
---8o ~ ~ Stag natior t ~ , ~ , -t ~~~ ~ . " -- cycle." Research by Weaver in the Grand Cayman
Islands revealed sharp deviations from the resort
-g
"~ / O ~ E ~
L
|
~ o
~
Consollaatlon
. . . . ~ -
~"
i
--
% %
~F--~
Decline ~ ~'~.~,
""',,C
- - - - - - model, notably in relation to the degree of local as
opposed to non-local control over the industry/
Finally, the application of the resort life-cycle to the
development of Niagara Falls also highlighted many
points of divergence.'"
In short, the main conclusion that can be drawn
E from research into the applicability of the resort
Z~ , DevOopm7 cycle points to a number of problems and limitations
that cannot be easily resolvcd (for a fuller discussion
InvolvemeJ see Agarwal'"). Perhaps the most devastating and
difficult to absorb relates to the internal and
J Explorahon Source: Butler 1980 external factors that influence resort evolution. The
i
overall shape of the curve varies depending upon
Time supply factors, such as rate of development, access,
Stage Characteristic
66
Ihe resort c*ycle and seaside tourism: S Agarwal
government policy and competing destinations, and evolution at particular destinations." In recent
upon factors of demand, which include the changing years, study of the model has increased considerably,
nature of the clientele as the destination evolves J: and explanations of resort change have been
Any change in these underlying factors will have a suggested. However, there is still a considerable lack
considerable impact on the tourist destination area. of detailed empirical analysis and, thus, the applic-
[n addition, internal and external agents also have a ability of the model remains questionable. By
crucial bearing on resort evolution. In terms of concentrating dctailed analysis on Torbay, one of
endogenous resort dynamics, decisions made by the most well-established seaside resorts in the UK,
resort planners and managers at different stages of the life-cycle is tested empirically against observed
resort evolution are critically important in shaping development trends. The selection of Torbay as a
its life path. ~ This view is further emphasized by case study for investigation is based on a number of
Getz, who states that: considerations. First, located on the south coast of
England (Figure 2), and consisting of three main
during growth and maturity, management of change tourism centres, Torquay, Paignton and Brixham,
is the priority, in order to prevent deterioration or Torbay is a sizeable and popular holiday resort; it is
decline. If decline is experienced, decisions must be the most visited in the West Country and the third
made on whether it is desirable to try to rejuvenate most visited seaside resort in the whole of
the tourist industry.(~"p 753) England.-"'
Second, Torbay's economy relies very heavily on
As regards the exogenous factors, work by Debbage tourism. It generates an estimated £300 million per
and Bianchi reveal the critical influence that trans- annum, and supports at least 16000 jobs. 2'' Third,
national companies have on the health of the analysis of English seaside resorts from the perspec-
resort, '-~,~ Meanwhile Ioannides draws attention to tive of Butler's evolutionary model has been
the importance to resort development of interaction neglected. Therefl)re, this study not only helps to fill
between foreign interest groups and state institu- an empirical vacuum, but also has further
tions." Therefore, owing to the unpredictable nature theoretical implications for the understanding of
and variability of internal and external factors, in internal resort dynamics. Thus, through the use of
spatial and magnitude terms, it is extremely difficult primary and secondary data sources, a full investiga-
to apply the resort model holistically to destination tion was undertaken into the evolution and develop-
area evolution and development. ment of Torbay, and the changing nature and
Thus, the resort life-cycle model is clearly destina- pattern of tourism within the resort. The findings
tion specific, with each stage being variable in length
and having differing shapes and patterns. This is
clearly recognized by Hovinen, who, in order to Figure 2 The location of Torbay
accommodate variability in resort experience during
the later stages of the cycle, substituted the 'con-
solidation" and 'stagnation' phases with a single
stage marking maturity2 By contrast, Haywood
suggests a variety of possible tourist area cycle of
evolution curves that may occur, as opposed to the
universal Butler model, l~ In addition, the model has
been subject to criticism on the basis that it is diffi-
cult to operationalize. Many of the model's compo-
nents are ill-defined (for a fuller discussion see
Haywood~"), and the paucity of long-term historical
data within many destination areas makes its
employment problematic. In particular, the 'unit of
analysis' responsible for delineating the area of
study lacks clarity. The model does not take into
account geographical scale, and views a destination
as being made up of a single product instead of a
mosaic of different elements (hotels, theme parks)
each of which exhibits a separate life-cycle. Some
may show growth, whilst others may display signs of
decline.
