Lesson 2: Fallacies

Activity
Identify which theories of knowledge are referred to in the following
statements or scenarios.

1. A 2013 survey of scientific journals established that majority of scientist

believe human activities have directly caused global warming.

Consensus
2. The ancient Aztecs believed that there existed four worlds prior to this one,
and that the worlds is eventually destroyed and renewed through the sacrifice
of the gods.

Coherence
 Activity
Identify which theories of knowledge are referred to in the following
statements or scenarios.
3. Practice of Muslim women wearing the veil must be understood within the
framework of Islamic ethics. The hijab is seen not only as a symbol of modesty
and privacy, but also a sign of adherence to the Muslim faith
Coherence
4. At 1998 two independent astronomical studies obtained evidence providing
the hypothesis that the universe is continually expanding at an accelerating
rate.

Pragmatism
 Activity
Identify which theories of knowledge are referred to in the following
statements or scenarios.

5. Ice is water in frozen of solid form.

Correspondence
Lesson 2: Fallacies
 Statement or Claims

Arguments

Fallacies

Kinds of argument, Some of these fallacies maybe intentional, as the person

making the claim is desperate to convince you to accept his or her
argument.
Argumentum Ad Hominem
attacking the person

Hominem came from Latin word “homo” which means

man. This fallacy literally means hitting the person below
the belt instead of focusing on the issue at hand.
 Definition of Fallacy

The word fallacy is from Latin fallacia which means “deceit” or “trick”.
A fallacy is a logical error that does not follow the rules of
inference or that violates them. This is a misleading argument is
used to deceive people.
 Definition of Fallacy

Arguments often take the form of statements that are either claims of facts and are
phrased in such a way that they seem reasonable. However, several arguments may
be based on faulty reasoning. These kinds of arguments are called fallacies. There
are some fallacies may be intentional, as the person making the claim is desperate to
convince you to accept his or her argument.
 Division of Fallacies

Formal Fallacy – It is one that may be identified by merely examining the

form or structure of an argument. This includes the following:

Affirming the Consequent – is a Example:

logical fallacy of inferring the truth of
antecedent of an implication from the 1. If I have the flu then I’ll
truth of the consequent. have a fever.
1. If A then B 2. I have a fever.
2. B 3. Therefore, I have a flu.
3. Therefore, A
 Division of Fallacies

Formal Fallacy – It is one that may be identified by merely examining the

form or structure of an argument. This includes the following:

Denying the Antecedent – is a logical Example:

fallacy of inferring the negation of the
consequent of an implication from the
negation of the antecedent.
1. If A then B
2. Not A
3. Therefore, not B
1. If the pavement is wet in the
morning, then it rained last
night.
2. The pavement is not wet this
morning.
3. Therefore, it didn’t rain last
night.
 Division of Fallacies

Informal Fallacies – are those that can be detected by merely examining

the form or structure of an argument.
Fallacies Meaning Examples
Fallacy of Ad hominem “ad hominem means" against the “I believe that abortion is morally
person when someone attacks the wrong.
person instead of attacking his or her Of course! you would say that you're a
argument priest.”
Ad Hominem Tu This fallacy is committed when it is Jill: “I think the gun control bill
Quoque concluded that an individual claim is shouldn’t be supported because it
(You too Fallacy) false because 1) it is inconsistent with won’t be effective and will waste
something else a person has said or 2) money.”
what a person says is inconsistent Bill: “Well, just last month you
with her actions. supported the bill. So, I guess you’re
wrong now.”
 Division of Fallacies
Fallacy Meaning
Appeal to Authority This fallacy is committed when the person
in question is not a legitimate authority on
the subject. More formally, if person A is
not qualified to make reliable claims on
the subject, then the argument will be
fallacious.
Appeal to Flattery The basic idea behind this fallacy is that
flattery is presented in the place of
evidence for accepting a
claim. This sort of “reasoning” is fallacious
because flattery is not, in fact, evidence
for a claim.
Example
We should abolish the Death
penalty, many respected people
such as singer Regine Velasquez
have publicly stated their opinion.
This is the best Philosophy I have
taken. By the way, I need to pass in
this subject
You look pretty this morning,
mom. You always look great for
work. Hey can I have Php 500.00
to go to the mall after school?
 Division of Fallacies

Fallacy Meaning Example

Appeal to Tradition The idea is acceptable because it has Marriage should be between man
been true for a long period. and woman. It has been so for a
long.
Hasty Generalizations When a writer arrives at a conclusion I liked the last Korean restaurant I
based on inadequate evidence or a went to, so I will like every Korean
sample that is too small or few restaurant in the world.
information .
Fallacy of Complex This fallacy is committed when one Where were you when you pulled
Question question has a false or disputed the trigger?
presupposition.
Assumes you “pulled the trigger”.
 Division of Fallacies

