Professional Documents
Culture Documents
WIS10
0‐1
CSWIP 3.2 Examination CSWIP 3.0 Examination
3.2.1 Without radiograph interpretation There are four sections to the examination each will
require 70% pass mark for the qualification to be awarded.
70% pass mark required in all areas Part 1 General Multi-choice 30 Questions
of examination 45 minutes
All of the questions from all of the sections are For candidates wishing to complete the RT supplementary
generated individually from a large data base so no examination
0‐2
Notification of Examination Results CSWIP 3.2 Renewals
Recognised Worldwide
0‐3
CSW I P 3 .2 – Se n ior W e ldin g I n spe ct or
Con t e n t s
Se ct ion Subj e ct
WI S10- 30816
Cont ent s Copyright © TWI Lt d
7 H e a t Tr e a t m en t
7.1 Heat t r eat m ent of st eel
7.2 Post weld heat t r eat m ent ( PWHT)
7.3 PWHT t herm al cycle
7.4 Heat t r eat m ent furnaces
7.5 Local PWHT
8 W PS a n d W e lde r Qu a lifica t ion s
8.1 Qualified welding procedure specificat ions
8.2 Welder qualificat ion
9 Ar c En er gy a n d H e at I n pu t
9.1 Curr ent and v olt age
9.2 Arc energy or heat im put
10 Re sidu a l St r ess a n d D ist or t ion
10.1 What causes dist ort ion?
10.2 What ar e t he m ain t ypes of dist ort ion?
10.3 What ar e t he fact or s affect ing dist ort ion?
10.4 Dist ort ion – prevent ion by pr e- set t ing, pre- bending or use of r est raint
10.5 Dist ort ion – prevent ion by design
10.6 Elim inat ion of w elding
10.7 Dist ort ion – prevent ion by fabricat ion t echniques
10.8 Dist ort ion – corr ect ive t echniques
11 W e lda bilit y of St e e ls
11.1 Fact or s t hat effect w eldabilit y
11.2 Hydr ogen cracking
11.3 Solidificat ion cracking
11.4 Lam ellar t earing
12 W e ld Fr a ct ur es
12.1 Duct ile fract ur es
12.2 Brit t le fract ure
12.3 Fat igue fract ure
13 W e ldin g Sym bols
13.1 St andards for sym bolic represent at ion of welded j oint s on drawings
13.2 Elem ent ary w elding sym bols
13.3 Com binat ion of elem ent ary sym bols
13.4 Supplem ent ary sym bols
13.5 Posit ion of sym bols on drawings
13.6 Relat ionship bet ween t he arr ow line and t he j oint line
13.7 Posit ion of t he refer ence line and posit ion of t he w eld sym bol
13.8 Posit ions of t he cont inuous line and t he dashed line
13.9 Dim ensioning of welds
13.10 I ndicat gion of t he w elding process
13.11 Ot her inform at ion in t he t ail of t he r eference line
13.12 Weld sym bols in accordance wit h AWS 2.4
14 NDT
14.1 Radiographic m et hods
14.2 Magnet ic part icle t est ing
14.3 Dye penet rant t est ing
14.4 Surface cracks det ect ion ( m agnet ic part icle/ dye penet rant ) : general
WI S10- 30816
Cont ent s Copyright © TWI Lt d
15 Welding Consumables
15.1 MMA electrodes
15.2 Cellulosic electrodes
15.3 Rutile electrodes
15.4 Basic electrodes
15.5 Classification of electrodes
15.6 TIG filler wires
15.7 MIG/MAG filler wires
15.8 SAW filler wires
16 MAG welding
16.1 The process
16.2 Process variables
16.3 Welding consumables
16.4 Important inspection point/checks when MIG/MAG welding
17 MMA Welding
17.1 Manual metal arc/shielded metal arc welding (MMA/SMAW)
17.2 MMA welding basic equipment requirements
17.3 Power requirements
17.4 Welding variables
17.5 Voltage
17.6 Type of current and polarity
17.7 Type of consumable electrode
17.8 Typical welding defects
18 Submerged Arc Welding
18.1 The process
18.2 Process variables
18.3 Storage and care of consumables
19 TIG Welding
19.1 Process characteristics
19.2 Process variables
19.3 Filler wires and shielding gases
19.4 Tungsten inclusions
19.5 Crater cracking
19.6 Common applications of the TIG process
19.7 Advantages of the TIG process
19.8 Disadvantages of the TIG process
20 Weld Repairs
20.1 Production repairs
20.2 In-service repairs
Appendix 1 Homeworks
Appendix 2 NDT Training Reports
Appendix 3 Training Drawing
Appendix 4 Specification Questions
WIS10-30816
Contents Copyright © TWI Ltd
Se ct ion 1
D u t ie s of t h e Se n ior W e ldin g I n spe ct or
1 D u t ie s of t h e Se n ior W e ldin g I nspe ct or
The Senior Welding I nspect or has prim arily a supervisor y/ m anagerial role,
which could encom pass t he m anagem ent and cont r ol of an inspect ion cont ract .
The role w ould cert ainly include leading a t eam of Welding I nspect or s, who will
look t o t he Senior Welding I nspect or for guidance, especially on t echnical
subj ect s. The Senior Welding I nspect or will be expect ed t o give advice, r esolve
problem s, t ak e decisions and generally lead from t he fr ont , som et im es in
difficult sit uat ions.
1 .1 Le a de r ship sk ills
Som e aspect s on t he t heory of leadership m ay be t aught in t he classroom , but
leadership is an inherent part of t he char act er and t em peram ent of an
individual. Pract ical applicat ion and experience play a m aj or part in t he
dev elopm ent of leadership skills and t he Senior Welding I nspect or should st rive
t o im prov e and fine t une t hese skills at every opport unit y.
Willingness and abilit y t o accept inst ruct ions or orders from senior st aff and
t o act in t he m anner pr escribed.
Willingness and abilit y t o give orders in a clear and concise m anner,
whet her v erbal or writ t en, which will leave t he recipient in no doubt as t o
what act ion or act ions are r equired.
Willingness t o t ak e r esponsibilit y, part icularly when t hings go w rong,
perhaps due t o t he Senior Welding I nspect or ’s direct ion, or lack of it .
Capacit y t o list en ( t he basis for good com m unicat ion skills) if and when
explanat ions are necessar y and t o provide const ruct ive r easoning and
advice.
Willingness t o delegat e r esponsibilit y t o allow st aff t o get on wit h t he j ob
and t o t rust t hem t o act in a professional m anner. The Senior Welding
I nspect or should, wherever possible, st ay in t he background, m anaging.
Willingness and abilit y t o support m em bers of t he t eam on t echnical and
adm inist rat ive issues.
1 .2 Te chnica l sk ills
A num ber of fact or s m ake up t he t echnical skills r equired by t he Senior Welding
I nspect or and t hese are a knowledge of:
Technology.
Nor m at ive docum ent s.
Planning.
Organisat ion.
Audit ing.
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1 .3 Know le dge of t e ch nology
Welding t echnology knowledge r equired by t he Senior Welding I nspect or is v ery
sim ilar t o t hat required by t he Welding I nspect or, but wit h som e addit ional
scope and dept h.
Specified norm at ive docum ent s ( specificat ions, st andards, codes of pract ice,
et c) should be available at t he workplace and t he Senior Welding I nspect or
would be expect ed t o read, under st and and apply t he requirem ent s wit h t he
necessary level of precision and direct ion required.
See Sect ion: Planning for m ore det ailed inform at ion.
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1 .7 Know le dge of qu a lit y / a u dit ing
Ther e ar e m any sit uat ions in m anufact uring or on a pr oj ect wher e t he Senior
Welding I nspect or m ay be r equired t o carr y out audit s.
See sect ion on: Qualit y Assurance/ Qualit y Cont rol and I nspect ion for m or e
det ailed inform at ion.
1 .8 M a n m a na ge m e nt
As m ent ioned abov e, t he Senior Welding I nspect or will have t o direct and work
wit h a t eam of I nspect ion personnel which he m ay well have t o pick. He will
have t o liaise wit h cust om er r epr esent at ives, sub- cont ract ors and t hird part y
I nspect or s. He m ay have t o invest igat e non- com pliances, deal wit h m at t ers of
discipline as well as per sonal m at t ers of his st aff.
1 .9 Re cr u it m e nt
When r ecruit ing an individual or a t eam t he SWI will first have t o est ablish t he
requirem ent s of t he wor k. Am ong t hem w ould be:
What skills are definit ely required for t he wor k and what addit ional ones
would be desirable?
Are part icular qualificat ions needed?
I s experience of sim ilar wor k desirable?
What physical at t ribut es ar e needed?
I s t he work local, in- shop, on- sit e, in a t hird world count ry?
Does t he j ob require w orking unsociable hours being away from hom e for
long periods?
I s t he j ob for perm anent st aff or for a fixed t er m ?
I f overseas what ar e t he leave and t ravel ar rangem ent s?
What is t he likely salary?
During subsequent int erviews t he SWI will need t o assess ot her aspect s of t he
candidat es’ suit abilit y:
1 .1 0 M or a le a nd m ot iv a t ion
The m orale of a workfor ce has a significant effect on it s perform ance so t he
SWI m ust st rive t o keep t he personnel happy and m ot ivat ed and be able t o
det ect signs of low m or ale.
Low m orale can lead t o am ong ot her t hings, poor productivity, less good
workm anship, lack of diligence, taking short cut s, ignoring safet y pr ocedures and
higher levels of absent eeism .
The SWI needs t o be able t o recognise t hese signs and ot hers such as
per sonnel not st art ing wor k pr om pt ly, t aking longer breaks, t alking in groups
and grum bling about m inor m at t er s.
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A good supervisor should not allow his wor kforce t o get int o such a st at e.
His own dem eanour – does he have drive and ent husiasm or is he seen t o
have no energy and generally depressed. The w ork force will r eact
accordingly.
I s he seen t o be leading fr om t he fr ont in a fair and consist ent m anner?
Favourit ism in t he t reat m ent of st aff, on disciplinary m at t ers, t he allocat ion
of w ork, allot m ent of overt im e, week end w or king and holidays are com m on
causes of problem s.
Keep t hem inform ed in all aspect s of t he j ob and t heir sit uat ion. Rum ours of
im pending redundancies or cut s in allowances et c will not m ake for good
m orale.
1 .1 1 D isciplin e
Any workfor ce m ust be working in a disciplined m anner, norm ally t o rules and
st andards laid down in t he Com pany’s condit ions of em ploym ent or relevant
com pany handbook. The SWI m ust hav e a good underst anding of t hese
requirem ent s and be able t o apply t hem in a fair and equit able m anner.
He m ust hav e a clear underst anding as t o t he lim it s of his aut horit y – knowing
how far he can go in disciplinary proceedings.
I t is of vit al im port ance t hat t he com pany rules are rigorously followed as any
deviat ion could result in claim s for unfair or const ruct ive dism issal.
Act pr om pt ly.
Mean what he says.
Tr eat every one fairly and as an adult .
Avoid const ant com plaining on pet t y issues.
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Dut ies of t he Senior Welding I nspect or 1- 4 Copyright © TWI Lt d
I n all such cases t he SWI will need t o carry out an invest igat ion and apply
disciplinary sanct ions t o t he personnel involved.
To do t his:
First est ablish t he fact s – by int erviewing st aff, from t he relevant r ecords,
by having recheck s on part of t he j ob.
I f any suspicions are confirm ed, t ransfer/ r em ov e suspect per sonnel from
t he j ob pending disciplinary proceedings. I f t he per sonnel ar e em ployed by a
sub- cont ract or t hen a m eet ing wit h t he sub- cont ract or will be needed t o
achieve t he sam e end.
Find out t he ext ent of t he pr oblem , is it localised or widespr ead?
I s t here need t o inform t he cust om er and t hird part y inspect or?
Form ulat e a plan of act ion, wit h ot her com pany depart m ent s wher e
necessary , t o r et riev e t he sit uat ion.
Carr y out t he necessary disciplinary m easur es on t he personnel involved.
Convene a m eet ing wit h t he r est of t he w ork for ce t o infor m t hem of t he
sit uat ion and ensure t hat any sim ilar lapses will be dealt wit h sever ely.
Follow up t he m eet ing wit h a writ t en m em o.
1 .1 2 Sum m a r y
The Senior Welding I nspect or’s r ole can be varied and com plex, a num ber of
skills need t o be dev eloped in order for t he individual t o be effect ive in t he role.
Ev er y Senior Welding I nspect or will have personal skills and at t ribut es which
can be br ought t o t he j ob, som e of t he skills ident ified abov e m ay already have
been m ast er ed or under st ood. The im port ant t hing for t he individual t o
recognise is not only do t hey hav e unique abilit ies which t hey can bring t o t he
role, but t hey also need t o st rive t o be t he best t hey can by st rengt hening
ident ifiable weak ar eas in t heir knowledge and underst anding.
WI S10- 30816
Dut ies of t he Senior Welding I nspect or 1- 5 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Se ct ion 2
W e lde d Join t D e sign
2 W e lde d Join t D e sign
This sect ion is principally concerned wit h st ruct ures fabricat ed by w elding st eel
plat es t oget her, exam ples include bridges, ships, offshore plat form s, pressur e
vessels and pipelines, alt hough in som e cases t his m ay involve welding curv ed
plat es t oget her.
This sect ion int roduces t ypical j oint geom et ries involved in j oining plat es
t oget her and describes t he t ypes of weld used in t hese j oint configurat ions wit h
t ypical feat ures of but t and fillet welds described. For t he st ruct ure t o funct ion
loads m ust be t ransferr ed from one plat e t o anot her and t he feat ur es of welds
t hat enable t hem t o t ransm it loads are described. Finally, som e exam ples of
good and bad design pract ice ar e given.
2 .1 W e lds
A weld is a perm anent union bet ween m at erials caused by t he applicat ion of
heat , pr essur e or bot h and if m ade bet w een t wo faces approxim at ely parallel is
known as a but t weld.
A weld m ade bet w een t wo faces t hat ar e approxim at ely at right angles t o each
ot her is known as a fillet weld.
For sim plicit y t hese diagram s show an arc welding process t hat deposit s filler
weld m et al in a single weld pass. Typical feat ures of a but t weld are shown in
Figure 2.3 and t hose of a fillet weld in Figure 2.4.
The weld or w eld m et al refer s t o all t he m at erial t hat has m elt ed and re-
solidified. The heat - affect ed zone ( HAZ) is m at erial t hat has not m elt ed but
whose m icrost ruct ur e has been changed as a r esult of t he welding. The fusion
line is t he int erface bet ween t he w eld m et al and t he HAZ.
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Welded Joint Design 2- 1 Copyright © TWI Lt d
The r oot is t he bot t om of t he weld or nar row est part and t he face is t he t op or
widest part . At t he corner s of t he w eld cr oss sect ion wher e t he weld m et al j oins
t he par ent m et al ar e t he w eld t oes. These are at each corner of bot h t he weld
face and w eld root in a but t weld but only on t he w eld face in a fillet weld.
Parent
m et al
Figur e 2 .3 Typica l fe a t ur e s of a :
a But t w e ld.
b D ou ble - side d bu t t w e ld.
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Welded Joint Design 2- 2 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Figur e 2 .4 Typica l fe a t ur e s of a fille t w e ld.
The applicat ion of heat nat urally causes som e changes t o t he m icrost ruct ur e
parent m at erial, t he HAZ shown in Figure 2.5 for a but t w eld in st eel wit h
sim ilar HAZs dev eloped in t he par ent m at erial of fillet welds. Close t o t he fusion
line t he t em perat ure in t he HAZ has been sufficient t o cause m icrost ruct ural
phase changes, which will result in recry st allisat ion and grain growt h. Furt her
away fr om t he fusion line t he parent m at erial has been heat ed t o a lower
m axim um t em perat ur e and t he par ent m icrost r uct ure is t em pered.
The dist ance bet w een weld t oes is t he weld widt h. When t he dist ance is
bet ween t he t oes at t he weld cap it is t he weld cap widt h, t he dist ance bet ween
t he t oes at t he root is t he w eld root widt h.
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Welded Joint Design 2- 3 Copyright © TWI Lt d
The height of t he addit ional weld m et al in t he weld cap is t he excess weld m et al
which used t o be called reinfor cem ent which wrongly suggest s t hat incr easing
t his dim ension will st rengt hen t he weld. I f t he excess weld m et al is t oo great it
increases t he st r ess concent rat ion at t he weld t oe and t his ext ra weld m et al is
called t he excess r oot penet rat ion.
Weld widt h
Excess
weld m et al
Excess root
penet rat ion
2 .2 Type s of j oint
A j oint can sim ply be described as a configurat ion of m em bers and can be
described independent ly of how it is welded. Figures 2.7 and 2.8 show t he m ost
com m on j oint t ypes - but t and T j oint . Ot her t ypical j oint t ypes are shown in
Figures 2.9- 2.11; lap, cruciform and corner j oint . When designing a lap j oint t he
ov erlap bet ween t he t wo plat es needs t o be at least four t im es t he plat e
t hickness ( D = 4t ) , but not less t han 25m m .
Figur e 2 .8 T j oint .
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Welded Joint Design 2- 4 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Figur e 2 .9 La p j oint s.
An alt ernat ive t o a convent ional lap j oint is t o weld t he j oint using plug or slot
welding, shown in Figure 2.12 showing t he t ypical lap j oint can be drast ically
alt ered. The hole for a slot weld should have a widt h at least t hree t im es t he
plat e t hickness and not less t han 25m m . I n plat e less t han 10m m t hickness, a
hole of equal widt h t o t he plat e t hickness can be w elded as a plug weld.
a b
Figur e 2 .1 2 :
a Slot w e lde d la p j oint .
b Plug w e lde d la p j oint .
Corner j oint s can be fit t ed and w elded in a num ber of ways. The unwelded
pieces can be assem bled eit her wit h an open corner or closed t oget her. The
weld can be on t he ext ernal or int ernal corner or bot h in a double- sided weld.
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Welded Joint Design 2- 5 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Open Closed
Ext ernal corner j oint I nt ernal corner j oint Double- sided corner j oint
2 .3 Fille t w e lds
The t hroat and leg lengt h of a fillet weld are shown in Figure 2.14. Throat size a
is generally used as t he design param et er since t his part of t he w eld bear s t he
st resses and can be r elat ed t o leg lengt h z by t he following relat ionship: a ≈
0.7z and z ≈ 1.4a.
Throat a
Leg
Leg z
This is only valid for m it re fillet welds having sim ilar leg lengt hs ( Figure 2.15) ,
so is not valid for concave, conv ex or asym m et ric welds. I n concave fillet welds
t he t hroat t hickness will be m uch less t han 0.7 t im es t he lengt h. The leg lengt h
of a fillet weld is oft en approxim at ely equal t o t he m at erial t hickness. The act ual
t hroat size is t he widt h bet ween t he fused w eld root and t he segm ent linking
t he t wo weld t oes, show n as t he red line in Figure 2.16. Due t o root penet rat ion
t he act ual t hroat size of a fillet weld is oft en larger t han it s design size but
because of t he unpr edict abilit y of t he root penet rat ion ar ea, t he de sign t hr oat
size m ust a lw a y s be t aken as t he st r ess par am et ers in design calculat ions.
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z
Act ual
t hroat
Design t hroat
Design t hroat =
act ual t hroat
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The choice bet ween m it re weld, concav e and conv ex fillet weld needs t o
account for t he weld t oe blend. A concav e fillet weld gives a sm oot h blend
profile and a low st ress concent r at ion at t he fillet weld t oe. Convex fillet welds
can have a higher st ress concent rat ion at t he weld t oe. I f t he fluidit y of t he
weld pool is not cont rolled it is possible t o obt ain an asym m et rical fillet weld
wher e t he weld pool has sagged int o t he j oint preparat ion and t here is also a
risk of undercut on t he bot t om w eld t oe ( see Figure 2.19) . Having a sm oot h t oe
blend is im port ant t o give bet t er fat igue perfor m ance for fillet welds.
2 .4 But t w e lds
The design t hroat t 1 of a but t weld is t he penet rat ion dept h below t he par ent
plat e surface and no account is m ade of t he excess weld m et al. The design
t hroat is t her efor e less t han t he act ual t hroat t 2 .
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Welded Joint Design 2- 8 Copyright © TWI Lt d
The weld t oe blend is im port ant for but t welds as well as fillet welds. Most codes
st at e t hat weld t oes shall blend sm oot hly, leaving it open t o individual
int erpr et at ion. The higher t he t oe blend angle t he gr eat er t he am ount of st r ess
concent rat ion. The t oe blend angle ideally should be bet ween 20- 30 degr ees
( Figure 2.21) .