Despite these criticisms of the resort life-cycle, it
is notable that the model provides a conceptual
framework for understanding change within destina-
tions. It enables the identification of internal and
external processes and agents that shape resort
67
The resort ~ycle and seaside tourism: S Agarwal
were then reconveyed within the overall framework were recorded only at the peak of the holiday
of the life-cycle model. season. By contrast, from the 1970s onwards,
numbers of visitors were measured monthly, and
annual totals were published. This problem is
Application of the resort model: further exacerbated by the fact that the spatial scale
operational problems and limitations of collection also changed over time. Prior to local
Application of the resort life cycle highlighted a government reorganization in 1968, the individual
number of operational problems. These relate, first, resorts of Torquay, Paignton and Brixham that now
to a variety of data limitations and, second, to the constitute Torbay were responsible for the manage-
difficulties experienced whilst attempting to use the ment, development and control of tourism within
model as an organizing framework within which to their district boundaries. After this date, however,
study the evolution of tourism in Torbay. The most the three tourism centres were amalgamated and
significant are outlined below. subsequent data relates to the enlarged resort of
Torbay.
Temporal discontinuity
Temporal discontinuity of tourism information is Reliability
inevitable since no single tourism data set or source
Statistical data are particularly prone to problems of
covers the whole period of Torbay's evolution, from
errors, omissions and oversights that are frequently
its origin to the present day. In order to reconstruct
changing seaside holiday-making trends, and to incorporated within the data. This is notably true of
document tourism developments through time, it statistics that document the volume and value of
was necesssary to examine a diverse range of data tourism at all spatial scales of analysis. Within the
sources. In total, information relating to the evolu- UK, such figures are based on sampling registered
tion of tourism in Torbay was derived from six main accommodation and serve to exclude informal estab-
sources. These include secondary historical qualita- lishments from the main count. Data collected to
tive data, local newspapers, council minutes, resort measure the total number of holidays of one night
guides, council compiled statistics, planning applica- or more within resort locations are also notoriously
tions and current qualitative documentary data. unreliable. This is due to the lack of clarity
Analysis of the fragmented evidence yielded by each surrounding the definition of a resort. Official
data source enabled the growth and development of assessment of resorts not only includes all coastal
tourism in Torbay to be reconstructed. and inland spa locations, many of which are based
on alternative forms of economic activity, but also
Spatial scope of analysis incorporates other tourism centres, for example,
In addition to temporal constraints, the scope and caravan and camp sites and holiday parks, all of
depth of study was further inhibited by the spatial which may be situated outside traditional resort
scale of data available. Statistical data that enables boundaries. In many cases these facilities form
the reconstruction of past trends in tourism have in individual holiday areas, divorced by and large from
the main been collated on a regional and county the main resort.
level. There is a distinct paucity of quantitative The need for reliability also inhibits the practical
information available on a local resort level, creating use of newspapers and council minutes. Despite
problems for the examination of detailed change containing a wealth of information, local newspaper
within a resort over time. reports are typically protagonists or antagonists of
council policy, and therefore may present a biased
Lack of standardization perspective on tourism-related issues. With regards
The non-standard way in which the information is to council minute data, this source is again prone to
collated severely hampered its use, particularly in bias, from the non-recording of adverse detail that
terms of statistical data. Data sets compiled by may detrimentally affect the image and credibility of
different research bodies are not based on identical the council at worst, to their sheer selectivity at best.
or even similar criteria. Thus, it is extremely difficult
to use one data source alongside another in order to Calibration of the resort model
reconstruct holiday-making trends and patterns.