Fallacy Meaning Example

False cause and effect Claiming that because one event occurred Yesterday I ate corn and then
before a second, it caused the second. failed my test. I’m never eating
corn before a test again Have you
stopped hitting your dog?
Fallacy appeal to force Someone in a position of power threatens to Teacher to her student: Come with
bring unfortunate consequences for anyone me, or else you will fail this course
who dares to disagree with his/her ideas.
While this might be an effective way to get
someone to agree (or at least to pretend to
agree) with the position, it offers no reasons
for believing it to be true.
 Division of Fallacies

Fallacy Meaning Example

Red Herring Presenting an argument unrelated to your In order to really look at the problem of
subject in order to distract the reader. Global warming, we must first consider
how the homeless suffer when it is cold.
Bandwagon It suggests that a claim is true simply because Everyone else is cheating, why shouldn’t
it is what most people believe not for any I?
logical reason. More and more people buying a sports
car, it's time for you to buy one too.
Fallacy of Assuming that what is true of a part is true for These cases of robbery in this district
composition the whole. have convinced me that this city has
become a den of thieves and criminals.
Fallacy of Assuming that what is true of the whole is true You come from a family of doctors and
division for its parts intellectuals! Surely you can do better in
this course.
 Ad hominem

Characteristics

Attacking the person making the argument instead of the argument itself

“of course, he believes that the government is flawed. He is a rebel and a Communist
Argumentum ad Baculum
(Appeal to Force)

Baculum is a Latin word which means scepter or stick. A

scepter is a symbol of authority. Normally it is the Pope
who carries it in his hands. This is committed when a
person uses threat or force to advance an argument.
 Appeal to Force

Characteristics

Using threat of force or an undesirable event to advance an argument

“If this peace agreement will not be signed by the government, then we will have no
recourse but to go to war”
Argumentum ad Misercordiam
(Appeal to Pity

Misercordiam came from Latin word Misericordia which

means pity or compassion. A person uses emotion such as
pity to convince someone
 Appeal to Emotion
Characteristics

Using emotions such as pity or sympathy

“All these charges are baseless; this is just plain harassment – can’t you see how this
affecting to my family”
Argumentum ad Tradition
“Appeal to Tradition”

Traditio means tradition. Advancing an idea since it has

been practice for a long time.
 Appeal to tradition
Characteristics

The idea is acceptable because it has been true for a long time

“Marriage should be between a man and a woman. It has been so for a long time in
this country; it should remain so today and in the future”
Appeal to the popular
Characteristics

The idea is presented as acceptable because a lot of people accept it

“Every boy your age already has a girlfriend, you should go and find one”
Argumentum ad Populum
“Bandwagon”

Populum is the Latin word for people. Most of TV

commercials are guilty of this argument which exploit
people’s vanity, desires, etc.
Petitio Principii (Begging the
Question)

it is a fallacy in which a conclusion is taken for granted in

the premises. Also called-“circular argument.”
Hasty Generalization

This fallacy is committed when one reaches a

generalization based on insufficient evidence
Cause and Effect

Assuming that the effect is related to a cause because

both events occur one after the other.
 Cause and effect
Characteristics

Assuming a “cause and effect” relationship between unrelated events

“Ever since you bought that sweater, everything has been going wrong in your life. You
should get rid of it”
Fallacy of Composition

Infers that something is true of a part, is true of a whole

Fallacy of Composition
Characteristics

Assuming that what is true for a part is true for the whole

These cases of robberies in this district have convinced me that the city has becomes
den of thieves and criminals
Fallacy of Division

Infers that something is true of the whole, must also be

true on its parts
 Fallacy of Division
Characteristics

Assuming what is true for the whole is true for its parts

“You come from a family of doctors and intellectuals! Surely you can do better in this
course”
Fallacy of Equivocation

Using the same term in a different situation with different

meaning.
Facts versus
Opinion
Focus on information Literacy
 A. Identifying the factors of
quality website
• Authority: who is the author and what are his or her
qualifications? Who is the publisher and what is the
purpose of the site.
• Verifiability: Are sources provided?
• Timeliness: is the information current? When was it
posted and/or last updated
• Relevance: Does material contain unsubstantiated
generalization?
 A. Identifying the factors of
quality website
• Bias – is the language emotional or inflammatory? Does
the information represent a single opinion or a range of
opinions?
• Orderliness – is the page arrange in an order that makes
sense? Or underlying assumptions identifiable? Or the
information consistent?
• Clarity - Is the information clearly stated? Does the author
define important terms?
• Validity: Do the facts presented support the conclusions?
 Fact vs Opinion
Fact Opinion
A fact is a statement that can be An opinion is a statement of
proven true or false. belief which may or may not be
backed up by facts, but cannot
be proven true or false.
Is objective Is subjective
Is discovered Is created
States reality Interprets reality
Can be verified Cannot be verified
 The evaluation process
• The author’s name, title and position
• The site of organizational affiliation, if any
• The date page was created or updated
• Contact information, such as email address
• Use Cars
• Credibility
• Accuracy
• Reasonableness
• Support
How do I know?
• Type
• Publisher
• Author
• Structure
• Language
• Dates
• Graphics
• Links
Answer Activity 3 on
Module 2.2 and What I
have learned