6mm
3mm
2 .5 D ilut ion
When filler and parent m at erial do not have t he sam e com posit ion t he result ing
com posit ion of t he weld depends largely on t he weld preparat ion before
welding. The degr ee of dilut ion result s fr om t he edge pr eparat ion and process
used; t he percent age of dilut ion ( D) is part icularly im port ant when welding
dissim ilar m at erials and is expr essed as t he rat io bet ween t he w eight of parent
m at erial m elt ed and t he t ot al weight of fused m at erial ( m ult iplied by 100 t o be
expr essed as a percent age) , as shown:
D= × 100
Weight of parent material melted
Total weight of fused material
Low dilut ions are obt ained wit h fillet welds and wit h but t welds wit h m ult iple
runs. For a single pass bet t er dilut ion is obt ained wit h grooved welds, see
Figure 2.22.
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Fille t w e lds Single V gr oove w e ld Squa r e gr oove w e ld
2 .6 W e lding sy m bols
On engineering drawings a welded j oint can be represent ed by differ ent m eans.
A det ailed represent at ion shows ev ery det ail and dim ension of t he j oint
preparat ion wit h carefully writ t en, ext ensive not es. I t pr ovides all t he det ails
required t o produce a part icular weld in a very clear m anner but requires a
separat e det ailed sk et ch ( t im e consum ing and can ov erburden t he drawing) .
For a special weld preparat ion not covered in t he r elevant st andards ( eg nar row
groov e welding) ; it is t he only way t o indicat e t he way com ponent s are t o be
prepared for w elding or brazing.
8-12°
8- 12
≈R6
R6
1-3
8mm
1-4
Sym bolic represent at ion using weld sym bols can specify j oining and inspect ion
inform at ion and t he UK has t r adit ionally used BS 499 Part 2 which has been
superseded by BS EN ISO 2553. I n m any w elding and fabricat ion organisat ions
use old draw ings t hat reference out of dat e st andards such as BS 499 Pt 2.
BS EN ISO 2553 is alm ost ident ical t o t he original BS EN I SO 2553
st andard on which it was based. I n Am erica AWS A2.4 is followed, while
sym bols for brazing are given in EN 14324.
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The advant ages of sym bolic represent at ion ar e:
Sym bolic represent at ion can only be used for com m on j oint s and requires
t raining t o underst and t he sym bols. Sym bolic represent at ion of a welded j oint
cont ains an arr ow line, a r efer ence line and an elem ent ary sy m bol. The
elem ent ary sym bol can be com plem ent ed by a supplem ent ary sy m bol. The
arr ow line can be at any angle ( ex cept 180 degrees) and can point up or down.
The arr ow head m ust t ouch t he surfaces of t he com ponent s t o be j oined and
t he locat ion of t he weld. Any int ended edge preparat ion or w eldm ent is not
shown as an act ual cross- sect ional represent at ion but as a line. The arr ow also
point s t o t he com ponent t o be pr epar ed wit h single prepar ed com ponent s.
BS EN I SO 2553 and AWS A2.4 list all t he m ain elem ent ary sym bols, som e
exam ples are shown in Table 2.1. The sym bols for arc welding are oft en shown
as cross- sect ional represent at ions of a j oint design or com plet ed weld.
Sim ple, single edge preparat ions are shown in Figure 2.25.
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Welded Joint Design 2- 11 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Ta ble 2 .1 Ele m e nt a r y w e ld sym bols.
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Ke y:
a = single V but t j oint .
b = double V but t j oint .
c = single bevel but t j oint .
d = double bevel but t j oint .
e = single sided fillet weld.
f = double sided fillet weld.
These sim ple sym bols can be int erpret ed as eit her t he j oint det ails alone or t he
com plet ed w eld. For a finished weld it is norm al for an appropriat e weld shape
t o be specified. Ther e are a num ber of opt ions and m et hods t o specify an
appropriat e weld shape or finish. But t welded configurat ions would norm ally be
shown as a convex profile ( Figure 2.26 a, d and f) or as a dressed- off weld as
shown in b and c. Fillet weld sym bols are always shown as a m it re fillet weld
and a convex or concav e profile can be superim posed ov er t he original sym bol's
m it re shape.
Ke y:
a = single V but t weld wit h conv ex profile.
b = double V but t weld flushed off bot h sides on weld face.
c = single bev el but t weld flushed off bot h sides on weld face.
d = double bev el but t convex ( as w elded) .
e = concav e fillet weld.
f = double sided convex fillet weld.
So t he cor r ect size of w eld can be applied it is com m on t o find num bers t o t he
left or right of t he sy m bol. For fillet welds num bers t o t he left indicat e t he
design t hroat t hickness, leg lengt h or bot h ( Figure 2.27) .
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a7 z 10
a7 z 10
For but t j oint s and welds an S wit h a num ber t o t he left of a sym bol refer s t o
t he dept h of penet rat ion. When t here ar e no specific dim ensional requirem ent s
specified for but t welds on a drawing using weld sym bols, it would norm ally be
assum ed t hat t he requirem ent is for a full penet rat ion but t weld. Num ber s t o
t he right of a sym bol or sym bols relat e t o t he longit udinal dim ension of welds,
eg for fillet s t he num ber of welds, weld lengt h and weld spacing for non-
cont inuous welds.
Supplem ent ary sym bols can be used for special cases wher e addit ional
inform at ion is required ( Figure 2.29) . The w eld all round sym bols m ay be used
for a r ect angular hollow sect ion ( RHS) welded t o a plat e, for exam ple. The flag
sym bol for w eld in t he field or on sit e can be added t o any st andard sym bol. A
box at t ached t o t he t ail of t he ar r ow can cont ain or point t o ot her inform at ion
such as whet her NDT is required. This inform at ion is som et im es t he welding
process t ype given as a t hree num ber reference from BS EN I SO 4063, for
exam ple 135 refers t o MAG welding.
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Welded Joint Design 2- 14 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Figur e 2 .2 9 Ex a m ple s of supple m e nt a r y sym bols.
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Welded Joint Design 2- 15 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Ta ble 2 .2 W e lding posit ions.
Flat PA
Horizont al PB
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Welded Joint Design 2- 16 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Welding posit ion Figure/ sym bol Abbreviat ion
Ov erhead PE
Horizont al
PD
ov erhead
2 .8 W e ld j oint pr e p a r a t ions
The sim plest w eld j oint preparat ion is a squar e edged but t j oint , eit her closed or
open. A closed but t j oint is used in t hick plat e for k eyhole welding processes
such as laser or elect r on beam welding ( EBW) . A square edged open but t j oint
is used for t hinner plat e up t o 3m m t hickness for arc w elding in a single pass or
in t hick plat e for w elding processes such as elect roslag welding.
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I t is norm al t o use a bev el on t he edges of t he par ent m et al t o be w elded t o
allow access t o t he root for t he first welding pass which is filled using fill passes.
Single- sided preparat ions ar e norm ally m ade on t hinner m at erials or when
access fr om bot h sides is rest rict ed. Double- sided preparat ions ar e norm ally
m ade on t hicker m at erials or when access fr om bot h sides is unr est rict ed.
Edge pr eparat ion design includes t he bevel angle ( or included angle if bot h
sides are bevelled) and also t he square edges r oot face and root gap. I n a j oint
wher e bot h sides are bev elled t he pr eparat ion is t erm ed a V or v ee pr eparat ion
( Figure 2.31) . V prepar at ions are usually used for plat e of 3- 20m m t hickness.
An alt ernat ive is a U pr eparat ion ( or J preparat ion if only one side has t he edge
preparat ion) where t he edge is m achined int o t he shape of a U. This is used in
t hicker plat e, over 20m m t hickness, wher e it uses less filler m et al t han a V
preparat ion j oint . J or U edge pr eparat ions also require a bev el angle and root
face, t he gap t o be defined, a root radius and land t o be specified ( Figure 2.32) .
Single- sided edge preparat ions are oft en used for t hinner m at erials or when
t here is no access t o t he root of t he w eld ( pipelines) . I f t her e is access t o bot h
sides of t he m at erial t hen a double- sided edge preparat ion is used, especially
for t hicker m at erials. Single and double edge preparat ions are shown in Figure
2.33.
Included angle
Bevel angle
Root face
Gap
Included angle
Root radius
Bevel
angle
Root
face
Gap
Land
Figur e 2 .3 2 U be ve l.
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Single Bevel Single V Double Bevel Double V
The root gap and face are select ed t o ensure good r oot fusion ( Figure 2.35) .
This will depend on t he welding process and heat input . I f t he r oot gap is t oo
wide or r oot face t oo narr ow t here is a risk of burn t hrough. I f t he root gap is
t oo nar row or root face is t oo deep t her e is a risk of lack of root penet rat ion. A
balance m ust be found and designed for; t his differ ence in weld root size is
shown in Figure 2.36. High heat input processes r equire a larger r oot face but
less weld m et al which reduces dist ort ions and increases product ivit y. Typical
values for t he r oot face are 1.5- 2.5m m and t he root gap 2- 4m m .
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Welded Joint Design 2- 19 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Figur e 2 .3 5 The im por t a nce of se le ct ing t he cor r e ct r oot fa ce a nd ga p.
a b
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Welded Joint Design 2- 20 Copyright © TWI Lt d
a b
a b
Choosing bet ween a J or U preparat ion and a bevel or V preparat ion is also
det erm ined by t he cost s or pr oducing t he edge pr eparat ion. Machining a J or U
preparat ion can be slow and expensive. Using t his j oint design also r esult s in
t ight er t olerance which can be easier t o set - up. A bevel or V preparat ion can be
flam e or plasm a cut fast and cheaply r esult ing in larger t olerances, m eaning
t hat set - up can be m or e difficult .
Backing bar or st rip is used t o ensure consist ent root fusion and avoid burn
t hrough. Perm anent backing bar ( rat her t han one rem ov ed aft er w elding) , gives
a built - in crevice which can m ake t he j oint s suscept ible t o corr osion ( Figure
2.39) . When using back ing for alum inium welds any chem ical cleaning reagent s
m ust be rem ov ed befor e assem bling t he j oint . A backing bar also gives a lower
fat igue life.
Separat e fr om t he design of t he j oint and weld access t o w eld locat ions and t he
order in which welds are m ade are im port ant . Figure 2.40 shows exam ples of
t he lim it at ions of access in designing welded j oint s and gives im proved designs.
I t is im port ant t o ensur e t hat it is indeed possible t o m ak e w elds as r equired by
t he drawing.
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Welded Joint Design 2- 21 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Figur e 2 .4 0 Ex a m ple s of im pr ove d w e ld de signs w he r e t he r e is lim it e d a cce ss.
2 .1 0 Sum m a r y
You should now:
Be able t o label t he part s of a but t and fillet weld and of a V and U edge
preparat ions.
Recognise welding sym bols and know what t hey m ean.
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Welded Joint Design 2- 22 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Outline
Leg
Leg size
Leg
Throat size
Single-J Single-U
2‐1
Double Sided Butt Preparations Joint Preparation Terminology
Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker materials, or
when access form both sides is unrestricted Angle of bevel Angle of bevel
Root
Radius
Double -Bevel Double -Vee
Included angle Included angle Design, fatigue life expectancy, loading types
Full penetration butt weld gives better life
Angle of expectancy compared to partial penetration and
bevel compound weld gives better performance than a
fillet weld.
Root
radius
What determines welded joint design? What determines welded joint design?
2‐2
What determines welded joint design? What determines welded joint design?
Quality Quality
Root penetration is guaranteed if backing is To ensure that root defects are minimised, back
used, ceramic or a material that won’t fuse, gouge and check via NDT, MPI/Dye pen.
shaped to produce a particular profile.
Preparation for
horizontal welding
using the submerged
Arc welding process
What determines welded joint design? What determines welded joint design?
2‐3
What determines welded joint design? What determines welded joint design?
sides required.
What determines welded joint design? What determines welded joint design?
Shrinkage Shrinkage
What determines welded joint design? What determines welded joint design?
2‐4
Nozzles Set-On Nozzle
2‐5
Narrow Gap Joint Narrow Gap Welding Head
As a Senior Welding Inspector you are assigned You notice that the joint preparations are not
to the fabrication of a C/Mn pressure vessel. shown on the Engineering drawing for a set in
nozzle attachment. Which of the following
The vessels main barrel thickness and dished preparations would be suitable when a full
ends are 25mm wall thickness, all nozzles (set in penetration weld was required?
and set on), man ways 20mm thickness.
a. Single bevel butt joint
During the fabrication and welding your main b. Fillet joint
concerns are distortion control, joint design, and c. Lap joint
all other quality aspects. d. Corner weld
Question 2 Questions 3
2‐6
Question 4 Question 5
When considering distortion, which of the The fabricator proposes to you that he wishes to
following butt weld preparations would be the reduce the bevel angle from 45° to 30° on the
most suited for the longitudinal welded main set on nozzle joints. Which of the following
barrel joints? issues may occur if this was permitted?
Question 6 Question 7
Which distortion control technique is referenced In accordance with the TWI Specification would it
in the TWI specification? be permissible to hard stamp the vessel’s
material for the purpose of material
a. Raised heat input technique identification?
b. Back welds a. Yes, any hard stamping is permitted providing
c. Back skip welding the information is on both ends of the material
d. Full penetration welds b. No, hard stamping isn’t allowed in any
situation
c. Yes, hard stamping is permitted providing a
low stress concentration die is used.
d. No options are correct
Question 8 Question 9
During fit-up you notice that the longitudinal seams While inspecting the completed vessel, you
have two different bevel angles on one joint, top notice that some of the longitudinal seams on
bevel 50°, bottom bevel 15°. Is this permitted in the main barrel section are in line with each
accordance with TWI Specification? other, ie not offset:
a. No, under no situation shall different bevel a. This would be permitted providing the linear
angles be permitted on a single V joint misalignment doesn’t exceed 1.5mm
b. Yes, providing the joint is welded either in the b. This is not permitted all longitudinal seams
overhead or vertical horizontal positions shall be off set to each other by 90°
c. No, the bevel angles stated are out of c. The TWI Specification makes no mention of
specification this requirement
d. Yes, As long as there is access this would be d. This would be permitted providing the angular
acceptable misalignment doesn’t exceed 3°
2‐7
Question 10
2‐8
Section 3
Quality Assurance and Quality Control
3 Quality Assurance and Quality Control
3.1 Definitions
Before we consider what quality assurance and quality control are, let us first
define quality. This is best described as the fitness-for-purpose of a product,
service or activity.
Quality assurance comprises all the planned and systematic actions necessary
to provide adequate confidence that a product or service will satisfy given
requirements for quality. Quality control is described as the operational
techniques and activities that are used to fulfil requirements for quality.
Quality control describes the activities which monitor the quality of the product.
These operational techniques include materials and dimensional checks,
inspection before, during and after welding, non-destructive testing, hydraulic
or leak testing, ie activities which check after the event that a specified activity
has been carried out correctly.
Quality assurance has been introduced to ensure that the activity ‘gets it right
the first time’, based on the principle that prevention is better than cure. This
can be achieved by planning and anticipating problems.
A document setting out the general quality policies, procedures and practices of
an organisation.
The word ‘general’ is important in this definition. The quality manual is usually
the first indication a purchaser or prospective client has of a company's
approach to quality. This document should contain a statement of the
company's total commitment to quality by means of a quality policy statement
signed by the Chairman, MD or Chief Executive of the company. This policy
statement should be prominently displayed within the company.
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3.1.3 Procedure
A procedure can be defined as:
A document setting out the specific quality practices, resources and sequence of
activities relevant to a particular product, service, contract or project.
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Questions that need to be addressed include:
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3.2.3 What areas of a business need to be covered by ISO 9001?
ISO 9001 requires the following elements of a business to have set procedures:
In order to ensure that the systems are effective and being followed, as well as
to determine if changes are needed, it is necessary to monitor the systems.
This is achieved by auditing them and reviewing the results of the audit in order
to implement any changes.
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Auditing is carried out to provide objective evidence that the system is working
in accordance with the procedures. When an audit is complete the results are
analysed by management who must ensure that the quality policy is satisfied
and modify the quality system if necessary.
A systems audit, which is quite superficial and simply examines the system
to confirm that it follows the quality manual and that procedures are in
place.
A compliance audit, which is an in-depth audit examining compliance with
procedures.
Customers will also frequently require access to carry out their own audits.
Remember that no job is finished until the paperwork is complete.
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Currently there are a number of European Standards or codes that refer to
BS EN ISO 3834:
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The manufacturer should select one of the three parts (2-4) specifying the
different levels of quality requirements, based on the following criteria:
1 Review of requirements.
2 Technical review.
3 Sub-contracting.
4 Welders and welding operators.
5 Welding co-ordination personnel.
6 Inspection and testing personnel.
7 Production and testing equipment.
8 Equipment maintenance.
9 Description of equipment.
10 Production planning.
11 Welding procedure specifications.
12 Qualification of welding procedures.
13 Batch testing of consumables (if required by contract).
14 Storage and handling of welding consumables.
15 Storage of parent material.
16 Post-weld heat treatment procedure.
17 Inspection and testing before, during and after welding.
18 Non-conformance and corrective actions.
19 Calibration or validation of measuring, inspection and testing equipment.
20 Identification during process (if required by contract).
21 Traceability (if required by contract).
22 Quality records (if required by contract).
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A company applying for certification to ISO 3834 will usually be required to
complete the following stages:
This process, from application to issuing of the certificate, can take months to
complete.
Table 1 in BS EN ISO 14731 gives guidance for those tasks which may require a
welding co-ordinator input. The technical knowledge required from the co-
ordinator will obviously depend upon the complexity of the product.
It can be seen that the three levels of technical knowledge are defined to match
with the three levels of quality requirements given in Parts 2-4 of BS EN ISO
3834.
The IIW route is not mandatory; there are in fact three possible routes to
demonstrate technical knowledge:
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3.5 Calibration/validation of welding equipment
Faulty equipment compromises the quality of work. It follows that any
equipment used in production, or for welder and procedure approval tests,
should be in a sound condition in all respects in order to avoid breakdown
during production or testing.
One important point to note is the accuracy of meters and the repeatability of
the machine's controls in relation to output performance. Welding current
connections and return leads on all arc welding equipment should be checked
for tightness prior to commencing welding; failure to do so may lead to voltage
losses affecting arcing conditions.
Where semi-automatic gas shielded processes are used, care should also be
taken to ensure that the wire feeding systems are repeatable and accurate.
Additionally, flowmeters controlling shielding and purging gases are expected to
be calibrated.
In addition, it must be ensured that the welders are using the correct gas, the
electrode wires are of the correct composition and the preheat temperature and
location have been applied in accordance with the welding procedure
requirements.
In the case of manual metal arc (MMA) and submerged-arc welding (SAW),
attention should be paid to any special drying requirements for fluxes or
covered electrodes and also the conditions they are kept in prior to use. The
use of a written procedure for storage and handling of consumables is
recommended and records of humidity and temperature may be required to be
kept.
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Quality Assurance and Quality Control 3-9 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Se ct ion 4
Code s a n d St a n da r ds
4 Code s a n d St an da r ds
The cont r ol of qualit y in a fabricat ion and welding sit uat ion is achiev ed by
wor king t o com pany procedur es and codes of const ruct ion or st andards. The
lat t er m ay be int ernat ional, nat ional, com pany’s own or specific t o t he part icular
client or cont ract .
4 .1 Com pa ny m a nu a ls
4 .1 .1 Qua lit y a ssu r a nce m a nua l
Qualit y assurance is defined in I S0 9000 as; part of qualit y m anagem ent
focused on pr oviding confidence t hat qualit y requirem ent s will be fulfilled.
Essent ially what t he QA m anual set s out is how t he com pany is organised, t o
lay down t he responsibilit ies and aut horit y of t he various depart m ent s, how
t hese depart m ent s int erlink. The m anual usually covers all aspect s of t he
com pany st ruct ure, not j ust t hose aspect s of m anufact ure.
Typical exam ples would be: pr oduct ion and cont rol of dr awings, how m at erials
and consum ables are purchased, how w elding procedur es ar e produced, et c.
Essent ially all operat ions t o be carried out wit hin t he organisat ion will have
cont r ol procedur es laid down.
I n part icular it will lay down how t he I n spe ct ion funct ion, whet her visual,
dim ensional or NDT, will be perform ed, inspect ion being defined as t he act ivit y
of m easuring, exam ining and t est ing charact erist ics of a pr oduct or ser vice and
com paring t hese t o a specified requirem ent . Such requirem ent s are laid down in
codes of pract ice and st andards.
4 .2 Audit ing
Audit ing is a t erm originat ing from account ancy pract ice which involves an
independent account ant checking t he account s of a com pany t o see if t he
account s ar e fair and accurat e. A sim ilar checking process is now widely
pract ised in m anufact uring and const ruct ion indust ries and inspect ion per sonnel
will be involved in t he carr ying out of t his operat ion.