Moreover, methods of data collection are also In addition to the difficulties associated with
subject to modification over time; as a result, deter- tourism-related data, a number of problems were
mining change within the resort over time and encountered whilst attempting to apply the resort
attempts at trend analysis are flawed. This is illus- model to the evolution of Torbay. Owing to the
trated clearly by the example of visitor statistics unavailability of long runs of annual visitor number
compiled by the resorts' Planning Department. data, it was impossible to calibrate the 'Y' axis scale
During the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s, visitor numbers to any degree of certainty.
68
The resort cvycle and seaside tourism: S Agarwal
Exploration c. 1 7 6 0 - 1 8 3 0 c. 1 7 9 0 - 1 8 7 0 c. 1 8 8 0 - 1 9 2 0 c. 1 7 6 0 - 1 9 2 0
Involvement c. 1 8 3 1 - 1 9 1 0 c. 1 8 7 1 - 1 9 1 8 <1921-1950 c, 1 8 3 1 - 1 9 5 0
Development c. 1 9 1 0 - 1 9 5 0 c. 1 9 1 9 - 1 9 5 0 c. 1 9 5 0 - 1 9 7 5 c~1910-1975
69
The resort cycle and seaside tourism: S Agarwal
Moreover, the development of the resort is clearly as a result, marketing and advertising was extensive
reflected in the expansion of its accommodation as all three resorts relied heavily on resort promo-
stock, within both formal and informal sectors. tion. In 1945, Torquay's Publicity Committee was
According to Morgan, by the late 1930s half of the established and in 1955, Paignton began partici-
resort's houses provided some form of serviced pating in a collective national advertising campaign.
accommodation for a peak resident tourism popula- Later, in 1960, Torquay's national advertising
tion of 150000. 2z campaign was launched.
Also during this phase, as the resort model The 'consolidation' period, as Butler suggests, also
proposes, all three resorts invested heavily in resort witnesses a rise in local resident's antagonism
promotion and marketing. Within Torquay, in towards the visitor; there is no evidence to indicate
addition to resort advertising in local, regional and the occurrence of this characteristic earlier in the
national newspapers, a Development Committee life-cycle. Thus, during 1950, the HeraM Express
was established in 1902, whose main responsibility features a number of articles that document
was to promote the resort. This initiative was residents' anger at high local rates, which were attri-
followed in 1908 by the production of an official buted directly to the costs incurred by the tourism
town guide. In addition, as the resort model industry. Severe traffic congestion caused by the
predicts, there is evidence to suggest that within influx of tourists was also another source of
Torquay the 'development' stage is marked by a discontent. The Herald Express (1955) records
change in the type of visitor frequenting it. In residents' call for a traffic solution to be found to
Torquay, the period before the two world wars saw
alleviate acute congestion in the holiday season; this
the final end of the 'gentry era'. According to Travis,
was repeated many times throughout the 1960s and
this is the period when Torquay ceased to be a
1970s. However, the greatest source of local resident
select watering place and developed into a 'holiday'
resentment directed wholly at the tourist industry
resort, based on a summer season and attracting
was its seasonal impact on employment. The marked
increasing numbers of middle- and working-class
difference in employment between the summer and
visitors 5'
winter months was documented by the Herald
Express in 1958, when it was noted that the number
'Consolidation ': c. 1950-1975 unemployed in Paignton decreased by 15% as the
As the resort model forecasts, the 'consolidation' summer season approached. In 1970, the plight of
phase is marked by a period of prosperity. In the the 'winter workless' (Herald Express, July 1970) was
aftermath of the Second World War, all three again revived. There were repeated calls to provide
resorts experienced a general take-off of their a greater diversity of employment in Torbay, a
holiday trade, which is documented in numerous dilemma that its council continued to face
articles featured in the local newspaper, the Herald throughout the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s.
