LESSON 14

Obstacles to
Clear
Thinking:
Fallacies in
Reasoning
 Lesson Objectives
• Recognize the fallacies in reasoning;
• identify the sources of proof and cases
of fallacies used by the speakers; and
• critically evaluate statements from the
panel discussion viewed.
What is a
fallacy?
Do you agree
that love is a
fallacy?
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=eK_tb7ob8Kg
 Max Shulman's short story Love Is A Fallacy recounts the efforts of
a college student to educate his love interest, Polly, so she can be a fit
wife, hostess, and mother. The education of Polly involves explaining
the most common types of fallacies: Dicto Simpliciter, Hasty
Generalization, Post Hoc, Contradictory Premises, Ad Misericordiam,
False Analogy, Hypothesis Contrary to Fact, and Poisoning the Well.
These fallacies demonstrate an improper use of reasoning, but the
narrator discovers Polly turns from his Galatea to his Monster by using
his logic lessons against his pleas for love. The fallacy that is most
interesting in the story is the one known as Hypothesis Contrary to Fact,
which demonstrates how guilty the narrator is of misusing logic to win
Polly.
 Obstacles to clear thinking: Fallacies in
reasoning
Clear thinking - is essential to all intelligent decision
making.
Fallacies - are usually recognizing easily in isolation,
but woven into the context of an argument may pass
unnoticed unless we are on guard against them.
A fallacy results from a faulty reasoning process; the
argument becomes illogical and misleading.
Errors in clear
thinking:
1. Argumentum ad antiquitatem (the argument to antiquity or
tradition)
This is the familiar argument that some policy, behavior, or practice is
right or acceptable because “it’s always been done that way.” Because an
argumentum ad antiquitatem is easily refuted by simply pointing it out, in
general it should be avoided.
1.1. People have believed in astrology for a very long time, therefore, it must
be true.
2.2 Marriage has traditionally been between a man and a woman; therefore,
gay marriage should not be allowed.
Errors in clear
thinking:
2. Argumentum ad Hominem (argument directed at the person)
This is the error of attacking that character or motives of a person who
has stated an idea, rather than the idea itself.

2.1. "How can people believe the theory of evolution when it is a well-known
fact that Darwin cheated on his wife?"
2.2. How can anyone possibly accept Professor Simpson’s ideas about the
importance of increased funding for the schools when Professor Simpson
was accused of shoplifting ten years ago?
Errors in clear
thinking:
3. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam (argument to ignorance)
This is the fallacy of assuming something is true simply because it has
not been proven false. Whether or not an argumentum ad ignorantiam is
really fallacious depends crucially upon the burden of proof.
3.1. "Since scientists cannot prove that global warming will occur,
it probably won't."
3.2. There must be intelligent life on other planets: No one has
proven there isn’t.
There isn’t any intelligent life on other planets: No one has
proven there is.
Errors in clear
thinking:
4. Argumentum ad Logicam (argument to logic)
This is a fallacy of assuming that something is false simply because a proof or
argument that someone has offered for it is invalid; this reasoning is fallacious because
there maybe another proof or argument that successfully supports the proposition. This
fallacy often appears in the context of a straw man argument.
4.1. John: “All dogs are animals. Scottie is an animal. This means Scottie is a dog”.
Betty: “Ah, you just committed the affirming the consequent  fallacy. Sorry, you
are wrong, which means that Scottie is not a dog”.
4.2. Tom: OK — I’ll prove I’m English — I speak English so that proves it.
Bill: But Americans and Canadians, among others, speak English too. You are
assuming that speaking English and being English always go together. That means you
are not English.
Errors in clear
thinking:
5. Argumentum ad Misericordiam (argument or appeal to pity)
This argument appeals to the reader’s most intimate personal feeling—
love, hunger, insecurity, fear, and others. This argument has inadequate
logical foundation and so prejudice sets in.

5.1. I really deserve an “A” on this paper, professor.  Not only did I study
during my grandmother’s funeral, but I also passed up the heart transplant
surgery, even though that was the first matching donor in 3 years.
5.2. You should believe that he is not guilty of embezzling those paintings;
think of how much his family suffered during the Depression.
Errors in clear
thinking:
6. Argumentum ad Nauseam (argument to the point of disgust;
i.e, by repetition)
This is the fallacy of trying to prove something by saying it again and again. But
no matter how many times you repeat something, it will not become any more or less
true than it was in the first place.