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Differ ent t ypes of audit s m ay be perfor m ed:
Full audit of a com pany, usually carried out by a t hird part y such as a
Cert ifying Aut horit y, checking t he com pany for t he award of a QA
accr edit at ion syst em such as I SO 9000 or ASME st am p.
Maj or audit by a pot ent ial cust om er prior t o placem ent of a large cont ract .
This is usually carried out t o dem onst rat e t he com pany has all t he
necessary facilit ies, plant , m achinery, personnel and qualit y syst em s in
place t o enable t hem t o successfully com plet e t he cont ract .
Part audit s carried out as ongoing dem onst rat ion t hat t he qualit y syst em is
wor king properly.
4 .3 Code s a nd st a n da r ds
I t is not necessary for t he I nspect or t o car ry a wide range of codes and
st andards in t he perfor m ance of his/ her dut ies. Norm ally t he specificat ion or
m or e precisely t he cont ract specificat ion is t he only docum ent required.
How ev er t he cont ract specificat ion m ay reference support ing codes and
st andards and t he inspect or should know w her e t o access t hese norm at ive
docum ent s.
The following is a list of definit ions relat ing t o codes and st andards which t he
I nspect or m ay com e acr oss whilst car rying inspect ion dut ies
4 .3 .1 D e finit ion s
N or m a t ive docu m e nt :
Provides rules, guidelines or charact erist ics for act ivit ies or t heir r esult s.
The t erm norm at ive docum ent is generic and covers docum ent s such as
st andards, t echnical specificat ions, codes of pract ice and r egulat ions.*
St a nda r d
Docum ent est ablished by consensus and approv ed by a r ecognised body.
A st andard pr ovides, for com m on and r epeat ed use, guidelines, rules, and
charact erist ics for act ivit ies or t heir result s, aim ed at t he achievem ent of t he
opt im um degree of order in a given cont ext .*
H a r m onise d st a nd a r d s
St andards on t he sam e subj ect approved by differ ent st andardising bodies, t hat
est ablish int erchangeabilit y of product s, processes and services, or m ut ual
underst anding of t est result s or inform at ion provided according t o t hese
st andards*
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Code of pr a ct ice
Docum ent t hat r ecom m ends pract ices or procedures for t he design,
m anufact ure, inst allat ion, m aint enance, ut ilisat ion of equipm ent , st ruct ures or
product s.
Re gu la t ion
Docum ent pr oviding binding legislat ive rules t hat is adopt ed by an aut horit y.*
Aut h or it y
Body ( r esponsible for st andards and regulat ions legal or adm inist rat ive ent it y
t hat has specific t asks and com posit ion) t hat has legal power s and right s.*
Re gu la t or y a ut hor it y
Aut horit y responsible for pr eparing or adopt ing regulat ions.*
Enfor ce m e nt a ut hor it y
Aut horit y responsible for enforcing regulat ions.*
A specificat ion could cover bot h physical and t echnical requirem ent s ie visual
inspect ion, NDT, Mechanical t est ing et c. essent ially full dat a and it s support ing
m edium . Specificat ions are generally im plied or obligat ory.
Pr oce dur e
Specified way t o carry out an act ivit y or a process.* Usually it is a writ t en
descript ion of all essent ial param et er s and pr ecaut ions t o be observ ed when
applying a t echnique t o a specific applicat ion following an est ablished st andard,
code or specificat ion
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4 .4 Sum m a r y
Applicat ion of t he requirem ent s of t he qualit y m anuals, t he st andards and codes
of pract ice ensur e t hat a st ruct ur e or com ponent will have an accept able level
of qualit y and be fit for t he int ended purpose.
Applying t he requirem ent s of a st andard, code of pract ice or specificat ion can
be a pr oblem for t he inexperienced I nspect or. Confidence in applying t he
requirem ent s of one or all of t hese docum ent s t o a specific applicat ion only
com es wit h use ov er a period of t im e.
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Se ct ion 5
Fe - C St e e ls
5 Fe - C St e e ls
Pure iron is v ery soft and expensive t o m anufact ure and t hus has lim it ed
pract ical engineering applicat ions. How ev er , as we’ve already seen, as ferr ous
alloys can go t hr ough different phase changes depending on com posit ion and
t em perat ur e, t he pr opert ies and part icularly t he st r engt h, duct ilit y and
t oughness can be t ailored t hrough alloying and t herm al cycling ( heat t reat m ent
or welding for exam ple) .
Of all t he alloying elem ent s used in st eels, by far t he m ost im port ant one is
carbon ( C) and st eels are defined as iron alloys cont aining less t han 2% C.
Fer rous alloys of m or e t han 2% carbon cont ent on t he ot her hand are called
cast irons.
Many ot her elem ent s can also be present in st eels, bot h int ent ionally added
alloying elem ent s and r esidual elem ent s pr esent from ore or scrap m et al used
in t he st eelm aking process.
5 .1 St e e l t e r m inology
The t erm inology used t o describe and specify different st eel product s can be
confusing as t hese can be based on a com binat ion of:
To add t o t he confusion, different indust ry sect or s use different nom enclat ures
and definit ions t o r efer t o t he sam e alloys. A sim plified t erm inology is used her e
which is widely used and is relevant t o w elding, but be awar e t hat ot her
t erm inologies also exist .
5 .1 .1 Ca r bon st e e ls
I n m any indust ry sect ors, carbon st eel is t he usual descript ion used t o refer t o
any st eel t hat is not st ainless. Carbon is t he single m ost im port ant alloying
elem ent in st eel and a wide range of propert ies is possible sim ply by changing
it s cont ent . St r engt h can be increased v er y cost effect ively by r et aining m ore
carbon in t he com posit ion ( rem em ber, carbon is already present from t he
prim ary st eelm aking process and is in fact r em ov ed as part of st eel r efining) .
How ev er, when welded it is well recognized t hat HAZ t oughness decr eases and
risk of cracking during welding increases wit h carbon addit ion and welding
becom es m or e challenging. Surprisingly t hough, in som e part icular applicat ions
such as in welded rail t rack s t his t rade- off can be overcom e and st eels which
are oft en of eut ect ic com posit ion wit h carbon cont ent of 0.76% are used! !
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As shown below, hardness and st r engt h can be achieved sim ply by increasing
t he carbon cont ent of t he alloy. This however com es at a cost , not only in t erm s
of welding but also in t erm s of m echanical propert ies as duct ilit y and t oughness
also det eriorat e wit h increasing carbon cont ent .
Carbon st eels can be divided ( broadly) int o plain carbon and carbon- m anganese
st eels:
Pla in ca r bon st e e ls are t he m ost widely used st eel t ype. These ar e usually
specified based on carbon cont ent ( exam ple, AI SI 1010 and 1018 carbon st eels
have t arget carbon cont ent s of approxim at ely 0.1 and 0.18, r espect ively) and
are lim it ed t o a m axim um of 1% m anganese. The m icr ost ruct ures of plain
carbon st eels are based around t he t herm odynam ic equilibrium m icrost ruct ures
of ferrit e and pearlit e.
5 .1 .2 Low Alloy st e e ls
Som e alloying elem ent s increase t he hardenabilit y of st eels, t hat is, t hey delay
t he t ransform at ion fr om aust enit e t o t he equilibrium m icrost ruct ur es of fer rit e
and pearlit e t o longer t im es, t hus giving m ore opport unit y for non- equilibrium
m icrost ruct ures such as m art ensit e t o form during cooling. Alloys specified
based on elem ent addit ions t o increase hardenabilit y t o achieve designat ed
st rengt h, duct ilit y and t oughness r equirem ent s ar e called low alloy st eels. I n
general, t ot al alloy cont ent does not exceed 5% .
Mart ensit e is achieved wit h a sufficient level of carbon or ot her elem ent s and a
sufficient ly rapid cooling rat e. I t has high st rengt h and hardness but can be
very brit t le, so a soft ening ( t em pering) heat t reat m ent is norm ally applied t o
im prove t oughness during t he m anufact uring process. This is not always
possible aft er welding and t hese st eels r equire special precaut ions during
welding t o obt ain good enough propert ies in t he HAZ and t o avoid hydrogen
cracking.
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5 .1 .3 H igh st r e ngt h low a lloy st e e ls
For t he par ent m at erial, an alt ernat ive appr oach t o increase st rengt h wit hout
increasing carbon cont ent is grain refinem ent which not only increases st rengt h
but also increases t oughness. This fam ily of fine grained high st rengt h st eels
( up t o 560MPa yield) wit h low carbon and lean general com posit ion are called
high st rengt h low alloy st eels.
Cont rary t o low- alloy- st eels which can in fact be quit e highly alloyed, HSLA
st eels are t ruly low alloyed st eels and t he st r engt h is achieved t hrough
refinem ent of t he m icr ost ruct ure rat her t han by significant alloying addit ions.
For t he sam e st r engt h lev el, an HSLA alloy will have a m uch leaner com posit ion
t o it s C- Mn equivalent . The m icrost ruct ur e of HSLA st eels is st ill generally ferrit e
and pearlit e but will usually cont ain very sm all am ount s of pearlit e.
The m anufact uring rout es t o achieve t he necessar y m icrost ruct ur e r efinem ent
wer e cover ed in Sect ion 6 ( Heat t r eat m ent of st eels) .
To r e f r e sh you r m e m or y
HSLA st eels r ely on ver y sm all alloying addit ions of vanadium , niobium and/ or
t it anium and cont rolled rolling as well as defined and narrow t em perat ur e
ranges. Because t he addit ions of V, Nb and Ti are so sm all t hese ar e also called
m icro- alloyed st eels.
Part icularly in t he oil and gas indust ry, a slight variat ion of t he cont rolled r olling
process is used where m icro- alloying is used t o obt ain a fine- grain st ruct ur e
during t he hot rolling process followed by accelerat ed cooling at t he end of t he
hot r olling process t o pr om ot e a bainit ic or acicular fer rit e m icrost ruct ure. These
alloys ar e called Therm o- m echanically cont r olled process ( TMCP) st eels.
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Se ct ion 6
D e st r u ct ive Te st in g
6 D e st r u ct ive Te st in g
Eur opean Welding St andards require t est coupons t hat ar e m ade for w elding
procedur e qualificat ion t est ing t o be subj ect ed t o non- dest ruct ive t est ing and
t hen dest ruct ive t est ing.
The t est s are called dest ruct ive t est s because t he welded j oint is dest r oy ed
when various t ypes of t est piece are t aken fr om it .
Dest ruct ive t est s can be divided int o 2 groups, t hose used t o:
Qualit at ive t est s ar e used t o v erify t hat t he j oint is free fr om defect s – t hey ar e
of sound qualit y, exam ples of t hese ar e bend t est s, m acr oscopic ex am inat ion
and fract ur e t est s ( fillet fract ur e and nick- br eak) .
Design engineers use t he m inim um propert y v alues list ed for part icular grades
of m at erial as t he basis for design and t he m ost cost - effect ive designs are
based on an assum pt ion t hat welded j oint s have pr opert ies t hat are no wor se
t han t hose of t he base m et al.
The quant it at ive ( m echanical) t est s t hat are carried out for welding procedur e
qualificat ion are int ended t o dem onst rat e t hat t he j oint propert ies sat isfy design
requirem ent s.
The em phasis in t he following sub- sect ions is on t he dest ruct ive t est s and t est
m et hods t hat ar e widely used for w elded j oint s.
6 .1 .1 Tr a n sve r se t e nsile t e st s
Te st obj e ct ive
Welding procedur e qualificat ion t est s always r equire t ransv er se t ensile t est s t o
show t hat t he st r engt h of t he j oint sat isfies t he design crit erion.
Te st spe cim e n s
A t ransv erse t ensile t est piece t ypical of t he t ype specified by Eur opean Welding
St andards is shown below.
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Parallel
lengt h
St andards, such as EN 895, t hat specify dim ensions for t ransv er se t ensile t est
pieces r equire all excess w eld m et al t o be r em ov ed and t he surface t o be fr ee
from scrat ches.
Test pieces m ay be m achined t o repr esent t he full t hickness of t he j oint but for
very t hick j oint s it m ay be necessary t o t ak e several t ransverse t ensile t est
specim ens t o be able t o t est t he full t hickness.
Te st m e t hod
Test specim ens are accurat ely m easured befor e t est ing. Specim ens are t hen
fit t ed int o t he j aws of a t ensile t est ing m achine and subj ect ed t o a cont inually
increasing t ensile for ce unt il t he specim en fract ures.
The t est is int ended t o m easur e t he t e n sile st r e ngt h of t h e j oin t and t hereby
show t hat t he basis for design, t he base m et al propert ies, rem ains t he valid
crit erion.
Acce pt a nce cr it e r ia
I f t he t est piece breaks in t he weld m et al, it is accept able provided t he
calculat ed st rengt h is not less t han t he m inim um t ensile st r engt h specified,
which is usually t he m inim um specified for t he base m et al m at erial grade.
6 .1 .2 All- w e ld t e nsile t e st s
Te st obj e ct ive
Ther e m ay be occasions when it is necessary t o m easure t he weld m et al
st rengt h as part of welding procedure qualificat ion – part icularly for elevat ed
t em perat ur e designs.
The t est is carried out in order t o m easure not only t ensile st r engt h but also
yield ( or proof st r engt h) and t ensile duct ilit y.
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All weld t ensile t est s are also regularly carried out by w elding consum able
m anufact urers t o verify t hat elect rodes and filler wires sat isfy t he t ensile
propert ies specified by t he st andard t o which t he consum ables are cert ified.
Te st spe cim e ns
As t he nam e indicat es, t est specim ens are m achined from w elds par allel wit h
t heir longit udinal axis and t he specim en gauge lengt h m ust be 100% weld
m et al.
Round t ensile specim en from a welding Round t ensile specim en from an elect rode
procedure qualificat ion t est piece. classificat ion t est piece.
Te st m e t h od
Specim ens are subj ect ed t o a cont inually increasing force in t he sam e way t hat
t ransv er se t ensile specim ens are t est ed.
Yield ( Re) or proof st r ess ( Rp) ar e m easured by m eans of an ext ensom et er t hat
is at t ached t o t he parallel lengt h of t he specim en and is able t o accurat ely
m easur e t he ext ension of t he gauge lengt h as t he load is increased.
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Typical load ext ension curv es and t heir principal charact erist ics ar e shown
below.
Load- ext ension curve for a st eel t hat Load- ext ension curve for a st eel ( or
shows a dist inct yield point at t he elast ic ot her m et al) t hat does not show a
lim it . dist inct yield point ; proof st ress is a
m easure of t he elast ic lim it .
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The figures below illust rat e t hese t w o duct ilit y m easur em ent s.
Necking!
6 .1 .3 I m pa ct t ough ne ss t e st s
Te st obj e ct ive
Charpy V not ch t est pieces hav e becom e t he int ernat ionally accept ed m et hod
for assessing resist ance t o brit t le fract ur e by m easuring t he energy t o init iat e,
and propagat e, a crack from a sharp not ch in a st andard sized specim en
subj ect ed t o an im pact load. The va lue a chie ve d is k now n a s t he not ch or
im pa ct t ough ne ss.
Design engineers need t o ensur e t hat t he t oughness of t he st eel t hat is used for
a part icular it em will be high enough t o avoid brit t le fract ur e in service and so
im pact specim ens are t est ed at a t em perat ur e t hat is relat ed t o t he design
t em perat ur e for t he fabricat ed com ponent .
C- Mn and low alloy st eels undergo a sharp change in t heir resist ance t o brit t le
fract ur e as t heir t em perat ure is lowered so t hat a st eel t hat m ay have very
good t oughness at am bient t em perat ur e m ay show ext r em e brit t leness at sub-
zer o t em perat ures, as illust rat ed in following figure.
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Tr a nsit ion r a n ge
Low e r she lf e ne r gy
Br it t le fr a ct ur e
( 1 0 0 % cr y st a llinit y)
Te st t e m pe r a t ur e , °C
The t ransit ion t em perat ure is defined as t he t em perat ur e m id- way bet ween t he
upper shelf ( m axim um t oughness) and lower shelf ( com plet ely brit t le) . I n t he
abov e t he t ransit ion t em perat ur e is –20°C.
Te st spe cim e ns
The dim ensions for t est specim ens have been st andardised int ernat ionally and
are shown below for full siz e d spe cim e ns. Ther e ar e also st andard dim ensions
for sm aller sized specim ens, for exam ple 10m m x 7.5m m and 10m m x 5m m .
Charpy V not ch t est piece dim ensions for full sized specim ens.
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Specim ens ar e m achined fr om w elded t est plat es wit h t he not ch posit ion
locat ed in different locat ions according t o t he t est ing requirem ent s but t ypically
in t he cent r e of t he w eld m et al and at posit ions acr oss t he HAZ – as shown
below.
Typical not ch posit ions for Charpy V not ch t est specim ens from double V but t
welds.
Te st m e t h od
Test specim ens ar e cooled t o t he specified t est t em perat ur e by im m ersion in an
insulat ed bat h cont aining a liquid t hat is held at t he t est t em perat ure.
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The m ain feat ur es of an im pact t est m achine ar e shown below.
I m pact t est specim ens ar e t ak en in t riplicat e ( 3 specim ens for each not ch
posit ion) as t here is always som e degr ee of scat t er in t he r esult s, part icularly
for w eldm ent s.
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Acce pt a nce cr it e r ia
Each t est r esult is recorded and an average value calculat ed for each set of
t hree t est s. These values are com par ed wit h t he values specified by t he
applicat ion st andard or client t o est ablish whet her specified requirem ent s have
been m et .
Aft er im pact t est ing, exam inat ion of t he t est specim ens pr ovides addit ional
inform at ion about t heir t oughness charact erist ics and m ay be added t o t he t est
report :
A specim en t hat exhibit s ext rem e brit t leness will show a clean break. Bot h
halves of t he specim en having a com plet ely flat fract ure face wit h lit t le or no
lat eral expansion.
A specim en t hat exhibit s very good t oughness will show only a sm all degr ee of
crack ext ension, wit hout fract ure and a high value of lat eral expansion.
6 .1 .4 H a r dne ss t e st ing
Te st obj e ct ive s
The hardness of a m et al is it s’ r esist ance t o plast ic deform at ion det er m ined by
m easuring t he r esist ance t o indent at ion by a part icular t ype of indent er .
A st eel weldm ent wit h hardness above a cert ain m axim um m ay be suscept ible
t o cracking, eit her dur ing fabricat ion or in ser vice, and welding procedur e
qualificat ion t est ing for cert ain st eels and applicat ions t hat require t he t est w eld
t o be hardness sur vey ed t o ensure t hat ar e no r egions of t he weldm ent t hat
exceed t he m axim um specified hardness.
Specim ens pr epar ed for m acroscopic exam inat ion can also be used for t aking
hardness m easurem ent s at various posit ions of t he weldm ent – refer r ed t o as a
ha r dne ss sur v e y.
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Te st m e t h ods
Ther e ar e 3 widely used m et hods for hardness t est ing:
1 Vickers hardness t est uses a square- base diam ond pyram id indent er.
2 Rockw ell hardness t est uses a diam ond cone indent er or st eel ball.
3 Brinell hardness t est uses a ball indent er.
The hardness value being given by t he size of t he indent at ion produced under a
st andard load, t he sm aller t he indent at ion, t he harder t he m et al.
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Bot h Vicker s and Rock well m et hods ar e suit able for carrying out hardness
surv eys on specim ens prepared for m acr oscopic exam inat ion of weldm ent s.
The Brinell m et hod gives an indent at ion t hat is t oo large t o accurat ely m easur e
t he hardness in specific regions of t he HAZ and is m ainly used t o m easur e
hardness of base m et als.
A t ypical hardness sur v ey ( using Vickers hardness indent er) is shown below:
Hardness values are shown on t est r eport s as a num ber followed by let t ers
indicat ing t he t est m et hod, for exam ple:
22HRC = hardness 22, Rockw ell m et hod, diam ond cone indent er
( scale C) .
Calculat ing t he size of a crack t hat would init iat e a brit t le fract ur e under
cert ain st ress condit ions at a part icular t em perat ure.
The st ress t hat would cause a cert ain sized crack t o give a brit t le fract ure at
a part icular t em perat ur e.
This dat a is essent ial for m aking an appropriat e decision when a crack is
discovered during inspect ion of equipm ent t hat is in- service.
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Te st spe cim e n s
A CTOD specim en is prepared as a rect angular ( or squar e) shaped bar cut
t ransv er se t o t he axis of t he but t weld. A V not ch is m achined at t he cent re of
t he bar, which will be coincident wit h t he t est posit ion - weld m et al or HAZ.