Express, between 1945 and 1949. In comparison with
the predictions of the resort model, visitor numbers 'Stagnation ': c. 1976-1985
exceeded the size of the resident population. During
In comparison with the previous stages, yet again
the peak season, the populations of Brixham and
many of the characteristics associated with the
Paignton doubled and that of Torquay increased by
'stagnation' phase can be identified within Torbay.
two-thirds.-'z However, despite this seemingly
upward trend in seaside tourism in Torbay, all three As the resort model forecasts, numbers of visitors
resorts between 1955 and 1973 appear to have appear to have reached their peak around the
received a continually diminishing share of the mid-1970s, signifying the turning point from 'con-
domestic holiday market. This decreased rate of solidation" to "stagnation'. The late 1970s and early
growth is marked by the fact that during the late 1980s were characterized by a national slump in
1960s the British Tourism Authority, recognizing British domestic tourism. Despite being one of the
potential seeds of decline, urged the South West to most popular resorts in the West Country,
place less emphasis on passive sun-oriented accounting for 33.6% of the total holidays taken in
holidays, and more on raising standards of accom- Devon, Torbay experienced losses as 'economic
modation and facilities in order to compete with gloom' (HeraM Express, June 1976) reversed the
package holidays. fortunes of the resort. Throughout the period 1978
Seaside tourism as reflected in the resort model to 1984, Torbay experienced a massive reduction in
was of immense importance to the local and the number of holiday-makers visiting the resort,
regional economy. Within Devon in 1967, expendi- hitting an all time low in 1982, when the total
ture by holiday-makers totalled £100000, whilst number of visitors fell to 10 million, z~ As the resort
more than 20% of Torquay's and Brixham's model suggests, visitation rates were also sharply
workforce in June of the same year were employed seasonally peaked, and the length of the main
in the hotel and catering industry,z4 A major part of holiday season was reduced from 18.5 weeks in 1977
the economy was consequently tied to tourism and, to 16.2 weeks in 1982.z~ Furthermore, hotel
70
The resort c~ycle and seaside tourism: S Agarwal
occupancy rates fell from 70% for 13 weeks in 1977 ten-pin bowling complex, and the erection of an
to 7 weeks in 1983. ~' artificial ski-slope in 1988. In 1990, plans were
Following Butler's predictions, Torbay also experi- announced to create a holiday village at a cost of
enced substantial physical deterioration of its built approximately £35 million in Paignton, and in
environment. Surplus bed capacity began to charac- Brixham major developments have been completed
terize the resort, leading to a gradual erosion of the around the quayside.
accommodation stock through the conversion of Developed in conjunction with the TDAP, a
hotels and guest houses to residential elderly major advertising campaign was also instigated
persons' homes. Between the period 1981 and 1988, which included coverage in several Sunday national
bed-space capacity of holiday accommodation newspapers and a radio campaign targeted at the
declined by 7930, the majority of losses occurring Midlands, the main catchment area for Torbay.
within the hotel and guest house sector. 2~ Annual marketing strategies have also been
In addition to this, another characteristic outlined published and a programme of special events was
in the resort model can be clearly identified: Torbay organized. Torbay is an example of a resort that has
had become associated with an unfashionable image. attempted to adapt to changing tourism patterns.
This is illustrated by the results of a nationwide It has repositioned its market appeal away from
survey undertaken by the English Tourist Board its former image as a traditional 'bucket and
(1982), which revealed that only two out of 10 spade' resort towards the product branding of a
people questioned knew the location of ~Torbay' and more classy, sophisticated and continental-style
were able to relate the name to the individual destination.
resorts of Torquay, Paignton and Brixham5 ~ This Dcspite the official ending of the Tourism
resulted in further efforts being made to maintain Development Action Programme in 1990, attempts
visitor levels. An aggressive domestic and overseas to regenerate seaside tourism in Torbay continue. In
marketing campaign began in 1982, which focused 1995, a 10-year tourism and economic development
on the projection of a revised brand name, the strategy was produced, covering issues such as
'English Riviera', designed to create a new image marketing, product development, organization,
for the resort. quality and service improvements and funding. The
English Riviera marketing campaign is currrently in
'Post-stagnation' 1986-present its twelfth year of operation and other joint
domestic and overseas marketing promotions estab-
Finally, the pattern of 'events' taking place within lished in the early 1990s continue. Morc recently, a
Torbay during the 'post-stagnation' phase again regional marketing campaign focusing upon over-
exhibits a close resemblance to the rejuvenation seas markets has been launched. Tourism develop-
option proposed in the resort model, as all three ment within Torbay has also remained a key issue.