6.1. That movie, “Kill, Blood, Gore” deserves the Oscar for best picture.  There
are other good movies, but not like that one.  Others may deserve an honorable
mention, but not the Oscar, because “Kill, Blood, Gore” deserves the Oscar.
6.2. Stupid people are so annoying. They prove their stupidity by saying stupid
things.
Errors in clear
thinking:
7. Argumentum as Numerum (argument or appeal to numbers)
This fallacy is the attempt to prove something by showing how many
people think that it is true. But no matter how many people believe
something, that does not necessarily make it true or right.

7.1. Hundreds of millions of people have been Christians,

devoutly following it and even dying for it. How could that be
possible if Christianity weren't true?
Errors in clear
thinking:
8. Argumentum as Populum (argument or appeal to the public)
This is the fallacy of trying to prove something by showing
that the public agrees with you.

8.1. These days everyone (except you) has a car and knows how
to drive; So, you too should have a car and know how to
drive.
Errors in clear
thinking:
9. Argumentum ad Verecundiam (argument or appeal to
authority)
This fallacy occurs when someone tries to demonstrate the truth of
a proposition by citing some person who agrees, even though that
person may have no expertise in the given area.

9.1. LeBron James says "Eat Wheaties cereal so you can be like me."
9.2. “Einstein said ‘God does not play dice with the universe,’
therefore God must exist.”
Errors in clear
thinking:
10. Circulus in Demonstrando (circular argument)
Circular argumentation occurs when someone uses what they are trying
to prove as part of the proof of the thing. Otherwise known as begging the
question, it is taking for granted what you ought to be proving.

10.1. Arthur: God exists.

Barbara: How do you know?
Arthur: Because it says so in the Bible.
Barbara: How to you know what the Bible says is true?
Arthur: Because the Bible is divinely inspired. Everything it says is true.
Errors in clear
thinking:
11. Complex Question
A complex question is a question that implicity assumes something to be
true by its construction. Otherwise known as mistaking the question, it is
arguing for or against something other than the thesis, motion, or resolution
actually proposed for discussion, call the attention of your opponent and the
audience to the mistake and restate the actual question.

11.1. Have you stopped cheating on exams?

11.2. Where did you hide the marijuana you were smoking?
Errors in clear
thinking:
12. Cum Hoc ergo Propter Hoc ( with this, therefore because of this)
This is the familiar fallacy of mistaking correlation for causation- i.e.,
thinking that because two things occur simultaneously, one must be a cause of
the other.

12.1. Unemployment decreased in the fourth quarter because the

government eliminated the gasoline tax in the second quarter.
12.2. Immigration to California from Mexico increased. Soon after, the
welfare rolls increased. Therefore, the increased immigration caused the
increase in welfare rolls." 
Errors in clear
thinking:
13. Dicto Simpliciter (spoken simply, i.e., sweeping
generalization)
This is the fallacy of making a sweeping statement and expecting it to be
true of every specific case – in other words, stereotyping.

13.1. “Fred, the Australian, stole my wallet. Thus, all Australians are thieves."
13.2. The oldest woman in the world, Jeanne Calment (122 years, 164 days)
smoked until her early 110s. Therefore smoking isn’t really bad for you.
Errors in clear
thinking:
14. Appeal to Nature
This is the fallacy of assuming that whatever is “natural” or
consistent with “nature” (somehow defined) is good, or that
whatever conflicts with nature is bad.
“Herbal medicine is natural, so it’s good for you.”
“Antibiotics are unnatural, so they’re bad for you.”
“Herbal medicine is more natural than antibiotics, so it’s
better for you.”
Errors in clear
thinking:
15. Naturalistic Fallacy
This is the fallacy of trying to derive conclusions about what is right or
good (that is, about values) from statements of fact alone. This is invalid
because no matter how many statements of fact you assemble, any logical
inference from them will be another statement of fact, not a statement of
value.

15.1. “Tigers eat meat, so vegetarians must just be wrong.“

15.2. “According to the Theory of Evolution, the best creatures will survive.
Therefore, we shouldn't make special efforts to feed the poor. If they don't
survive, that just means they weren't as fit as we are."
Errors in clear
thinking:
16. Non Sequitur (“It does not follow”)
This is the simple fallacy of stating, as a conclusion,
something that does not strictly follow from the premises.