A shallow saw cut is t hen put int o t he bot t om of t he not ch and t he specim en is
t hen put int o a m achine t hat induces a cy clic bending load unt il a shallow
fat igue crack init iat es fr om t he saw cut .
The specim ens are r elat ively large – t ypically having a cross sect ion B x 2B and
lengt h ~ 10B ( B = full t hickness of t he weld) . The t est piece det ails are shown
below.
Te st m e t h od
CTOD specim ens are usually t est ed at a t em perat ur e below am bient and t he
t em perat ur e of t he specim en is cont rolled by im m er sion in a bat h of liquid t hat
has been cooled t o t he r equired t est t em perat ur e.
For each t est condit ion ( posit ion of not ch and t est t em perat ure) it is usual
pract ice t o carr y out t hr ee t est s.
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Below illust rat es t he m ain feat ures of t he CTOD t est .
Acce pt a nce cr it e r ia
An applicat ion st andard or client m ay specify a m inim um CTOD v alue t hat
indicat es duct ile t earing. Alt ernat ively, t he t est m ay be for inform at ion so t hat a
value can be used for an engineering crit ical assessm ent .
A ver y t ough st eel weldm ent will allow t he m out h of t he crack t o open widely by
duct ile t earing at t he t ip of t he crack wher eas a very brit t le weldm ent will t end
t o fract ur e when t he applied load is quit e low and wit hout any ext ension at t he
t ip of t he crack .
CTOD values are expressed in m illim et res - t ypical values m ight be < < ~ 0.1m m
= brit t le behaviour; > ~ 1m m = v er y t ough behaviour.
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6 .1 .6 Be nd t e st ing
Te st obj e ct ive
Bend t est s are rout inely t aken fr om w elding procedur e qualificat ion t est pieces
and som et im es hav e t o be t ak en from welder qualificat ion t est pieces.
Subj ect ing specim ens t o bending is a sim ple m et hod of v erifying t hat t here ar e
no significant flaws in t he j oint . Som e degr ee of duct ilit y is also dem onst rat ed.
Duct ilit y is not act ually m easur ed but is dem onst rat ed t o be sat isfact ory if t est
specim ens can wit hst and being bent wit hout fract ure or fissur es above a cert ain
lengt h.
Te st spe cim e n s
Ther e ar e 4 t ypes of bend specim en:
Fa ce be nd
Specim en t aken wit h axis t ransver se t o but t welds up t o ~ 12m m t hickness and
bent so t hat t he face of t he weld is on t he out side of t he bend ( face in t ension) .
Root be nd
Test specim en t aken wit h axis t ransverse t o but t welds up t o ~ 12m m t hickness
and bent so t hat t he r oot of t he w eld is on t he out side of t he bend ( root in
t ension) .
Side be nd
Test specim en t aken as a t ransverse slice ( ~ 10m m ) from t he full t hickness of
but t welds > ~ 12m m and bent so t hat t he full j oint t hickness is t est ed ( side in
t ension) .
Longit udin a l be nd
Test specim en t ak en wit h axis parallel t o t he longit udinal axis of a but t weld;
specim en t hickness is ~ 12m m and t he face or r oot of w eld m ay be t est ed in
t ension.
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Te st m e t hod
Bend t est s for w elding procedur e qualificat ion ( and welder qualificat ion) are
usually guided bend t est s.
The diam et er of t he for m er used for a part icular t est is specified in t he code,
having been det erm ined by t he t ype of m at er ial t hat is being t est ed and t he
duct ilit y t hat can be expect ed from it aft er w elding and any PWHT.
The st andard t hat specifies t he t est m et hod will specify t he m inim um bend
angle t hat t he specim en m ust experience and t his is t ypically 120- 180°.
Acce pt a nce cr it e r ia
Bend t est pieces should exhibit sat isfact or y soundness by not showing cracks or
any signs of significant fissures or cavit ies on t he out side of t he bend.
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6 .2 Fr a ct ur e t e st s
6 .2 .1 Fille t w e ld fr a ct u r e s
Te st obj e ct ive
The qualit y/ soundness of a fillet weld can be assessed by fract uring t est pieces
and exam ining t he fract ure surfaces.
I t is a t est m et hod t hat can be used for w elder qualificat ion t est ing according t o
Eur opean St andards but is not used for welding procedure qualificat ion t o
Eur opean St andards.
Te st spe cim e n s
A t est weld is cut int o short lengt hs ( t ypically 50m m ) and a longit udinal not ch
is m achined int o t he specim en as shown below. The not ch pr ofile m ay be
square, V or U shaped.
Te st m e t hod
Specim ens ar e m ade t o fract ure t hr ough t heir t hroat by dynam ic st rok es
( ham m ering) or by pressing, as shown below. The welding st andard or
applicat ion st andard will specify t he num ber of t est s ( t ypically 4) .
Acce pt a nce cr it e r ia
The st andard for welder qualificat ion, or applicat ion st andard, will specify t he
accept ance crit eria for im perfect ions such as lack of penet rat ion int o t he r oot of
t he j oint and solid inclusions and porosit y t hat are visible on t he fract ur e
surfaces.
Test r eport s should also give a descript ion of t he appearance of t he fract ure and
locat ion of any im perfect ion
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But t w e ld fr a ct u r e s ( nick - br e a k t e st s)
Te st obj e ct ive
The obj ect ive of t hese fr act ure t est s is t he sam e as for fillet fract ur e t est s.
These t est s ar e specified for w elder qualificat ion t est ing t o European St andards
as an alt ernat ive t o radiography. They are not used for w elding procedur e
qualificat ion t est ing t o EU St andards.
Te st spe cim e ns
Test specim ens ar e t ak en fr om a but t weld and not ched so t hat t he fract ure
pat h will be in t he cent ral region of t he weld. Typical t est piece t ypes are shown
below.
Te st m e t h od
Test pieces ar e m ade t o fract ure by ham m ering or t hr ee- point bending.
Acce pt a nce cr it e r ia
The st andard for welder qualificat ion, or applicat ion st andard, will specify t he
accept ance crit eria for im perfect ions such as lack of fusion, solid inclusions and
por osit y t hat are visible on t he fract ure sur faces.
Test r eport s should also give a descript ion of t he appearance of t he fract ure and
locat ion of any im perfect ion.
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6 .3 M a cr oscopic e x a m in a t ion
Transv erse sect ions from but t and fillet welds are r equired by t he EU St andards
for welding procedur e qualificat ion t est ing and m ay be required for som e w elder
qualificat ion t est ing for assessing t he qualit y of t he welds.
This is considered in det ail in a separat e sect ion of t hese cour se not es.
Obj e ct ive s
Det ect ing weld defect s. ( m acr o) .
Measuring grain size. ( m icro) .
Det ect ing brit t le st ruct ures, precipit at es.
Assessing resist ance t oward brit t le fract ur e, cold cracking and corr osion
sensit ivit y.
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Eur ope a n St a n da r ds for D e st r u ct ive Test M e t h ods
The following St andards ar e specified by t he Eur opean Welding St andards for
dest ruct ive t est ing of welding procedur e qualificat ion t est welds and for som e
welder qualificat ion t est welds.
BS EN I SO 9 0 1 6
Dest ruct ive t est s on w elds in m et allic m at erials – I m pact t est s – Test specim en
locat ion, not ch orient at ion and exam inat ion.
BS EN I SO 4 1 3 6
Dest ruct ive t est s on w elds in m et allic m at erials – Transverse t ensile t est .
BS EN I SO 5 1 7 3 + A1
Dest ruct ive t est s on w elds in m et allic m at erials – Bend t est s.
BS EN I SO 1 7 6 3 9
Dest ruct ive t est s on w elds in m et allic m at erials – Macroscopic and m icroscopic
exam inat ion of w eld.
BS EN I SO 6 8 9 2 - 1
Met allic m at erials - Tensile t est ing. Part 1: Met hod of t est at am bient
t em perat ur e.
BS EN I SO 6 8 9 2 - 2
Tensile t est ing of m et allic m at erials. Part 2: Met hod of t est at elevat ed
t em perat ur es.
WI S10- 30816
Dest ruct ive Test ing 6- 19 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Destructive Testing Objective
Tensile test.
specimens from the (Bend test)
weld is carried out to
check the mechanical Hardness test.
Macro/micro
properties of the joint 2 x Strength
materials. They can (transverse
be produced to: examination. tensile)
The following mechanical tests have units and are termed Mechanical Properties of metals are related
quantitative tests to measure mechanical properties to the amount of deformation which metals can
of the joint.
Tensile tests (transverse welded joint, all weld metal).
withstand under different circumstances of force
Toughness testing (Charpy, Izod, CTOD).
application.
Hardness tests (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers).
Malleability Ability of a material to
The following mechanical tests have no units and are Ductility withstand deformation
termed qualitative tests for assessing weld quality. under static compressive
Macro testing.
Toughness loading without rupture
Bend testing.
Hardness
Fillet weld fracture testing. Tensile Strength
Butt weld nick-break testing.
6‐1
Definitions Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related Mechanical Properties of metals are related
to the amount of deformation which metals can to the amount of deformation which metals can
withstand under different circumstances of force withstand under different circumstances of force
application. application.
under static tensile loading application of shear
Toughness without rupture. Measurable Toughness stresses by impact loading
Hardness elongation and reduction in Hardness without fracture.
cross section area
Tensile Strength Tensile Strength
Definitions Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related Mechanical Properties of metals are related
to the amount of deformation which metals can to the amount of deformation which metals can
withstand under different circumstances of force withstand under different circumstances of force
application. application.
indentation from another fracture a materials bar of
Toughness material by static load Toughness unit cross-sectional area in
Hardness Hardness tension
6‐2
Mechanical Testing Hardness Testing
Definition
Measurement of resistance of a material
against penetration of an indenter under a
constant load.
Hardness Testing There is a direct correlation between UTS and
hardness.
Hardness tests
Brinell.
Vickers.
Rockwell.
6‐3
Vickers Hardness Test Machine Brinell Hardness Test
Ø=10mm
steel ball
Rockwell B Rockwell C
1KN
1.5KN
Objectives
Impact Testing Measuring impact strength in different weld joint areas.
Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture.
6‐4
Charpy V-Notch Impact Test Charpy V-Notch Impact Test Specimen
Anvil
ASTM: American Society of Testing Materials
(support)
Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd
Fracture surface
100% bright
crystalline
Transition range Ductile/Brittle
brittle fracture transition point
100% Ductile
Machined notch 28 Joules
Comparison Charpy
Charpy Impact Test
Impact Test Results
Impact Energy Joules Reporting results
Location and orientation of notch.
Room Temperature -20oC Temperature Testing temperature.
Energy absorbed in joules.
Description of fracture (brittle or ductile).
1. 197 Joules 1. 49 Joules
6‐5
Mechanical Testing Tensile Testing
Tensile Testing
Rm
ReH
ReL
6‐6
Tensile Test Transverse Joint Tensile Test
Objective
Measuring the overall strength of the weld joint.
6‐7
All-Weld Metal Tensile Test All-Weld Metal Tensile Test
Elongation % = 14 X 100
50
Increased gauge length
Elongation = 28%
During the test, yield and tensile strength are recorded During the test, Yield & Tensile strength are recorded
The specimen is joined and the marks are re-measured The specimen is joined and the marks are re-measured
Force Applied
6‐8
STRA Test STRA Test
Purpose
To examine the weld cross-section to give assurance that:
The weld has been made in accordance with the WPS.
The weld is free from defects.
Specimen preparation
Full thickness slice taken from the weld (typically
Macro/Micro Examination ~10mm thick).
Width of slice sufficient to show all the weld and HAZ on
both sides plus some unaffected base material.
One face ground to a progressively fine finish (grit sizes
120 to ~ 400).
Prepared face heavily etched to show all weld runs & all
HAZ.
Prepared face examined at up to x5 (& usually
photographed for records).
Prepared face may also be used for a hardness survey.
Purpose Object
Macro/microscopic examinations are used to
To examine a particular region of the weld or HAZ in order to:
To examine the microstructure.
Identify the nature of a crack or other imperfection. give a visual evaluation of a cross-section of a
Specimen preparation welded joint.
A small piece is cut from the region of interest (typically up
Carried out on full thickness specimens.
The width of the specimen should include HAZ,
to ~ 20mm x 20mm).
The piece is mounted in plastic mould and the surface of
interest prepared by progressive grinding (to grit size 600 weld and parent plate.
They maybe cut from a stop/start area on a
or 800).
Surface polished on diamond impregnated cloths to a
mirror finish welders approval test.
Prepared face may be examined in as-polished condition
and then lightly etched.
Prepared face examined under the microscope at up to ~
100 – 1000X.
6‐9
Macro/Micro Examination Macro/Micro Examination
Distribution of inclusions.
defects. defects and grain
Cut transverse from the structure.
Number of weld passes. weld. Cut transverse from a
Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion zone Ground and polished weld.
P400 grit paper. Ground and polished P1200
Acid etch using 5-10%
and HAZ.
Location and depth of penetration of weld.
grit paper, 1µm paste.
nitric acid solution. Acid etch using 1-5% nitric
Fillet weld leg and throat dimensions. Wash and dry. acid solution.
Visual evaluation under Wash and dry.
5x magnification. Visual evaluation under
Report on results. 100-1000x magnification.
Report on results.
Objectives
Detecting weld defects (macro).
Measuring grain size (micro).
Detecting brittle structures, precipitates, etc.
Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold
cracking and corrosion sensitivity.
Object of test
To determine the soundness of the weld zone. Bend
testing can also be used to give an assessment of weld
zone ductility.
There are three ways to perform a bend test:
Bend Testing
6‐10
Bending Test Bending Test Methods
Root/face
t up to 12 mm
bend
Thickness of material - t
Object of test
To break open the joint through the weld to
permit examination of the fracture surfaces.
Specimens are cut to the required length.
Fillet Weld Fracture Testing A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is
applied along the fillet welds length.
Fracture is usually made by striking the
specimen with a single hammer blow.
Visual inspection for defects.
6‐11
Fillet Weld Fracture Tests Fillet Weld Fracture Tests
Hammer
2mm
Notch
This fracture indicates This fracture has
lack of fusion occurred saw cut to root
Reporting results
Thickness of parent material.
Throat thickness and leg lengths.
Location of fracture.
Appearance of joint after fracture. Nick-Break Testing
Depth of penetration.
Defects present on fracture surfaces.
Object of test
To permit evaluation of any weld defects Notch cut by hacksaw
3 mm
across the fracture surface of a butt weld.
Specimens are cut transverse to the weld. 19 mm
6‐12
Nick-Break Test Nick-Break Test
Reporting results
Alternative nick-break Thickness of parent material.
Width of specimen.
test specimen, notch
Location of fracture.
applied all way around
the specimen
Appearance of joint after fracture.
Depth of penetration.
Defects present on fracture surfaces.
We test welds to establish minimum levels of Under pressure leakage proof test
mechanical properties and soundness of the
welded joint Vessel configuration
We divide tests into qualitative and quantitative methods: The test should be done after any stress relief.
Quantitative: (Have units) Qualitative: (Have no
Components that will not stand the pressure
Hardness (VPN & BHN) units) test (eg flexible pipes, diaphragms) must be
Toughness (Joules & Macro tests removed.
ft.lbs) Bend tests The ambient temperature MUST be above 0°C
Strength (N/mm2 & Fillet weld fracture
PSI, MPa) tests (preferably 15-20°C).
Ductility/Elongation Butt nick-break tests
(E%)
6‐13
Mechanical Testing Mechanical Testing
?
In addition, verifying the accompanying
documentation is also a major part of your role.
Question 1 Question 2
You notice at the test house that root and face Continuing with the witnessing of bend testing,
bends are being conducted with a 50% reduction you notice that the excess weld metal has not
in the former diameter than that stated in the been removed. Are there any consequences
specification. What difference would this make to attached to this practice?
the testing conditions?
a. When bends are tested in this manner, the test is
a. This should make no difference as long as the much more accurate as all the weld is under test
bend is to the correct angle b. The excess weld metal is only removed if it is
b. This is common practice when reinforcement excessive
c. The excess weld metal could give rise to stresses
is left in place
d. Only the part in contact with the former requires
c. This would put excessive stress on the
the excess weld metal to be removed
specimen
d. No options are correct
Question 3 Question 4
Testing has just been completed on a single sided butt
weld procedure, 10mm thick, PA position using the MMA You are checking the test report for a transverse
process. Which mechanical tests would you expect to find tensile test on a 16mm butt weld with a UTS value of
within the documentation? 460N/mm². Which of the following sets of tensile
a. 1 transverse tensile, two transverse side bends, impact samples would fail the test?
tests 1 set of 3, Hardness test one specimen and
macro examination a. Test 1 failed in parent metal at 414 N/mm², test 2
b. 2 transverse tensile, two transverse bends-1root and 1 failed in weld metal at 555N/mm²
face bends, impact tests 1 set of 3, Hardness test one b. Test 1 failed in parent metal at 420 N/mm², test 2
specimen and macro examination failed in weld metal at 480N/mm²
c. 2 transverse tensile, two transverse root and 1 face c. Test 1 failed in parent metal at 435 N/mm², test 2
bends, hardness test one specimen and macro failed in weld metal at 498N/mm²
examination
d. Test 2 failed in weld metal at 498N/mm², test 1
d. 2 transverse tensile, two transverse side bends, impact
failed in parent metal at 435 N/mm²
tests 1 set of 3, Hardness test one specimen and
macro examination
6‐14
Question 5 Question 6
Charpy impact tests have been conducted on a A welder qualifies in C Mn steel, 10mm thick,
16mm single V butt joint. Which of the following MMA process using low hydrogen electrodes, PC
set of results would meet the specification? position using DC- polarity. Which one of the
following is the welder not qualified for?
a. Average of set 30 joules, lowest individual
value 20 joules a. C mn steel, 20mm thick, MMA process, rutile
electrode, PB position, DC-
b. Average of set 40 joules, lowest individual b. C mn steel, 6mm thick, MMA process, rutile
value 32 joules electrode, PA position, DC-
c. Average of set 38 joules, lowest individual c. C mn steel, 15mm thick, MMA process, low
value 35 joules hydrogen electrode, PC position, DC-
d. Average of set 42 joules, lowest individual d. C mn steel, 15mm thick, MMA process, rutile
value 28 joules electrode, PE position, DC-
Question 7 Question 8
A charpy impact test is devised to test samples The point at which the Rm is reached in a tensile
at different temperatures. What does this hope test is also referred to as the:
to establish?
a. Yield point
a. A transition range from ductile to brittle b. UTS
b. The Rm of the material c. A%
c. The Re of the material d. Gauge length
d. The relationship between hardness and
tensile strength
Question 9 Question 10
If a tensile test specimen fails to meet the In a procedure qualification in 10m thick material
required value, what action can be taken? welded in the PF position when impacts are not
specified, which position(s) is the procedure
a. Two more test welds are required which will qualified for?
require complete testing
b. One more test sample can be submitted a. PA, PC
c. If the specimen is large enough, two more b. PF, PG
tests can be done c. All positions
d. As many test welds as required can be d. PF only
submitted until the tests meet the
specification
6‐15
Se ct ion 7
H e a t Tr e a t m e n t
7 H e a t Tr e a t m en t
The heat t reat m ent given t o a part icular grade of st eel by t he st eelm aker/
supplier should be shown on t he m at erial t est cert ificat e and m ay be referr ed t o
as t he supply condit ion.
Welded j oint s m ay need t o be subj ect ed t o heat t reat m ent aft er welding
( PWHT) and t he t asks of m onit oring t he t her m al cycle and checking t he heat
t reat m ent r ecords are oft en delegat ed t o welding inspect or s.
7 .1 H e a t t r e a t m e nt of st e e l
The m ain supply condit ions for w eldable st eels are:
Applie d t o:
Relat ively t hin, lower st rengt h C- st eel.
Applie d t o
Relat ively t hin, high st rengt h low alloy st eels ( HSLA) and for som e st eels wit h
good t oughness at low t em perat ur es, eg cryogenic st eels.
N or m a lise d
Aft er working t he st eel ( rolling or forging) t o size, it is heat ed t o ~ 900°C and
t hen allowed t o cool in air t o am bient t em perat ure; t his opt im ises st r engt h and
t oughness and gives uniform pr opert ies fr om it em t o it em for a part icular grade
of st eel;
Applie d t o
C- Mn st eels and som e low alloy st eels.
Que n ch e d a n d t e m pe r e d
aft er w or king t he st eel ( rolling or forging) t o size, it is heat ed t o ~ 900°C and
t hen cooled as quickly as possible by quenching in wat er or oil; aft er quenching,
t he st eel m ust be t em per ed ( soft ened) t o im prove t he duct ilit y of t he as-
quenched st eel:
Applie d t o
Som e low alloy st eels t o give higher st r engt h, t oughness or wear resist ance.