resorts clearly follow a path of 'directed' change and At present, detailed pre-feasibility research is being
development. The turning point of the "stagnation' undertaken into the proposed development of a
phase occurs approximately around the mid-1980s, tourist 'magnet' attraction.
characterized by a major coordinated and concerted
effort to regenerate seaside tourism in Torbay. As a
result of a national competition "Resorts 2000', Stage characteristic departures
launched by the English Tourist Board in an Despite the fact that there is some degree of
attempt to encourage resorts to think strategically similarity between the internal dynamics of resort
about their market position, in 1986 Torbay adopted development in Torquay, Paignton and Brixham and
one of the first Tourism Development Action those proposed by Butler, deviations are evident.
Programmes (TDAPs) operationalized in the UK. Contrary to the predictions of the resort model,
Its overriding aim was to regenerate the industry in within Torquay there is evidence of an unprece-
order to compete with national and international dented level of local involvement in the developing
tourism markets and initiatives focused on stimu- tourism industry during the initial 'exploration',
lating tourism development, enhancing employment 'involvement' and 'development' phases. This level
opportunities and providing additional leisure and of local involvement continued throughout the 19th
recreational facilities. A whole series of public and and 20th centuries, as the vast majority of develop-
private partnerships were initiated, which has led to mcnt was undertaken by local entrepreneurs and the
considerable development within all three resorts. In municipal governing bodies. Another deviation from
Torquay, for example, the Pavilion has been the resort model occurs in relation to Paignton.
converted into a fashionable retailing complex, a 460 During the 'development' stage, there is no evidence
berth marina in Torquay's outer harbour has been to suggest that visitor type changes as the resort
cleared and the multi-million pound English Riviera develops. Owing to cold wind exposure, making it
Centre, combining conference and exhibition facili- unsuitable as a health resort, Paignton was originally
ties with leisure amenities, opened in 1987. This was planned and developed as a beach resort. During
followed by the construction of Hollywood Bowl, a the 19th and 20th centuries, Paignton's sandy
71
The resort cycle and seaside tourism: S Agarwal
beaches remained popular amongst those interested to avoid the inevitable decline that Butler forecasts,
in 'bucket and spade' holidays, consequently many of these resorts are currently reviewing their
attracting similar markets to those first received. products and must continue to do so in the foresee-
However, the greatest degree of uncertainty as able future.
regards the applicability of the resort model occurs In light of this, it can be argued that there is an
in relation to the final 'post-stagnation' phase. The urgent need for the theoretical reformulation of the
deterministic life-to-death concept outlined by the 'post-stagnation' stage. In its present form, the
resort model is extremely problematic. No evidence resort model cannot be successfully applied to
was found to indicate the occurrence of irreversible studying the processes of adaptation and change
decline that the model suggests. In all three resorts, that are currently occurring within coastal resorts. It
the 'post-stagnation' phase is characterized by is therefore vital that the re-evaluation of the final
positive attempts to rejuvenate and re-orientate, in 'post-stagnation' phase is added to the agenda for
order to cater for changing market needs and expec- future research into resort cycles.
tations. The speed at which the 'post-stagnation'
phase is entered emphasizes the urgency attached to
reversing the overall trend of decline. In contrast Acknowledgements
with the predictions of the resort model, decline The author wishes to thank Tim Whitehead, Torbay
therefore does not appear to be an option at this Borough Council and Torbay library for their help
stage of the cycle. and cooperation; in addition Ms Elspeth Fyfe for
her invaluable comments.
Conclusion
Conceptual models of tourist area evolution have References
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73