16.1. I know you’ll tell me all your secrets. I have a right to know
everything because we’re friends.

16.2. People generally like to walk on the beach.  Beaches have sand. 
Therefore, having sand floors in homes would be a great idea!
Errors in clear
thinking:
17. Red Herring
This means introducing irrelevant facts or arguments to distract from the question
at hand. The term ‘red herring’ is sometimes used loosely to refer to any kind of
diversionary tactic, such as presenting relatively unimportant arguments that will use
up the other debaters’ speaking time and distract them from more important issues.

17.1. I don’t see why you’re worrying about our soldiers dying if we start a war with China! After
all, fifty thousand Americans die every year in car accidents.

17.2. John: KIPP Schools work. Their students score higher on standardized tests, demonstrate
emotional intelligence, and get admitted into the best colleges. We should support KIPP
Schools. Mary: Well, I think education should teach people to intrinsically love learning.
Errors in clear
thinking:
18. Slippery Slope
A slippery slope argument is not always a fallacy. A slippery slope fallacy is an
argument that says adopting one policy or taking one action will lead to a series of other
policies or actions also being taken, without showing a causal connection between the
advocated policy and the consequent policies.
18.1. "If we pass laws against fully automatic weapons, then it won't be  long before we pass
laws on all weapons, and then we will begin to restrict other rights, and finally we will end up
living in a communist state. Thus, we should not ban fully automatic weapons.“

18.2. "If we start to ban extremely violent and sexually explicit speech, we will open the doors to
a flood of censorship that will never stop. First, we will ban images of violent sexuality,
Penthouse and Playboy will be next, then James Joyce, D.H. Lawrence, Chaucer, Byron, and
Shakespeare. Before long, we will be living in a fascist state where nobody has any rights at all."
Errors in clear
thinking:
19. Straw Man
This is the fallacy of refuting a caricatured or extreme version of somebody’s
argument, rather than the actual argument they have made. Often this fallacy involves
putting words into somebody’s mouth by saying they have made arguments they have
not actually made.

19.1. The President says that we should give every citizen a free BMW, but obviously if we do
that the country will go bankrupt!
19.2. Margaret: “We have to do something about greenhouse gases. The government should
raise vehicle fuel efficiency standards to cut down the amount of CO2 we release over the next
20 years”.
Roger: “Margaret’s solution would be a disaster. It would kill the economy. How would
people get to work without cars?”
 A fallacy (also called sophism) is the use of invalid or
otherwise faulty reasoning, or "wrong moves" in the
construction of an argument. A fallacious argument may be
deceptive by appearing to be better than it really is. Some
fallacies are committed intentionally to manipulate or
persuade by deception , while others are committed
unintentionally due to carelessness or ignorance. The
soundness of legal arguments depends on the context in
which the arguments are made.
 Learning Task 14
• For those who have textbook, kindly answer or do exercises on page
•
144.
 

– Listen to a panel discussion on TV or YouTube and identify the sources of

proof used by the speakers. Listen also for any cases of fallacies. Write your
reaction in the space provided. (You may also search this link on YouTube
and watch the video about “Panel Discussion on Educational Reforms on
the New Normal (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Yuwgl5Vmdw).
•  

• For students with no textbook, kindly see the attached learning task
and write you answers there.
 References / Materials
Books:
Abarabar, MT. A., Estipona, MIB. P., Galvez, N. M. JR., Magbitang, VA. D., Ribo, L.M. (2016).
Language in Literature World Literature. Vibal Group, Inc.
Bautista, M.V. (2017). Learning English Language and World Literature . CAJ Publishing House.
Cruz, A. B., Granada, A.A., Magno, F.P. (2015). Breaking Ground through English World Literature.
Ephesians Publishing Inc.
Gonzales, C.T., Sim, A.T., Valencia, A. V., Bogornia, A.M., Yu, P.R. (2015). Essential English Worktext
in Literature and Language. Rex Book Store.
Mendez, E.L., Gabelo, N.C. (2015). Facets A Complete Integrated Worktext on Communication Skills.
Innovative Educational Materials, Inc.
Tagay, Brutas, Esteban. 2019. Journeying through Literature and Language 10. Don Bosco Press, Inc.

Online resources:
RETRIEVED FROM https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eK_tb7ob8Kg
RETRIEVED FROM https://www.filozofia.bme.hu/sites/default/files/love_is_a_fallacy.pdf
QUESTIONS AND CLARIFICATIONS
FROM THE LEARNERS
ruthpmds2022@g
mail.com
Ruth Mallorca
#09162036619