WI S10- 30816
Heat Treat m ent 7- 1 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Solut ion a nn e a le d/ h e a t t r e a t e d
Aft er hot or cold working t o size, st eel heat ed t o ~ 1100°C and rapidly cooled by
quenching int o wat er t o prevent any carbides or ot her phases from for m ing:
Applie d t o
Aust enit ic st ainless st eels such as 304 and 316 grades.
Ann e a le d
Aft er w or king t he st eel ( pressing or forging et c) t o size, it is heat ed t o ~ 900°C
and t hen allowed t o cool in t he furnace t o am bient t em perat ur e; t his reduces
st rengt h and t oughness but im proves duct ilit y:
Applie d t o
C- Mn st eels and som e low alloy st eels.
Figure 7.1- 7.6 show t he t herm al cycles for t he m ain supply condit ions and
subsequent heat t r eat m ent t hat can be applied t o st eels.
7 .2 Post w e ld he a t t r e a t m e nt ( PW H T)
Post w eld heat t reat m ent has t o be applied t o som e w elded st eels t o ensure
t hat t he propert ies of t he w eldm ent will be suit able for t heir int ended
applicat ions.
The t em per at ure at w hich PWHT is carried out is usually well below t he
t em perat ur e where phase changes can occur ( not e 1) , but high enough t o allow
residual st resses t o be r elieved quickly and t o soft en ( t em per) any har d regions
in t he HAZ.
Because t he m ain reason for ( and benefit of) PWHT is t o reduce residual
st resses, PWHT is oft en called st r e ss r e lie f.
N ot e : Ther e are circum st ances when a welded j oint m ay need t o be norm alised
t o r est or e HAZ t oughness. However, t hese ar e relat ively rare circum st ances and
it is necessar y t o ensure t hat w elding consum ables are car efully select ed
because norm alising will significant ly reduce w eld m et al st rengt h.
WI S10- 30816
Heat Treat m ent 7- 2 Copyright © TWI Lt d
7 .3 PW H T t he r m a l cycle
The applicat ion st andard/ code will specify when PWHT is required t o give
benefit s # 1 or # 2 above and also give guidance about t he t herm al cycle t hat
m ust be used.
I n order t o ensur e t hat a PWHT cy cle is carried it in accordance wit h a part icular
code, it is essent ial t hat a PWHT pr ocedur e is prepared and t hat t he following
param et er s are specified:
7 .3 .1 H e a t ing r a t e
This m ust be cont r olled t o av oid large t em perat ur e differ ences wit hin t he
fabricat ed it em . Large differences in t em perat ure ( large t herm al gradient s) will
produce large st resses and t hese m ay be high enough t o cause dist ort ion ( or
ev en cracking) .
Applicat ion st andards usually require cont r ol of t he m axim um heat ing rat e when
t he t em perat ur e of t he it em is above ~ 300°C. This is because st eels st art t o
show significant loss of st rengt h abov e t his t em perat ur e and ar e m ore
suscept ible t o dist ort ion if t here ar e large t herm al gradient s.
7 .3 .2 Soa k t e m pe r a t ur e
The soak t em perat ure specified by t he code depends on t he t ype of st eel and
t hus t he t em perat ur e range r equired t o r educe r esidual st resses t o a low level.
C and C- Mn st eels require a soak t em perat ur e of ~ 600°C wher eas som e low
alloy st eels ( such as Cr- Mo st eels used for elevat ed t em perat ur e service)
require higher t em perat ures – t ypically in t he range ~ 700 t o ~ 760°C.
WI S10- 30816
Heat Treat m ent 7- 3 Copyright © TWI Lt d
7 .3 .3 Soa k t im e
I t is necessary t o allow t im e for all t he welded j oint s t o experience t he specified
t em perat ur e t hr oughout t he full j oint t hickness.
The t em perat ur e is m onit ored by sur face- cont act t herm ocouples and it is t he
t hickest j oint of t he fabricat ion t hat governs t he m inim um t im e for t em perat ur e
equalisat ion.
Typical specified soak t im es ar e 1h per 25m m t hickness.
7 .3 .4 Cooling r a t e
I t is necessary t o cont r ol t he rat e of cooling from t he PWHT t em perat ure for t he
sam e r eason t hat heat ing rat e needs t o be cont rolled – t o avoid dist ort ion ( or
cracking) due t o high st resses fr om t herm al gradient s.
Codes usually specify cont rolled cooling t o ~ 300°C. Below t his t em perat ure t he
it em can be wit hdrawn from a furnace and allowed t o cool in air because st eel is
relat ively st rong and is unlikely t o suffer plast ic st rain by any t em perat ur e
gradient s t hat m ay dev elop.
7 .4 H e a t t r e a t m e nt f ur n a ce s
I t is im port ant t hat oil and gas- fired furnaces used for PWHT do not allow flam e
cont act wit h t he fabricat ion as t his m ay induce large t herm al gradient s.
I t is also im port ant t o ensur e t hat t he fuel ( part icularly for oil- fired furnaces)
does not cont ain high levels of pot ent ially harm ful im purit ies – such as sulphur.
7 .5 Loca l PW H T
For a pipeline or pipe spool it is oft en necessary t o apply PWHT t o individual
welds by local applicat ion of heat .
Posit ion of t he t herm ocouples wit hin t he heat ed band widt h and t he decay
band.
I f t he it em needs t o be support ed in a part icular way t o allow m ovem ent /
avoid dist ort ion.
The com m onest m et hod of heat ing for local PWHT is by m eans of insulat ed
elect rical elem ent s ( elect rical ‘m at s’) t hat are at t ached t o t he w eld.
Gas- fired, radiant heat ing elem ent s can also be used.
Figure 7.7 show s t ypical cont r ol zones for localised PWHT of a pipe but t weld.
WI S10- 30816
Heat Treat m ent 7- 4 Copyright © TWI Lt d
N or m a lisin g
Rapid heat ing t o soak t em perat ur e ( 100% aust enit e) .
Short soak t im e at t em perat ur e.
Cool in air t o am bient t em perat ur e.
Tem perat ure,°C
~ 900°C
Tim e
~ 900°C
> ~ 650°C
Tim e
WI S10- 30816
Heat Treat m ent 7- 5 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Slab h e a t ing temperature > ~ 1050°C
( γ)
Austenite
~ 900°C
Tem perat ure,°C
( γ+α)
Aust enit e + ferrit e
~ 700°C
Tim e
Figur e 7 .3 Com pa r ison of t he ‘cont r ol- r olle d’ ( TM CP) a nd ‘a s- r olle d’ condit ions
( = hot r olling) .
Solut ion h e a t t r e a t m e nt
Rapid heat ing t o soak t em p. ( 100% aust enit e) .
Short ‘soak’ t im e at t em perat ur e.
Rapid cool cooling by quenching int o wat er or oil.
> ~ 1050°C
Tem perat ure,°C
Que nchin g
Tim e
WI S10- 30816
Heat Treat m ent 7- 6 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Ann e a ling
Rapid heat ing t o soak t em perat ur e ( 100% aust enit e) .
Short ‘soak’ t im e at t em perat ur e.
Slow cool in furnace t o am bient t em perat ur e.
Tem perat ur e,°C
~ 900°C
Tim e
PW H T ( C- M n st e e ls)
Cont rolled heat ing rat e from 300°C t o soak t em perat ur e.
Minim um soak t im e at t em perat ur e.
Cont rolled cooling t o ~ 300°C.
Tem perat ure °C
~ 600°C
Controlled heating
and cooling rates
~ 300°C
Soak
Air cool
time
Tim e
WI S10- 30816
Heat Treat m ent 7- 7 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Weld seam
WI S10- 30816
Heat Treat m ent 7- 8 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Heat Treatment
Objectives
Heat Treatment Microstructural changes improve mechanical
properties ie toughness, machinability,
strength.
Reduce residual stress level.
Section 7
Time
Heating Soaking Cooling
7‐1
Types of Heat Treatment Heat Treatment Temperatures
Annealing.
Normalising.
oC
Recovery and
Homogenizing and hot working
Welds & parent
Austenite
metals Acm
Annealing
910
re-crystallisation. Phase change
Stress relief.
Normalizing
A3
to austenite
Normalising
Quenching and tempering.
Annealing
727
Recovery & re-
Precipitation hardening.
Recovery and recrystallization A1
Parent metals crystallisation
600
No phase
PWHT and PWHT
Stress Relieve Stress relief & change
PWHT
500
0.022 0.77 2.0
Heated to high temperature (Partially or fully Steel heated just to where austenite is stable.
austenitic): Air cooling – fairly rapid.
□ Hypereutectic steels are partially austenitized to
Grain refinement.
avoid cementite formation on grain boundaries
during slow cooling. Stress relief. Pearlite
Hold for some time and then slow cool. Higher strength.
Coarse grain size. Pearlite Higher toughness.
Reduced strength.
Increased ductility.
Homogeneous.
Ferrite
Ferrite
7‐2
Non Equilibrium Heat Non Equilibrium Heat
Treatment - Quenching Treatment - Quenching
Heating to annealing heat treatment
oC
temperature range.
Fast cooling to increase hardness:
Austenite
910
Acm
□ Brine (Water and salt).
Increased quench severity
□ Water.
A3
Annealing
□ Oil.
Ductility and toughness are drastically
727
A1
reduced.
0.008 0.83 2.0
Usually followed by tempering.
0.05
Carbon content in weight %
Tempering Tempering
7‐3
PWHT Effect on Residual Stress PWHT Effects
Residual
stress level
YS at soaking
temperature
Actual
YS
Time
Provide adequate support (low YS at high You are assigned to a heat treatment company
temperature!). to witness heat treatments being conducted.
Control heating rate to avoid uneven thermal
expansions.
Control soak time to equalise temperatures.
The heat treatments are being conducted on
Question 1 Question 2
While inspecting some cast duplex valve bodies A set of fabricated brackets manufactured from
one of your inspectors asks if the castings 316L stainless steel is about to be heat-treated,
require a heat treatment process. Which of the which of the following applies?
following would most likely be applied to these
items? a. This material is always stressed relieved after
welding
a. Solution annealing b. A post weld heat treat isn’t generally
b. Quench hardening conducted on this type of material
c. No heat treatment required c. Quench hardening would always be applied to
d. Stress relieving would be required but only this material to increase toughness after
after welding if applicable welding
d. All options are incorrect
7‐4
Question 3 Question 4
During the post weld heat treatment of a small Unfortunately the stress relieving of a welded fabricated
welded fabrication, you observe the heat treatment steel structure hasn’t been witnessed by any of your
inspectors. When you review the PWHT chart you notice
personnel applying heat by a heating torch. In
only 2 thermocouples have been used. In accordance with
accordance with TWI Specification do you consider the TWI Specification do you consider this to be acceptable?
this an acceptable practice?
a. No, all PWHT shall be witnessed and a minimum of 3
a. Yes this is acceptable providing the temperature thermocouples shall be used
attained and the soaking times are correct in b. Yes, only the PWHT charts require reviewing by
accordance with the approved PWHT procedure inspectors
b. Yes this is acceptable providing the c. No, all PWHT shall be witnessed, an inspector has to be
thermocouples are correctly placed and present 100% of the time throughout the PWHT process
d. No, a minimum of 3 thermocouples shall be used, and
calibrated
calibration certificates require checking prior to the heat
c. No, this application method isn’t acceptable treatment process
d. 2 options are correct
Question 5 Question 6
It is a requirement for a quenched and tempered During Post Weld Heat Treatment, what
component to undergo post weld heat treatment, one sequence of events occurs to the properties of
of your inspectors asks you what is the maximum the material?
temperature required for this material. Which of the
following is correct in accordance the TWI
Specification? a. Yield strength increases, stresses decrease
then yield strength decreases
a. The same as for C/Mn steel b. Ductility decreases, stresses increase then
b. You would never permit a PWHT to be carried out ductility increases
on this material
c. The TWI Specification doesn’t reference this c. Yield strength decreases, stresses decrease
information, but would expect it to be around then yield strength increases
680°C d. Stresses increase, stresses decrease then
d. All options are incorrect yield increases
Question 7 Question 8
After a PWHT process has been carried out on While reviewing the heat treatment chart for a PWHT
some thick to thin C/Mn pipe spools (12.5mm to process you notice that the temperature is not
25mm WT) you notice that the heating rate is recorded below 150°C on the cooling cycle. Would
recorded at 200°C/Hr. In accordance with the you accept this chart?
TWI Specification is this correct?
a. No, the temperature must be recorded down to
room temperature
a. No, it should be a minimum of 220°C/hr b. It would depend on the thickness and grade of
b. No, it should be 40°C/hr material as to whether this would be acceptable
or not
c. Yes, Providing the cooling rate is the same c. No, the temperature has to be recorded to at
d. Yes, providing the cooling rate is 220°C/hr least 110°C
d. The TWI Specification doesn’t reference this
information.
7‐5
Question 9 Question 10
In certain cases heat treatments are conducted You notice from your records you don’t have an
on cold work components such as cold rolled, inspection report for a component that has undergone
steel plate. Which of the following heat a PWHT. In this case what would your course of action
treatments would you expect to be conducted on be?
these components?
a. It would be acceptable, If the component had a full
inspection report before PWHT
a. Stress relieving b. The TWI Specification makes no reference of this,
b. Densensitization so you would have to seek advice
c. It is a requirement that all components undergo
c. Quench hardening full inspection after a PWHT process has been
d. Post hydrogen release conducted; in this case it would not be acceptable
d. As long as no welding has be conducted after the
PWHT process, this would be acceptable
7‐6
Se ct ion 8
W PS a n d W e lde r Qu a lifica t ion s
8 W PS a n d W e lde r Qu a lifica t ion s
When st ruct ures and pr essurised it em s ar e fabricat ed by w elding, it is essent ial
t hat all t he welded j oint s are sound and have suit able propert ies for t heir
applicat ion.
Cont rol of w elding is by m eans of w elding procedur e specificat ions ( WPS) t hat
give det ailed writ t en inst ruct ions about t he welding condit ions t hat m ust be
used t o ensur e t hat welded j oint s have t he r equired propert ies.
Alt hough WPS are shop floor docum ent s t o inst ruct w elders, welding inspect or s
need t o be fam iliar wit h t hem because t hey will need t o refer t o WPSs when
t hey ar e checking t hat welders ar e w orking in accordance wit h t he specified
requirem ent s.
Welders need t o underst and WPSs and have t he skill t o m ak e w elds t hat ar e not
defect ive and dem onst rat e t hese abilit ies befor e being allowed t o m ake
product ion welds.
A welding procedur e is usu a lly qu a lif ie d by m aking a t est w eld t o dem onst rat e
t hat t he pr opert ies of t he j oint sat isfy t he r equirem ent s specified by t he
applicat ion st andard ( and t he client / end user) .
Dem onst rat ing t he m echanical propert ies of t he j oint is t he principal purpose of
qualificat ion t est s but showing t hat a defect - fr ee weld can be produced is also
very im port ant .
Product ion welds t hat are m ade in accordance wit h welding condit ions sim ilar t o
t hose used for a t est weld should have sim ilar propert ies and t her efor e be fit for
t heir int ended purpose.
How a w elded t est piece m ust be m ade t o dem onst rat e j oint propert ies.
How t he t est piece m ust be t est ed.
What welding det ails need t o be included in a WPS?
The range of pr oduct ion welding allowed by a part icular qualificat ion t est
weld.
WI S10- 30816
WPS and Welder Qualificat ions 8- 1 Copyright © TWI Lt d
The principal Eur ope a n St a nda r ds t hat specify t hese r equirem ent s ar e:
Pa r t 1 : Arc & gas w elding of st eels & arc welding of nickel & nickel alloys.
8 .1 .2 The qua lif ica t ion pr oce ss for w e lding pr oce dur e s
Alt hough qualified WPS are usually based on t est welds t hat have been m ade t o
dem onst rat e weld j oint propert ies; welding st andards also allow qualified WPS
t o be writ t en based on ot her dat a ( for som e applicat ions) .
Som e alt ernat ive ways t hat can be used for writ ing qualified WPS for som e
applicat ions are:
Qua lif ica t ion by a dopt ion of a st a nda r d w e ldin g pr oce dur e - t est
welds previously qualified and docum ent ed by ot her m anufact ur er s.
Qua lif ica t ion ba se d on pr e v iou s w e lding e x pe r ie nce - w eld j oint s t hat
have been r epeat edly m ade and proved t o have suit able propert ies by t heir
service record.
Procedure qualificat ion t o Eur opean St andards by m eans of a t est w eld ( and
sim ilar in ASME Sect ion I X and AWS) requires a sequence of act ions t hat is
t ypified by t hose shown by Table 8.1.
8 .1 .3 Re la t ionship be t w e e n a W PQR a n d a W PS
Once a WPQR has been produced, t he welding engineer is able t o writ e
qua lif ie d W PSs for t he various product ion weld j oint s t hat need t o be m ade.
The welding condit ions t hat are allowed t o be writ t en on a qualified WPS are
referr ed t o as t he qu a lifica t ion r a nge and t his range depends on t he welding
condit ions t hat wer e used for t he t est piece ( t he as- run det ails) and form part
of t he WPQR.
Welding condit ions are referr ed t o as w e lding va r ia ble s by Eur opean and
Am erican Welding St andards and ar e classified as eit her e sse nt ia l va r ia ble s or
non- e sse nt ia l v a r ia ble s.
WI S10- 30816
WPS and Welder Qualificat ions 8- 2 Copyright © TWI Lt d
These variables can be defined as follows:
I f a w elder m ak es a pr oduct ion weld using condit ions out side t he qualificat ion
range given on a part icular WPS, t here is danger t hat t he w elded j oint will not
have t he r equired pr opert ies and t her e ar e t hen t wo opt ions:
Make anot her t est w eld using sim ilar welding condit ions t o t hose used for
t he affect ed weld and subj ect t his t o t he sam e t est s used for t he r elevant
WPQR t o dem onst rat e t hat t he propert ies st ill sat isfy specified
requirem ent s.
Rem ove t he affect ed w eld and re- weld t he j oint st rict ly in accordance wit h
t he designat ed WPS.
Most of t he w elding variables t hat are classed as essent ial are t he sam e in bot h
t he European and Am erican Welding St andards but t heir qualificat ion ranges
m ay differ .
Som e Applicat ion St andards specify t heir own essent ial variables and it is
necessary t o ensur e t hat t hese ar e t aken int o considerat ion when procedur es
are qualified and WPSs are writ t en.
Welders also need t o have t he skill t o consist ent ly produce sound welds ( free
from defect s) .
Welding St andards have been dev eloped t o give guidance on what part icular
t est welds are r equired in order t o show t hat welders have t he r equired skills t o
m ake part icular t ypes of product ion w elds in part icular m at erials.
WI S10- 30816
WPS and Welder Qualificat ions 8- 3 Copyright © TWI Lt d
8.2.1 Welding standards for welder qualification
The principal European Standards that specify requirements are:
American Standards allow welders to demonstrate that they can produce sound
welds by subjecting their first production weld to non-destructive testing.
Table 8.3 shows the steps required for qualifying welders in accordance with
European Standards.
WIS10-30816
WPS and Welder Qualifications 8-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Som e w elding variables t hat ar e classed as essent ial for welder qualificat ion are
t he sa m e t ype s as t hose classified as essent ial for w elding procedur e
qualificat ion, but t he range of qualificat ion m ay be significant ly wider.
Exam ples of welder qualificat ion essent ial variables are given in Table 8.4.
The Eur opean St andard allows a qualificat ion cert ificat e t o r em ain valid for a
period of t w o y ear s – pr ovided t hat :
The w elding co- ordinat or, or ot her r esponsible per son, can confirm t hat t he
w e lde r h a s be e n w or k ing w it hin t he in it ia l r a nge of qua lif ica t ion.
Working wit hin t he init ial qualificat ion range is confirm ed ev ery six m ont hs.
WI S10- 30816
WPS and Welder Qualificat ions 8- 5 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Ta ble 8 .1 Typica l se que nce for w e lding pr oce dur e qua lifica t ion by m e a ns of a
t e st w e ld.
The t est coupon is dest r uct ively t est ed ( t ensile, bend, m acr o t est s)
The code/ applicat ion st andard/ client m ay require addit ional t est s such
as hardness t est s, im pact t est s or corr osion t est s – depending on
m at erial and applicat ion
» Re su lt s of t he N D T
» Re su lt s of t he de st r u ct ive t e st s
WI S10- 30816
WPS and Welder Qualificat ions 8- 6 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Ta ble 8 .2 Typica l e x a m ple s of W PS e sse nt ia l va r ia ble s a ccor ding t o Eur ope a n
W e lding St a nda r ds.
Pa r e nt m a t e r ia l Par ent m at erials of sim ilar com posit ion and m echanical
t ype propert ies ar e allocat ed t he sam e Mat erial Group No.;
qualificat ion only allows product ion welding of m at erials
wit h t he sam e Gr oup No.
WI S10- 30816
WPS and Welder Qualificat ions 8- 7 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Ta ble 8 .3 St a ge s for qu a lifica t ion of a w e lde r .
Th e w e ldin g e ngin e e r w r it e s a
W PS for w e lde r qua lif ica t ion t e st pie ce
WI S10- 30816
WPS and Welder Qualificat ions 8- 8 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Ta ble 8 .4 Typica l e x a m ple s of w e lde r qua lifica t ion e sse nt ia l va r ia ble s a ccor ding
t o Eur ope a n W e lding St a nda r ds.
Type of w eld But t welds cover any t y pe of j oint except branch welds
fillet welds only qualify fillet s
Pa re nt m at e ria l Par ent m at erials of sim ilar com posit ion and m echanical
t ype propert ies ar e allocat ed t he sam e Mat erial Group No.;
qualificat ion only allows product ion w elding of m at erials
wit h t he sam e Group No. but t he Groups allow m uch
wider com posit ion ranges t han t he pr ocedur e Groups
Filler m at er ia l Elect r odes and filler wires for product ion welding m ust
be of t he sam e form as t he t est ( solid wire, flux cor ed,
et c) ; for MMA coat ing t ype is essent ial. The filler wire
m ust fall wit hin t he range of t he qualificat ion of t he filler
m at erial.
12m m allow 5m m
M at er ial A t hickness range is allowed; for t est pieces abov e
t hick ness
25m m )
W elding posit ions Posit ion of welding very im port ant ; H- L045 allows all
posit ions ( except PG)
WI S10- 30816
WPS and Welder Qualificat ions 8- 9 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Figur e 8 .1 Ex a m ple of a w e lding pr oce dur e spe cifica t ion ( W PS) t o EN 1 5 6 1 4
for m a t .
WI S10- 30816
WPS and Welder Qualificat ions 8- 10 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Figur e 8 .2 Ex a m ple of a W PQR docum e nt ( qu a lifica t ion r a nge ) t o EN 1 5 6 1 4
for m a t .
WI S10- 30816
WPS and Welder Qualificat ions 8- 11 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Figur e 8 .3 Ex a m ple of W PQR docum e nt ( t e st w e ld de t a ils) t o EN 1 5 6 1 4 for m a t .
WI S10- 30816
WPS and Welder Qualificat ions 8- 12 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Figur e 8 .4 Ex a m ple of a W PQR docum e nt ( de t a ils of w e ld t e st ) t o EN 1 5 6 1 4
for m a t .
WI S10- 30816
WPS and Welder Qualificat ions 8- 13 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Figur e 8 .5 Ex a m ple of a w e lde r qua lifica t ion t e st ce r t ifica t e ( W PQ) t o EN 2 8 7
for m a t .
WI S10- 30816
WPS and Welder Qualificat ions 8- 14 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Welding Procedure Qualification
Question:
What is the main reason for carrying out a Welding
Procedure Qualification Test?
(What is the test trying to show?)
Answer:
Welding Procedure and Welder Qualification To show that the welded joint has the properties*
that satisfy the design requirements (fit for purpose).
Section 8
* Properties
Mechanical properties are the main interest - always
strength but toughness & hardness may be important
for some applications.
Test also demonstrates that the weld can be made
without defects.
8‐1
Welding Procedure Qualification Welding Procedure Qualification
8‐2
Welding Procedure Qualification Welding Procedure Qualification
In most codes reference is made to how the procedure are Components of a welding procedure
to be devised and whether approval of these procedures is
Parent material
Type (Grouping).
required.
8‐3
Welding Positions Welding Positions
PA 1G / 1F Flat / Downhand
PB 2F Horizontal-Vertical
PC 2G Horizontal
PD 4F Horizontal-Vertical (Overhead)
PE 4G Overhead
PF 3G / 5G Vertical-Up
PG 3G / 5G Vertical-Down
8‐4
Welding Procedures Welding Procedures
(according to BS EN Standards)
Question:
What is the main reason for qualifying a welder?
Welder Approval
Answer:
To show that he has the skill to be able to make
production welds that are free from defects.
8‐5
Welder Qualification Welder Qualification
(according to BS EN ISO 9606) Numerous codes and standards deal with welder
qualification, eg BS EN ISO 9606
Once the content of the procedure is approved the next
Typical Welder Essential Variables
Welding process.
stage is to approve the welders to the approved
procedure.
Material type. A welders test know as a Welders Qualification Test
Electrode type.
(WQT).
Material thickness.
Pipe diameter.
Object of a welding qualification test:
To give maximum confidence that the welder meets the
Welding position. quality requirements of the approved procedure (WPS).
The test weld should be carried out on the same
Weld backing (an unbacked weld requires material and same conditions as for the production
more skill). welds.
8‐6
Welder Qualification Welder Qualification
Information that should be included on a welders The inspection of a welders qualification test
test certificate are: It is normal for a qualified inspectors usually from
Welders name and identification number.
Date of test and expiry date of certificate.
an independent body to witness the welding.
Standard/code eg BS EN ISO 9606. Under normal circumstances only one test weld per
Test piece details. welder is permitted.
Welding process. If the welder fails the test weld and the failure is
Welding parameters, amps, volts
Consumables, flux type and filler classification details.
not the fault of the welder eg faulty welding
Sketch of run sequence.
equipment then a re-test would be permitted.
Welding positions. The testing of the test weld is done in
Joint configuration details. accordance with the applicable code.
Material type qualified, pipe diameter etc. It is not normal to carry out tests that test for
Test results, remarks.
Test location and witnessed by.
the mechanical properties of welds eg tensile,
Extent (range) of approval.
charpy and hardness tests.
Question 1 Question 2
Within the range of variables in a welding Using the TWI specification, which of the
procedure, DC+ has been stated for the root following is true for welder qualifications?
pass.
a. Plate and pipe require separate qualifications
a. This would allow the use of DC- also b. Plate qualifies pipe
b. This would allow the use of AC also c. Pipe qualifies plate
c. In accordance with the Specification, any d. It depends on whether it is fillet weld or butt
polarity could now be used weld
d. In accordance with the specification only DC+
can be used
8‐7
Question 3 Question 4
Which of the following NDT test is specified for If a welding current of 145A was used on the
all types of Stainless steel welds? test plate during qualification, on the actual job
while using this procedure, the maximum
a. Visual current permitted is?
b. Radiographic
c. Dye penetrant a. 175A
d. All options are correct b. 125A
c. 166A
d. 200A
Question 5 Question 6
With respect to the validity of using a procedure in If a welder tests on a plate thickness of 14 mm,
different positions, which one of the following is he is qualified to weld which of the following
acceptable? thicknesses?
Question 7 Question 8
For qualifying a welder for butt welding austenitic Which one of the following changes does not
stainless steels, 14 mm thick plate, using the TIG require re-qualification of a welder?
process, which of the following tests are not
required? a. Change from PF to PG
b. Change from fillet to butt
a. Fillet fracture c. Change from pipe to plate
b. Macro examination d. Change from rutile to low hydrogen
c. Hardness tests consumable
d. All of the above
8‐8
Question 9 Question 10
Which one of the following is true? If a welder fails a qualification test due to lack of
skill, how many are allowed?
a. Cellulosic qualifies rutile types also
b. PG qualifies PG only a. One
c. The addition of a backing strip requires b. Two
requalification c. No retests are allowed
d. Change from argon to carbon dioxide d. No limit for retests
8‐9
Se ct ion 9
Ar c En e r gy a n d H e a t I n pu t
9 Arc Energy and Heat Input
9.1 Current and voltage
The amount of electrons on the move defines the amount of electricity that
flows termed current. i and measured in amps, A. Electron flow and therefore
electricity, move at the speed of light as, rather than being the movement of
small solid particles, it is a form of electromagnetic wave, but as this takes us
into the realm of relativity we will not offer a proof of that here. Suffice to say
that, for all practical purposes, electricity is instantaneously available
throughout a circuit.
The differential of the positive and negative used to attract the electrons from
one to the other can be regarded as the driving force. This is called the
potential difference or voltage. Because of this potential there is a tendency
for the electrons to move, ie there is a force attempting to move them from the
negative to the positive. This force is called the electromotive force, (emf),
and is measured in volts, V.
Arc energy, is generally the term used in conjunction with heat input although
in reality they are different measurements. Arc energy, is the energy generated
at the welding arc using a simple formula. Heat input is the energy generated in
the workpiece from the welding arc using a slightly different formula. Essentially
they are the same thing but once one type of measurement has been selected,
you should not deviate between the two or errors will occur.
American standards use the term heat input but the energy is measured at the
arc wheras the end standards use the term heat input which is the actual
energy transferred to the material. These measurements will be different in
each case, EN generally has lower values as the EN standards take into account
the thermal efficiency value of the welding process know as the “K” factor.
Therefore, the standards dictating which type of measurement shall be recorded
although a Senior Welding Inspector should have a knowledge of both.
Arc energy is reasonably easy to calculate, the amperage and voltage used are
multiplied together and divided by the travel speed in mm per second multiplied
by 1000 to give the Kj per mm.
WIS10-30816
Arc Energy and Heat Input 9-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Ex a m ple
A MAG weld is m ade and t he following condit ions wer e r ecorded:
W h a t is t h e a r c e n e r gy?
= 24 x 240
( 300/ 60) x 1000
= 5760
5000
Ar c e n e r gy = 1 .1 5 2 or 1 .2 k J/ m m
SAW = 1.0.
MI G/ MAG, FCAW and MMAW = 0.8.
TI G and PLASMA = 0.6.
I f w e use t he sam e wor ked exam ple of t he MAG pr ocess but t his t im e calculat e
heat input it will be ev ident t he value has dr opped by 20% . Therefor e, it is
essent ial t hat t he values r ecorded ar e eit her k ept t he sam e or labelled as heat
input or ar c energy.
WI S10- 30816
Arc Energy and Heat I nput 9- 2 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Ex a m ple
A MAG weld is m ade and t he following condit ions wer e r ecorded:
W ha t is t h e h e a t inpu t ?
= 24 x 240 x 0.8
( 300/ 60) x 1000
= 4608
5000
H e a t input = 0 .9 2 k J/ m m
WI S10- 30816
Arc Energy and Heat I nput 9- 3 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Arc Energy and Heat Input
Section 9
What are the factors that influence arc What is the difference between arc energy
energy/heat input? and heat input?
What we call Arc Energy the American The amount of heat generated in the welding arc
standards reference as Heat Input? per unit length of weld.
The difference between EN standards and
American standards is the use of a thermal Expressed in kilo Joules per millimetre length
efficiency factor in EN known as the ”k” factor of weld (kJ/mm).
The ”k” factor denotes the thermal efficiency
value of the process used Arc energy (kJ/mm) = Volts x Amps
welding speed(mm/s) x 1000
9‐1
Heat Input Heat Input
The energy supplied by the welding arc to the Heat input values for various welding processes
work piece. can be calculated from the arc energy by
multiplying by the following
Expressed in terms of
arc energy x thermal efficiency factor Thermal efficiency factors;
= 5760 = 276480
5000 300000
9‐2
Arc Energy/Heat Input Heat Input and Arc Energy
Question 1 Question 2
What is the arc energy using process 121 when The heat input for the TIG welding process using
the parameters are 24V-225A-250mm per parameters 20V-125A-50mm per minute will be?
minute ?
a. 2.42KJ/mm
a. 1.3 KJ/mm b. 1.02KJ/mm
b. 1.04KJ/mm c. 1.80 KJ/mm
c. 0.57KJ/mm d. 0.8KJ/mm
d. 3.2KJ/mm
Question 3 Question 4
Using the preheat tables in the TWI specification, When welding C-Mn steels, having a carbon
when welding C-Mn steels having a carbon equivalent of 0.40 and combined section
equivalent of 0.38 and section combined thickness thickness of 102 mm, using a preheat of 50C
of 25 mm using MMA process with hydrogen scale with MMA process with parameters 24V-100 mm
C and a preheat of 125C with 22V-150A, Which per min. From those listed which is the
welding speed falls within the permitted range of maximum current permitted?
HI?
a. 276A
a. 68mm/min b. 372A
b. 72mm/min c. 555A
c. 74mm/min d. 434A
d. 80mm/min
9‐3
Question 5 Question 6
Which of the following is true? Which of the following materials have specific
restrictions on heat input?
a. For a lower heat input, higher preheats are
required a. Q&T steels
b. For the same material, the heat input b. Duplex stainless steels
increases with decreasing hydrogen levels c. Aluminium
c. As preheat increases, the heat input increases d. All of the above options are correct
d. A higher heat input cannot eliminate preheat
Question 7 Question 8
Using TIG process for welding 4043 aluminium When welding A514 grade material having a
alloy having a thickness of 4.2 mm, which of the thickness of 15 mm, using a preheat of 100C,
following parameters will be acceptable? with the MMA process, which of the following
parameters can be acceptable?
a. 20V, 25mm/min, 18A
b. 20V, 25mm/min, 13A a. 24V-210A-200mm/min
c. 21V, 25mm/min, 30A b. 20V-210A-200mm/min
d. 20V, 25mm/min, 9A c. 24V-210A-150mm/min
d. 25V-250A-200mm/min
Question 9 Question 10
When welding duplex stainless steels, having When welding 75mm Q&T steels with a
23.5% Chromium, using the TIG process, for a maximum preheat of 100C, the minimum heat
plate thickness of 12 mm, the heat input will be input is restricted to
dependent on?
a. 2.5KJ/mm
a. The carbon content b. 3.2KJ/mm
b. The preheat used c. 4.8KJ/mm
c. Combined plate thickness d. 5.0KJ/mm
d. None of the above
9‐4
Se ct ion 1 0
Re sidu a l St r e ss a n d D ist or t ion
10 Re sidu a l St r ess a n d D ist or t ion
1 0 .1 W ha t ca use s dist or t ion?
Because welding involves highly localised heat ing of j oint edges t o fuse t he
m at erial, non- uniform st r esses ar e set up in t he com ponent because of
expansion and cont ract ion of t he heat ed m at erial.
I nit ially, com pr essive st resses are cr eat ed in t he sur rounding cold parent m et al
when t he weld pool is for m ed due t o t he t her m al expansion of t he hot m et al
( heat affect ed zone ( HAZ) ) adj acent t o t he weld pool. How ev er , t ensile st resses
occur on cooling when t he cont ract ion of t he weld m et al and im m ediat e HAZ is
resist ed by t he bulk of t he cold parent m et al.
The m agnit ude of t herm al st resses induced int o t he m at erial can be seen by t he
volum e change in t he weld area on solidificat ion and subsequent cooling t o
room t em perat ur e. For exam ple, when welding C- Mn st eel, t he m olt en weld
m et al volum e will be reduced by appr oxim at ely 3% on solidificat ion and t he
volum e of t he solidified weld m et al/ HAZ will be r educed by a furt her 7% as it s
t em perat ur e falls from t he m elt ing point of st eel t o room t em perat ur e.
I f t he st resses generat ed from t herm al expansion/ cont ract ion ex ceed t he yield
st rengt h of t he parent m et al, localised plast ic deform at ion of t he m et al occurs.
Plast ic deform at ion causes a perm anent r educt ion in t he com ponent dim ensions
and dist ort s t he st ruct ur e.
1 0 .2 W ha t a r e t he m a in t y pe s of dist or t ion ?
Dist ort ion occurs in sev eral ways:
Non- uniform cont ract ion ( t hrough t hickness) produces a n gula r dist ort ion as
well as longit udinal and t ransv er se shrinking.
For exam ple, in a single V but t weld, t he first weld run produces longit udinal
and t ransverse shrinkage and rot at ion. The second run causes t he plat es t o
rot at e using t he first weld deposit as a fulcrum . Ther efor e balanced welding in a
double side V but t j oint can be used t o pr oduce uniform cont ract ion and prev ent
angular dist ort ion.
Sim ilarly, in a single- sided fillet weld, non- uniform cont ract ion will pr oduce
angular dist ort ion of t he upst anding leg. Double- sided fillet welds can t herefor e
be used t o cont r ol dist ort ion in t he upst anding fillet but because t he weld is only
deposit ed on one side of t he base plat e, angular dist ort ion will now be produced
in t he plat e.
WI S10- 30816
Residual st ress and Dist rort ion 10-1 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Longit udinal bow ing in welded plat es happens when t he w eld cent re is not
coincident wit h t he neut ral axis of t he sect ion so t hat longit udinal shrinkage in
t he welds bends t he sect ion int o a curved shape. Clad plat e t ends t o bow in t wo
direct ions due t o longit udinal and t ransverse shrinkage of t he cladding. This
produces a dished shape.
D ish in g is also produced in st iffened plat ing. Plat es usually dish inwards
bet ween t he st iffener s, because of angular dist ort ion at t he st iffener at t achm ent
welds.
I n plat ing, long range com pressive st r esses can cause elast ic buckling in t hin
plat es, r esult ing in dishing, bowing or rippling, see below.
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1 0 .3 .1 Pa r e n t m a t e r ia l pr ope r t ie s
Par ent m at erial propert ies, which influence dist ort ion, ar e coefficient of t herm al
expansion, t herm al conduct ivit y, and t o a lesser ext ent , yield st ress and
Young’s m odulus. As dist ort ion is det erm ined by expansion and cont r act ion of
t he m at erial, t he coefficient of t herm al expansion of t he m at erial plays a
significant role in det erm ining t he st resses generat ed during welding and,
hence, t he degr ee of dist ort ion. For exam ple, as st ainless st eel has a higher
coefficient of expansion and lesser t herm al conduct ivit y t han plain car bon st eel,
it generally has significant ly m or e dist ort ion.
1 0 .3 .2 Re st r a int
I f a com ponent is w elded wit hout any ext ernal r est r aint , it dist ort s t o r elieve t he
welding st resses. So, m et hods of r est raint , such as st r ongbacks in but t welds,
can prevent m ovem ent and reduce dist ort ion. As r est raint produces higher
levels of residual st ress in t he m at erial, t here is a great er risk of cr acking in
weld m et al and HAZ especially in crack- sensit ive m at erials.
1 0 .3 .3 Joint de sign
Bot h but t and fillet j oint s ar e pr one t o dist ort ion, but it can be m inim ised in but t
j oint s by adopt ing a j oint t ype, which balances t he t herm al st r esses t hrough t he
plat e t hickness. For ex am ple, double- in prefer ence t o a single- sided weld.
Double- sided fillet welds should elim inat e angular dist ort ion of t he upst anding
m em ber, especially if t he t w o w elds are deposit ed at t he sam e t im e.
1 0 .3 .4 Pa r t fit - up
Fit - up should be uniform t o produce pr edict able and consist ent shrinkage.
Excessive j oint gap can also increase t he degr ee of dist ort ion by increasing t he
am ount of weld m et al needed t o fill t he j oint . The j oint s should be adequat ely
t acked t o prevent relat ive m ov em ent bet w een t he part s during welding.
1 0 .3 .5 W e ld ing pr oce d ur e
This influences t he degree of dist ort ion m ainly t hrough it s effect on t he heat
input . As welding procedur es ar e usually select ed for r easons of qualit y and
product ivit y, t he welder has lim it ed scope for r educing dist ort ion. As a general
rule, weld volum e should be kept t o a m inim um . Also, t he welding sequence
and t echnique should aim t o balance t he t herm ally induced st resses ar ound t he
neut ral axis of t he com ponent .
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The t echnique chosen will be influenced by t he size and com plexit y of t he
com ponent or assem bly, t he cost of any rest raining equipm ent and t he need t o
lim it residual st resses.
1 0 .4 .1 Pr e - se t t in g of pa r t s
The part s ar e pr e- set and left free t o m ove during welding ( see above) . I n
pract ice, t he part s are pre- set by a pre- det er m ined am ount so t hat dist ort ion
occurring during welding is used t o achieve ov erall alignm ent and dim ensional
cont r ol.
The m ain advant ages com par ed wit h t he use of r est raint are t hat t her e is no
expensive equipm ent needed and t here will be lower r esidual st ress in t he
st ruct ur e.
Unfort unat ely, as it is difficult t o predict t he am ount of pre- set t ing needed t o
accom m odat e shrinkage, a num ber of t rial welds will be required. For exam ple,
when MMA or MI G/ MAG welding but t j oint s, t he j oint gap will norm ally close
ahead of w elding; when subm erged ar c welding; t he j oint m ay open up during
welding. When car rying out t rial welds, it is also essent ial t hat t he t est st ruct ure
is reasonably represent at ive of t he full size st r uct ure in order t o generat e t he
level of dist ort ion likely t o occur in pract ice. For t hese r easons, pr e- set t ing is a
t echnique m or e suit able for sim ple com ponent s or assem blies.
1 0 .4 .2 Pr e - be nd ing of p a r t s
Pre- bending, or pr e- springing t he part s before welding is used t o pr e- st ress t he
assem bly t o count eract shrinkage during welding. As shown abov e, pre- bending
by m eans of st rongbacks and wedges can be used t o pre- set a seam before
welding t o com pensat e for angular dist ort ion. Releasing t he wedges aft er
welding will allow t he part s t o m ov e back int o alignm ent .
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The figure show s t he diagonal bracings and cent re j ack used t o pre- bend t he
fixt ure, not t he com ponent . This count eract s t he dist ort ion int roduced t hough
out - of- balance w elding.
1 0 .4 .3 Use of r e st r a int
Because of t he difficult y in applying pre- set t ing and pre- bending, rest raint is t he
m or e widely pract ised t echnique. The basic principle is t hat t he part s are placed
in posit ion and held under rest raint t o m inim ise any m ov em ent during welding.
When r em oving t he com ponent fr om t he rest raining equipm ent , a relat ively
sm all am ount of m ov em ent will occur due t o locked- in st resses. This can be
cured by eit her applying a sm all am ount of pre- set or st r ess- r elieving befor e
rem oving t he r est raint .
When welding assem blies, all t he com ponent part s should be held in t he corr ect
posit ion unt il com plet ion of welding and a suit ably balanced fabricat ion
sequence used t o m inim ise dist ort ion.
Welding wit h rest raint will generat e addit ional r esidual st resses in t he w eld,
which m ay cause cracking. When w elding suscept ible m at erials, a suit able
welding sequence and t he use of pr eheat ing will reduce t his risk.
Rest raint is relat ively sim ple t o apply using clam ps, j igs and fixt ures t o hold t he
part s during welding.
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St r ongba ck s ( a nd w e dge s)
St rongback s ar e a popular m eans of applying rest r aint especially for sit e work.
Wedged st rongbacks ( c) ) above) , will prevent angular dist ort ion in plat e and
help prev ent peaking in welding cylindrical shells. As t hese t ypes of st r ongback
will allow t ransver se shrinkage, t he risk of cracking will be great ly reduced
com pared wit h fully welded st rongbacks.
1 0 .4 .4 Be st pr a ct ice
Adopt ing t he following assem bly t echniques will help t o cont r ol dist ort ion:
Pre- set part s so t hat w elding dist ort ion will achieve ov erall alignm ent and
dim ensional cont rol wit h t he m inim um of r esidual st ress.
Pre- bend j oint edges t o count eract dist ort ion and achieve alignm ent and
dim ensional cont rol wit h m inim um residual st ress.
Apply rest raint during welding by using j igs and fixt ures, flexible clam ps,
st rongbacks and t ack w elding but consider t he risk of cracking which can be
quit e significant , especially for fully welded st rongbacks.
Use an appr ov ed pr ocedure for w elding and rem oval of w elds for r est raint
t echniques, which m ay need preheat t o avoid form ing im perfect ions in t he
com ponent surface.
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Figur e 1 0 .5 Elim ina t ion of w e lds by:
a For m ing t he pla t e ;
b Use of r olle d or e x t r ude d se ct ion.
I f possible, t he design should use int erm it t ent welds rat her t han a cont inuous
run, t o r educe t he am ount of w elding. For exam ple, in at t aching st iffening
plat es, a subst ant ial reduct ion in t he am ount of welding can oft en be achieved
whilst m aint aining adequat e st r engt h.
1 0 .6 .1 W e ld pla ce m e n t
Placing and balancing of welds ar e im port ant in designing for m inim um
dist ort ion. The closer a weld is posit ioned t o t he neut ral axis of a fabricat ion,
t he lower t he leverage effect of t he shrinkage forces and t he final dist ort ion.
Exam ples of poor and good designs ar e shown below.
As m ost welds ar e deposit ed away from t he neut ral axis, dist ort ion can be
m inim ised by designing t he fabricat ion so t he shrinkage for ces of an individual
weld are balanced by placing anot her weld on t he opposit e side of t he neut ral
axis. When possible, welding should be carried out alt ernat ely on opposit e
sides, inst ead of com plet ing one side first . I n large st ruct ures, if dist ort ion is
occurring prefer ent ially on one side, it m ay be possible t o t ake corr ect ive
act ions, for ex am ple, by increasing welding on t he ot her side t o cont rol t he
ov erall dist ort ion.
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1 0 .6 .2 Re du cin g t h e volu m e of w e ld m e t a l
To m inim ise dist ort ion, as well as for econom ic reasons, t he volum e of weld
m et al should be lim it ed t o t he design requirem ent s. For a single- sided j oint , t he
cr oss- sect ion of t he w eld should be k ept as sm all as possible t o reduce t he lev el
of angular dist ort ion, as illust rat ed below.
Ways of r educing angular dist ort ion and lat eral shrinkage:
Joint preparat ion angle and root gap should be m inim ised pr oviding t he weld
can be m ade sat isfact orily. To facilit at e access, it m ay be possible t o specify a
larger root gap and sm aller preparat ion angle. By cut t ing down t he difference in
t he am ount of weld m et al at t he root and face of t he w eld, t he degr ee of
angular dist ort ion will be cor respondingly reduced. But t j oint s m ade in a single
pass using deep penet r at ion have lit t le angular dist ort ion, especially if a closed
but t j oint can be welded ( see abov e) . For exam ple, t hin sect ion m at erial can be
welded using plasm a and laser welding processes and t hick sect ion can be
welded, in t he v ert ical posit ion, using elect rogas and elect roslag processes.
Alt hough angular dist ort ion can be elim inat ed, t her e will st ill be longit udinal and
t ransv er se shrinkage.
I n t hick sect ion m at er ial, as t he cross- sect ional area of a double V j oint
preparat ion is oft en only half t hat of a single V preparat ion, t he volum e of weld
m et al t o be deposit ed can be subst ant ially r educed. The double V j oint
preparat ion also perm it s balanced welding about t he m iddle of t he j oint t o
elim inat e angular dist ort ion.
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1 0 .6 .3 Re ducing t h e n um be r of r u ns
Ther e ar e conflict ing opinions on whet her it is bet t er t o deposit a given volum e
of w eld m et al using a sm all num ber of large w eld passes or a large num ber of
sm all passes. Experience shows t hat for a single- sided but t j oint , or fillet weld,
a large single weld deposit gives less angular dist ort ion t han if t he weld is m ade
wit h a num ber of sm all runs. Generally, in an unrest rained j oint , t he degr ee of
angular dist ort ion is approxim at ely proport ional t o t he num ber of passes.
Com plet ing t he j oint wit h a sm all num ber of large weld deposit s result s in m ore
longit udinal and t ransverse shrinkage t han a w eld com plet ed in a larger num ber
of sm all passes. I n a m ult i- pass weld, previously deposit ed weld m et al provides
rest raint , so t he angular dist ort ion per pass decr eases as t he w eld is built up.
Large deposit s also incr ease t he risk of elast ic buckling part icularly in t hin
sect ion plat e.
I f w elding alt ernat ely on eit her side of t he j oint is not possible, or if one side
has t o be com plet ed first , an asym m et rical j oint preparat ion m ay be used wit h
m or e weld m et al being deposit ed on t he second side. The great er cont ract ion
result ing from deposit ing t he weld m et al on t he second side will help count eract
t he dist ort ion on t he first side.
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1 0 .6 .5 Be st pr a ct ice
The following design principles can cont rol dist ort ion:
Elim inat e welding by for m ing t he plat e and using rolled or ext ruded
sect ions.
Minim ise t he am ount of weld m et al.
Do not ov er- weld.
Use int erm it t ent welding in preference t o a cont inuous weld pass.
Place welds about t he neut ral axis.
Balance t he welding about t he m iddle of t he j oint by using a double V j oint
in preference t o a single.
Adopt ing best pract ice principles can hav e surprising cost benefit s. For exam ple,
for a design fillet leg lengt h of 6m m , deposit ing an 8m m leg lengt h will result in
t he deposit ion of 57% addit ional weld m et al. Besides t he ext r a cost of
deposit ing weld m et al and t he increase risk of dist ort ion, it is cost ly t o rem ov e
t his ext ra w eld m et al lat er. How ev er , designing for dist ort ion cont r ol m ay incur
addit ional fabricat ion cost s. For exam ple, t he use of a double V j oint
preparat ion is an excellent way t o reduce weld volum e and cont r ol dist ort ion,
but ext ra cost s m ay be incurred in product ion t hrough m anipulat ion of t he
wor kpiece for t he w elder t o access t he r ev erse side.
Tack welding.
Back- t o- back assem bly.
St iffening.
Ta ck w e ldin g
Tack w elds are ideal for set t ing and m aint aining t he j oint gap but can also be
used t o r esist t ransverse shrinkage. To be effect ive, t hought should be given t o
t he num ber of t ack w elds, t heir lengt h and t he dist ance bet w een t hem . Wit h t oo
few, t here is t he risk of t he j oint progr essively closing up as welding proceeds.
I n a long seam , using MMA or MI G/ MAG, t he j oint edges m ay ev en overlap. I t
should be not ed t hat w hen using t he subm erged arc pr ocess, t he j oint m ight
open up if not adequat ely t acked.
The t ack w elding sequence is im port ant t o m aint ain a uniform root gap along
t he lengt h of t he j oint . Thr ee alt ernat ive t ack- welding sequences are show n
below:
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Figur e 1 0 .9 Alt e r na t ive pr oce dur e s use d for t a ck w e lding t o pr e ve nt t r a nsve r se
shr in k a ge .
Direct ional t acking is a useful t echnique for cont r olling t he j oint gap, for
exam ple closing a j oint gap which is ( or has becom e) t oo wide.
When t ack welding, it is im port ant t hat t acks which are t o be fused int o t he
m ain weld, are pr oduced t o an approv ed pr ocedure using appropriat ely qualified
welders. The pr ocedure m ay require preheat and an approv ed consum able as
specified for t he m ain weld. Rem oval of t he t acks also needs careful cont r ol t o
avoid causing defect s in t he com ponent sur face.
Ba ck - t o- ba ck a sse m bly
By t ack w elding or clam ping t wo ident ical com ponent s back- t o- back , w elding of
bot h com ponent s can be balanced around t he neut ral axis of t he com bined
assem bly ( see a) on next page) . I t is recom m ended t hat t he assem bly is st ress-
relieved befor e separat ing t he com ponent s. I f st ress- relieving is not done, it
m ay be necessar y t o insert wedges bet w een t he com ponent s ( b) on next page)
so when t he wedges ar e rem oved, t he part s will m ove back t o t he cor r ect shape
or alignm ent .
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St iffe ning
Figur e 1 0 .1 1 Longit udina l st iffe ne r s pr e ve nt bow ing in but t w e lde d t hin pla t e
j oint s.
Longit udinal shrinkage in but t welded seam s oft en r esult s in bowing, especially
when fabricat ing t hin plat e st ruct ures. Longit udinal st iffeners in t he for m of flat s
or angles, welded along each side of t he seam ( see abov e) ar e effect ive in
prev ent ing longit udinal bowing. St iffener locat ion is im port ant : t hey m ust be at
a sufficient dist ance fr om t he j oint so t hey do not int erfere wit h welding, unless
locat ed on t he r ev erse side of a j oint welded from one side.
1 0 .7 .2 W e ld ing pr oce d ur e
A suit able welding procedur e is usually det erm ined by product ivit y and qualit y
requirem ent s rat her t han t he need t o cont r ol dist ort ion. Nevert heless, t he
welding process, t echnique and sequence do influence t he dist ort ion level.
W e lding pr oce ss
General rules for select ing a welding process t o prev ent angular dist ort ion ar e:
Unfort unat ely, select ing a suit able welding process based on t hese rules m ay
increase longit udinal shrinkage r esult ing in bowing and buckling.
Mechanised t echniques com bining high deposit ion rat es and welding speeds
have t he gr eat est pot ent ial for pr ev ent ing dist ort ion. As t he dist ort ion is m or e
consist ent , sim ple t echniques such as pr e- set t ing are m or e effect ive in
cont r olling angular dist ort ion.
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W e lding t e ch nique
General rules for pr ev ent ing dist ort ion are:
I n t he absence of rest r aint , angular dist ort ion in bot h fillet and but t j oint s will
be a funct ion of t he j oint geom et ry , w eld size and t he num ber of r uns for a
given cross- sect ion. Angular dist ort ion ( m easured in degrees) as a funct ion of
t he num ber of runs for a 10m m leg lengt h fillet weld is shown above.
I f possible, balanced welding around t he neut ral axis should be done, for
exam ple on double- sided fillet j oint s, by t wo people w elding sim ult aneously. I n
but t j oint s, t he run order m ay be crucial in t hat balanced welding can be used
t o cor rect angular dist or t ion as it develops.
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W e ldin g se qu e n ce
The w elding sequence, or direct ion, of w elding is im port ant and should be
t owards t he fr ee end of t he j oint . For long welds, t he whole of t he w eld is not
com plet ed in one direct ion. Short runs, for exam ple using t he back- st ep or skip
welding t echnique, ar e very effect ive in dist ort ion cont rol ( see abov e) .
Back- st ep welding involves deposit ing short adj acent weld lengt hs in t he
opposit e direct ion t o t he general progression ( see above) .
Skip welding is laying short weld lengt hs in a pre- det erm ined, evenly
spaced, sequence along t he seam ( b) in above figure) . Weld lengt hs and t he
spaces bet w een t hem are generally equal t o t he nat ural run- out lengt h of
one elect rode. The direct ion of deposit for each elect r ode is t he sam e, but it
is not necessary for t he welding direct ion t o be opposit e t o t he direct ion of
general progr ession.
1 0 .7 .3 Be st pr a ct ice
The following fabricat ion t echniques ar e used t o cont r ol dist ort ion:
General guidelines ar e provided on best pr act ice for corr ect ing dist ort ion using
m echanical or t herm al t echniques.
I n cases of bowing or angular dist ort ion, t he com plet e com ponent can oft en be
st raight ened on a pr ess wit hout t he disadvant ages of ham m ering. Packing
pieces are insert ed bet ween t he com ponent and t he plat ens of t he press. I t is
im port ant t o im pose sufficient deform at ion t o give over- cor rect ion so t hat t he
norm al elast ic spring- back will allow t he com ponent t o assum e it s corr ect
shape.
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Figur e 1 0 .1 4 Use of pr e ss t o cor r e ct bow in g in T but t j oin t .
Use packing pieces which will over corr ect t he dist ort ion so t hat spring- back
will ret urn t he com ponent t o t he corr ect shape.
Check t hat t he com ponent is adequat ely support ed during pressing t o
prev ent buckling.
Use a for m er ( or r olling) t o achieve a st raight com ponent or produce a
curvat ur e.
As unsecured packing pieces m ay fly out fr om t he press, t he following safe
pract ice m ust be adopt ed:
1 0 .8 .2 The r m a l t e ch nique s
The basic principle behind t herm al t echniques is t o creat e sufficient ly high local
st resses so t hat , on cooling, t he com ponent is pulled back int o shape.
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This is achieved by locally heat ing t he m at erial t o a t em perat ur e wher e plast ic
deform at ion will occur as t he hot , low yield st rengt h m at erial t ries t o expand
against t he surrounding cold, higher yield st rengt h m et al. On cooling t o room
t em perat ur e t he heat ed area will at t em pt t o shr ink t o a sm aller size t han befor e
heat ing. The st resses generat ed t her eby will pull t he com ponent int o t he
required shape ( see above) .
Local heat ing is, t herefor e, a relat ively sim ple but effect ive m eans of corr ect ing
welding dist ort ion. Shrinkage level is det erm ined by size, num ber, locat ion and
t em perat ur e of t he heat ed zones. Thickness and plat e size det erm ines t he area
of t he heat ed zone. Num ber and placem ent of heat ing zones are largely a
quest ion of experience. For new j obs, t est s will oft en be needed t o quant ify t he
level of shrinkage.
Spot , lin e , or w e dge - sha pe d heat ing t echniques can all be used in t herm al
corr ect ion of dist ort ion.
Spot he a t in g
Spot heat ing is used t o rem ov e buckling, for exam ple when a relat ively t hin
sheet has been w elded t o a st iff fram e. Dist ort ion is corr ect ed by spot heat ing
on t he conv ex side. I f t he buckling is regular, t he spot s can be arranged
sym m et rically, st art ing at t he cent r e of t he buckle and wor king out war ds.
Line h e a t ing
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Heat ing in st raight lines is oft en used t o cor rect angular dist ort ion, for exam ple,
in fillet welds. The com ponent is heat ed along t he line of t he welded j oint but
on t he opposit e side t o t he w eld so t he induced st resses will pull t he flange flat .
W e dge - sh a pe d he a t in g
To cor rect dist ort ion in larger com plex fabricat ions it m ay be necessar y t o heat
whole areas in addit ion t o em ploying line heat ing. The pat t ern aim s at shrinking
one part of t he fabricat ion t o pull t he m at erial back int o shape.
Apart fr om spot heat ing of t hin panels, a wedge- shaped heat ing zone should be
used fr om base t o apex and t he t em perat ur e profile should be uniform t hrough
t he plat e t hickness. For t hicker sect ion m at erial, it m ay be necessary t o use t w o
t orches, one on each side of t he plat e.
St andard r olled sect ion, which needs corr ect ion in t wo planes a) .
Buckle at edge of plat e as an alt ernat ive t o rolling b) .
Box sect ion fabricat ion, which is dist ort ed out of plane c) .
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a) St andard rolled st eel b) Buckled edge of plat e c) Box fabricat ion
sect ion
Ge n e r a l pr e ca ut ions
The danger s of using t herm al st raight ening t echniques are t he risk of ov er-
shrinking t oo large an area or causing m et allurgical changes by heat ing t o t oo
high a t em perat ur e. As a general rule, when cor rect ing dist ort ion in st eels t he
t em perat ur e of t he ar ea should be rest rict ed t o approxim at ely t o 600- 650°C -
dull red heat .
I f t he heat ing is int errupt ed, or t he heat lost , t he operat or m ust allow t he m et al
t o cool and t hen begin again.
Use spot heat ing t o rem ov e buckling in t hin sheet st ruct ur es.
Ot her t han in spot heat ing of t hin panels, use a wedge- shaped heat ing
t echnique.
Use line heat ing t o cor r ect angular dist ort ion in plat e.
Rest rict t he ar ea of heat ing t o avoid over- shrinking t he com ponent .
Lim it t he t em per at ure t o 600- 650°C ( dull red heat ) in st eels t o pr event
m et allurgical dam age.
I n w edge heat ing, heat fr om t he base t o t he apex of t he wedge, penet rat e
ev enly t hrough t he plat e t hickness and m aint ain an ev en t em per at ure.
WI S10- 30816
Residual st ress and Dist rort ion 10-18 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Residual Stress
10‐1
Nature of Residual Stress Residual Stress
Hot weld
Tension
YS at room
temperature
Compression
The longer the weld, the higher the tensile stress! The higher the heat input the wider the tensile zone!
10‐2
Residual Stress Residual Stress
Advantages Advantages:
Ability to vary heat. High heating rates.
Ability to continuously Ability to heat a
maintain heat. narrow band.
Disadvantages Disadvantages
Elements may burn High equipment cost.
out or arcing during Large equipment,
heating. less portable.
Local heat treatment using HF local heat treatment
electric heating blankets
Distortion
STRESS
Welding sequence.
TIME
10‐3
Factors Affecting Distortion Factors Affecting Distortion
10‐4
Distortion Prevention Residual Stress and Distortion
Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques You are currently employed as a Senior Welding
Inspector on a fabricated steel structure.
Question 1 Question 2
Residual stresses would play a major part in Which of the following conditions would cause
which of the following the greatest amount of distortion on this type of
fabricated structure?
a. HICC and brittle fracture
b. Lamellar tearing and solidification cracking a. A highly restrained joint during welding
c. Fatigue and ductile failure b. A joint, which is free to move during welding
d. Chevron cracking and hot cracking c. A joint, which would be subjected to the
lowest heat input
d. 2 options are correct
Question 3 Question 4
Which combination of factors will increase the The fabrication contains materials of varying Re
level of distortion? values, generally which of the following would
you expect to distort the most without control
a. High Rm, high thermal conductivity and low methods in place?
coefficient of expansion
b. Low Re, low thermal conductivity and high a. Welded joints made from the highest Re
coefficient of expansion value materials
c. High yield, high UTS and low coefficient of b. Welded joints made from the lowest Re value
expansion materials
d. Low percentage Z, High percentage of c. Welded joints that contain the highest
Sulphur and Phosphorous residual stress
d. 2 options are correct
10‐5
Question 5 Question 6
Part of the fabrication contains a joint made from Which of the following are factors affecting
C/Mn steel welded to a 316L steel. Which of the distortion?
following best applies when considering distortion?
Question 7 Question 8
The fabricator approaches you on the best way to Which of the following thickness and joint
reduce distortion. The joint configuration, welding configurations would you expect to produce the
process, material type can’t be changed. Which of highest amount of distortion?
the following could be applied to reduce distortion?
Question 9 Question 10
After welding it is a requirement to conduct a One of your inspectors asks you what would a typical
PWHT on certain welded joints. On this welded PWHT temperature be, when applied to this
structure what is the main purpose of this heat fabrication. Which of the following would be the
treatment? correct answer when taking into account the material
thickness range stated on a C/Mn to C/Mn steel
welded joint?
a. Normalising the material to increase the UTS
value for the welded structure a. Approximately 50°C above the upper critical limit
b. For hydrogen release, especially if a E8016 of the material stated
electrodes had been used for the welding of b. Between 600°C to 650°C
the joint. c. Approximately 100°C lower than the lower critical
c. For stress relieving the welded joint limit of the material stated
d. To anneal and temper the weld metal d. 2 options are correct
10‐6
Se ct ion 1 1
W e lda bilit y of St e e ls
11 W e lda bilit y of St e e ls
The t erm w eldabilit y sim ply m eans t he abilit y t o be w elded and m any t ypes of
st eel t hat are w eldable have been dev eloped for a wide range of applicat ions.
How ev er, it is t he ease or difficult y of m aking a weld wit h suit able propert ies
and fr ee from defect s which det erm ines whet her st eels are consider ed as
having ‘good w eldabilit y’ or said t o have poor w eldabilit y. A st eel is usually said
t o have poor weldabilit y if it is necessar y t ak e special precaut ions t o av oid a
part icular t ype of im per fect ion. Anot her r eason m ay be t he need t o w eld wit hin
a very narr ow range of param et er s t o achieve propert ies r equired for t he j oint .
For st eels wit h poor weldabilit y it is part icularly necessary t o ensur e t hat :
Welding procedure specificat ions give welding condit ions t hat do not cause
cracking but achieve t he specified propert ies.
Welders w ork st rict ly in accordance wit h t he specified welding condit ions.
Welding inspect or s r egularly m onit or welders t o ensure t hey are w orking
st rict ly in accordance t he WPSs.
Having a good underst anding of t he charact erist ics, causes, and ways of
avoiding im perfect ions in st eel weldm ent s should enable welding inspect or s t o
focus at t ent ion on t he m ost influent ial welding param et ers when st eels wit h
poor w eldabilit y are being used.
1 1 .2 H ydr oge n cr a ck in g
During fabricat ion by w elding, crack s can occur in som e t ypes of st eel, due t o
t he pr esence of hydr ogen. The t echnical nam e for t his t ype of cr acking is
hydrogen induced cold cracking ( HI CC) but it is oft en r efer r ed t o by ot her
nam es t hat describe var ious charact erist ics of hydrogen cracks:
Alt hough m ost hydrogen cracks occur in t he HAZ, t here are circum st ances when
t hey m ay form in weld m et al.
Figure 11.1 show s t ypical locat ions of HAZ hydr ogen cracks.
WI S10- 30816
Weldabilit y of St eels 11-1 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 1 .2 .1 Fa ct or s inf lu e ncing susce pt ibilit y t o h ydr oge n cr a ck in g
Hydr ogen cracking in t he HAZ of a st eel occurs when 4 con dit ion s e x ist a t
t he sa m e t im e :
These four condit ions ( four fact ors) ar e m ut ually int erdependent so t hat t he
influence of one condit ion ( it s’ act ive level) depends on how act ive t he ot hers
t hree fact or s are.
1 1 .2 .2 Cr a ck ing m e ch a nism
Hydr ogen ( H) can ent er t he m olt en weld m et al when hydrogen cont aining
m olecules ar e broken down int o H at om s in t he welding arc.
Because H at om s are v er y sm all t hey can m ove about ( diffuse) in solid st eel
and while weld m et al is hot t hey can diffuse t o t he weld surface and escape int o
t he at m ospher e.
I f t he HAZ has a suscept ible m icrost ruct ure – indicat ed by being relat ively hard
and brit t le, t here ar e also r elat ively high t ensile st r esses in t he weldm ent t hen
H cracking can occur.
The pr ecise m echanism t hat causes crack s t o form is com plex but H is believed
t o cause em brit t lem ent of regions of t he HAZ so t hat high- localised st resses
cause cracking rat her t han plast ic st raining.
Met hods t hat can be used t o m inim ise t he influence of each of t he four fact or s
are considered in t he following sub- sect ions.
WI S10- 30816
Weldabilit y of St eels 11-2 Copyright © TWI Lt d
H ydr oge n
The principal source of hydrogen is m oist ure ( H 2 O) and t he principal sour ce of
m oist ure is welding flux. Som e fluxes cont ain cellulose and t his can be a very
act ive source of hydrogen.
Welding processes t hat do not require flux can be regarded as low hydrogen
processes.
Ot her sources of hydr ogen are m oist ure pr esent in rust or scale, and oils and
greases ( hydr ocarbons) .
Ensuring t hat fluxes ( coat ed elect rodes, flux- cor ed wires and SAW fluxes)
are low in H when w elding com m ences.
Low H elect rodes m ust be eit her bak ed & t hen st or ed in a hot holding ov en
or supplied in vacuum - sealed packages.
Basic agglom erat ed SAW fluxes should be k ept in a heat ed silo befor e issue
t o m aint ain t heir as- supplied, low m oist ure, condit ion.
Check t he diffusible hydrogen cont ent of t he weld m et al ( som et im es it is
specified on t he t est cer t ificat e) .
Ensuring t hat a low H condit ion is m aint ained t hroughout welding by not
allowing fluxes t o pick- up m oist ure fr om t he at m ospher e.
Low hydr ogen elect r odes m ust be issued in sm all quant it ies and t he
exposur e t im e lim it ed; heat ed ‘quivers’ facilit at e t his cont r ol.
Flux- cored wire spools t hat are not seam less should be cover ed or r et urned
t o a suit able st orage condit ion when not in use.
Basic agglom erat ed SAW fluxes should be ret urned t o t he heat ed silo when
welding is not cont inuous.
Check t he am ount of m oist ure present in t he shielding gas by checking t he
dew point ( m ust be bellow - 60°C) .
Ensuring t hat t he weld zone is dr y and free fr om rust / scale and oil/ grease.
Te nsile st r e ss
Ther e are always t ensile st resses act ing on a weld because t her e ar e always
residual st resses fr om w elding.
These m easur es ar e part icularly im port ant when welding som e low alloy st eels
t hat have part icularly sensit ivit y t o hydrogen cr acking.
WI S10- 30816
Weldabilit y of St eels 11-3 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Susce pt ible H AZ m icr ost r uct ur e
A suscept ible HAZ m icr ost ruct ure is one t hat cont ains a relat ively high
proport ion of hard brit t le phases of st eel - part icularly m art ensit e.
The HAZ hardness is a good indicat or of suscept ibilit y and when it exceeds a
cert ain value a part icular st eel is consider ed t o be suscept ible. For C and C- Mn
st eels t his hardness value is ~ 350HV and suscept ibilit y t o H cracking increases
as hardness increases above t his value.
For C and C- Mn st eels a form ula has been developed t o assess how t he
chem ical com posit ion will influence t he t endency for significant HAZ hardening -
t he carbon equivalent value ( CEV) form ula.
The CEV form ula m ost widely used ( and adopt ed by I I W) is:
CEV iiw = % C + % Mn + % Cr + % Mo + % V + % Ni + % Cu
6 5 15
The CEV of a st eel is calculat ed by insert ing t he m at erial t est cert ificat e values
shown for chem ical com posit ion int o t he form ula. The higher t he CEV of a st eel
t he great er it s suscept ibilit y t o HAZ hardening and t herefor e t he gr eat er t he
suscept ibilit y t o H cracking.
The elem ent wit h m ost influence on HAZ hardness is carbon. The fast er t he rat e
of HAZ cooling aft er each weld run, t he great er t he t endency for hardening.
Avoiding a suscept ible HAZ m icrost ruct ure ( for C and C- Mn st eels) requires:
Procuring st eel wit h a CEV t hat is at t he low- end of t he range for t he st eel
grade( lim it ed scope of effect iveness) .
Using m oderat e w elding heat input so t hat t he w eld does not cool quickly
( and give HAZ hardening) .
Applying pre- heat so t hat t he HAZ cools m or e slowly ( and does not show
significant HAZ hardening) ; in m ult i- run welds, m aint ain a specific int erpass
t em perat ur e.
For low alloy st eels, wit h addit ions of elem ent s such as Cr, Mo and V, t he CEV
for m ula is not applicable and so m ust not be used t o j udge t he suscept ibilit y t o
hardening. The HAZ of t hese st eels will always t end t o be relat ively hard
regardless of heat input and pre- heat and so t his is a ‘fact or’ t hat cannot be
effect ively cont r olled t o reduce t he risk of H cracking. This is t he reason why
som e of t he low alloy st eels have great er t endency t o show hydr ogen cracking
t han in weldable C and C- Mn st eels, which enable HAZ hardness t o be
cont r olled.
WI S10- 30816
Weldabilit y of St eels 11-4 Copyright © TWI Lt d
W e ldm e n t a t low t e m pe r a t u r e
Weldm ent t em perat ur e has a m aj or influence on suscept ibilit y t o cracking
m ainly by influencing t he rat e at which H can m ov e ( diffuse) t hr ough t he weld
and HAZ. While a weld is r elat ively warm ( > ~ 300°C) H will diffuse quit e rapidly
and escape int o t he at m ospher e rat her t han be t rapped and cause
em brit t lem ent .
Reducing t he influence of low weldm ent t em per at ure ( and t he risk of t r apping H
in t he weldm ent ) can be effect ed by:
t em perat ur e ~ 600°C.
* Post - heat m ust not be confused wit h PWHT which is perform ed at a
1 1 .2 .4 H ydr oge n cr a ck in g in w e ld m e t a l
Hydr ogen cracks can form in st eel weld m et al under cert ain circum st ances. The
m echanism of cracking, and ident ificat ion of all t he influencing fact ors, is less
clearly underst ood t han for HAZ cracking but it can occur when welding
condit ions cause H t o becom e t rapped in weld m et al rat her t han in HAZ.
How ev er it is recognised t hat w elds in higher st r engt h m at erials, t hicker
sect ions and using large beads ar e t he m ost com m on ar eas wher e problem s
arise.
Hydr ogen cracks in weld m et al usually lie at 45° t o t he direct ion of principal
t ensile st r ess in t he weld m et al and t his is usually t he longit udinal axis of t he
weld ( Figure 11.3) . I n som e cases t he cracks are of a V form at ion, hence an
alt ernat ive nam e chevr on cracking.
Ther e are not any well- defined rules for avoiding weld m et al hydrogen crack s
apart from :
BS EN 1011- 2 ent it led Welding – Recom m endat ions for welding of m et allic
m at erials – Part 2: Ar c w elding of ferrit ic st eels gives in Annex C pract ical
guidelines about how t o avoid H cracking. Pract ical cont rols are based
principally on t he applicat ion of pre- heat and cont r ol of pot ent ial H associat ed
wit h t he welding process.
WI S10- 30816
Weldabilit y of St eels 11-5 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Because a w eld m et al m ay be part icularly suscept ible t o solidificat ion cracking it
m ay be said t o show hot short ness because it is short of duct ilit y when hot and
so t ends t o crack.
Figure 11.4 shows a t ransv er se sect ion of a weld wit h a t ypical cent reline
solidificat ion crack .
1 1 .3 .2 Cr a ck ing m e ch a nism
All weld m et als solidify ov er a t em per at ure range and since solidificat ion st art s
at t he fusion line t owar ds t he cent reline of t he weld pool, during t he last st ages
of weld bead solidificat ion t here m ay be enough liquid present t o form a w eak
zone in t he cent re of t he bead. This liquid film is t he r esult of low m elt ing point
const it uent s being pushed ahead of t he solidificat ion front .
During solidificat ion, t ensile st resses st art t o build- up due t o cont ract ion of t he
solid part s of t he weld bead, and it is t hese st resses t hat can cause t he weld
bead t o rupt ur e. These circum st ances result in a weld bead showing a
cent r eline crack t hat is present as soon as t he bead has been deposit ed.
Cent r eline solidificat ion cracks t end t o be sur face breaking at som e point in
t heir lengt h and can be easily seen during visual inspect ion because t hey t end
t o be r elat ively wide cracks.
How ev er, t hese weld m et als can becom e sensit ive t o t his t ype of cracking if
t hey are cont am inat ed wit h elem ent s, or com pounds, t hat produce relat ively
low m elt ing point film s in weld m et al.
Sulphur and copper ar e elem ent s t hat can m ake st eel weld m et al sensit ive t o
solidificat ion cracking if t hey are pr esent in t he w eld at relat ively high levels.
Sulphur cont am inat ion m ay lead t o t he form at ion of iron sulphides t hat rem ain
liquid when t he bead has cooled down as low as ~ 980°C, whereas bead
solidificat ion st art s at above 1400°C.
Copper cont am inat ion in weld m et al can be sim ilarly harm ful because it has low
solubilit y in st eel and can for m film s t hat are st ill m olt en at ~ 1100°C.
WI S10- 30816
Weldabilit y of St eels 11-6 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Avoiding solidificat ion cracking ( of an ot herwise non- sensit ive weld m et al)
requires t he avoidance of cont am inat ion wit h pot ent ially harm ful m at erials by
ensuring:
Figure 11.5 show s a w eld bead t hat has solidified using unfavourable welding
condit ions associat ed wit h cent r eline solidificat ion cracking.
The weld bead has a cr oss- sect ion t hat is quit e deep and narr ow – a widt h- t o-
dept h rat io < ~ 2 and t he solidifying dendrit es have pushed t he lower m elt ing
point liquid t o t he cent re of t he bead wher e it has becom e t rapped. Since t he
surr ounding m at erial is shrinking as a result of cooling, t his film would be
subj ect ed t o t ensile st ress, which leads t o cracking.
I n cont rast , Figure 11.6 shows a bead t hat has a widt h- t o- dept h rat io t hat is
> > 2. This bead shape shows lower m elt ing point liquid pushed ahead of t he
solidifying dendrit es but it does not becom e t r apped at t he bead cent re. Thus,
ev en under t ensile st r esses r esult ing from cooling, t his film is self- healing and
cracking is avoided.
SAW and spray- t ransfer GMAW ar e m or e likely t o give weld beads wit h an
unfavourable widt h- t o- dept h rat io t han t he ot her ar c w elding processes. Also,
elect r on beam and laser welding processes ar e ext r em ely sensit ive t o t his kind
of cracking as a r esult of t he deep, nar row beads pr oduced.
Avoiding unfavourable welding condit ions t hat lead t o cent reline solidificat ion
cracking ( of weld m et als wit h sensit ive com posit ions) m ay require significant
changes t o w elding param et ers, such as reducing t he:
For TI G w elding, use a curr ent slope- out device so t hat t he cur rent , and
weld pool dept h gradually reduce before t he arc is ext inguished ( gives m or e
favourable weld bead widt h- t o- dept h rat io) . I t is also a com m on pract ice t o
backt rack t he bead slight ly befor e br eaking t he ar c or lengt hen t he arc
gradually t o avoid crat er cracks.
For TI G w elding, m odify weld pool solidificat ion m ode by feeding t he filler
wire int o t he pool unt il solidificat ion is alm ost com plet e and av oiding a
concave cr at er.
For MMA, m odify t he weld pool solidificat ion m ode by reversing t he direct ion
of t rav el at t he end of t he w eld run so t hat crat er is filled.
WI S10- 30816
Weldabilit y of St eels 11-7 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 1 .4 La m e lla r t e a r ing
Lam ellar t earing is a t ype of cracking t hat only occurs in st eel plat e or ot her
rolled product s underneat h a weld.
1 1 .4 .2 Cr a ck ing m e ch a nism
High st resses in t he t hrough- t hickness direct ion, t hat are pr esent as welding
residual st resses, because t he inclusion st ringer s t o open- up ( de- cohese) and
t he t hin ligam ent s bet ween individual de- cohesed inclusions t hen t ear and
produce a st epped crack.
WI S10- 30816
Weldabilit y of St eels 11-8 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 1 .4 .3 Avoiding la m e lla r t e a r in g
Lam ellar t earing can be av oided by r educing t he influence of one, or bot h, of
t he fact or s.
Resist ance t o lam ellar t earing can be evaluat ed by m eans of t ensile t est pieces
t aken wit h t heir axes perpendicular t o t he plat e surface ( t he t hr ough- t hickness
direct ion) . Through- t hickness duct ilit y is m easured as t he % r educt ion of ar ea
( % R of A) at t he point of fr act ur e of t he t ensile t est piece ( Figure 11.8) .
Reducing t he suscept ibilit y of rolled plat e t o lam ellar t earing can be achiev ed by
ensuring t hat it has good t hrough- t hickness duct ilit y by:
Using clean st eel t hat has low sulphur cont ent ( < ~ 0.015% ) and
consequent ly has r elat ively few inclusions.
Procuring st eel plat e t hat has been subj ect ed t o t hr ough- t hickness t ensile
t est ing t o dem onst rat e good t hr ough- t hickness duct ilit y ( as EN 10164) .
Reducing t he m agnit ude of t hr ough- t hickness st resses for a part icular weld j oint
would require m odificat ion t o t he j oint , in som e way and so m ay not always be
pract ical because of t he need t o sat isfy design requirem ent s. Howev er, m et hods
t hat could be considered are:
WI S10- 30816
Weldabilit y of St eels 11-9 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Figur e 1 1 .1 Typica l loca t ions of hydr oge n indu ce d cold cr a ck s.
WI S10- 30816
Weldabilit y of St eels 11-10 Copyright © TWI Lt d
X
a Transverse
cracks
b Weld layers w it h
cracks lying at
45° t o X - Y axis
Figur e 1 1 .2 a a n d b
a Pla n vie w of a pla t e but t w e ld show ing subsur f a ce t r a nsve r se cr a ck s;
b Longit u dina l se ct ion X- Y of t he a bove w e ld show in g how t he t r a nsve r se
cr a ck s a ct ua lly lie a t 4 5 ° t o t he sur fa ce . The y t e n d t o r e m a in w it hin a n
individua l w e ld r u n a n d m a y be in w e ld se ve r a l la ye r s. The ir a ppe a r a n ce in
t his or ie nt a t ion ha s give n r ise t o t he n a m e ‘ch e vr on’ cr a ck s ( a r r ow sha pe d
cr a ck s) .
WI S10- 30816
Weldabilit y of St eels 11-11 Copyright © TWI Lt d
a
Figur e 1 1 .3
a Solidifica t ion cr a ck a t t he w e ld be a n ce nt r e w he r e colum na r de ndr it e s ha ve
t r a ppe d som e low e r m e lt ing poin t liquid
b The w e ld be a d doe s n ot ha ve a n ide a l sha pe bu t it ha s solidifie d w it hout t he
de ndr it e s m e e t ing ‘e nd- on’ a nd t r a pping low e r m e lt ing point liquid t h e r e by
r e sist ing solidifica t ion cr a ck ing.
WI S10- 30816
Weldabilit y of St eels 11-12 Copyright © TWI Lt d
W
D W/ D < 2
Direction of travel
D W/ D > ~ 2
Direction of travel
WI S10- 30816
Weldabilit y of St eels 11-13 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Fusion
boundar
HAZ
I nclusion
st ringer
Figur e 1 1 .6
a Typica l la m e lla r t e a r loca t e d j ust out side t he visible H AZ;
b St e p- lik e cr a ck cha r a ct e r ist ic of a la m e lla r t e a r .
WI S10- 30816
Weldabilit y of St eels 11-14 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Through- t hickness
t ensile t est piece
Plat e surface
Plat e surface
WI S10- 30816
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Suscept ible plat e Ext ruded sect ion
WI S10- 30816
Weldabilit y of St eels 11-16 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Weldability of Steels
Section 11
"The ease with which a material, or materials Weldability can pose problems for welders,
can be welded to give an acceptable joint" inspectors & engineers.
BS 499 - 1
Weldability problems can be overcome through Weldability is the key to successful welding
understanding
Weldability
In order to produce a sound weld it is
necessary to know and understand the
material properties of the steels to be welded. Weld process
Effect of
crack
carbon
mechanisms
Grain
structures
11‐1
The Effect of Carbon
It affects
Increase in tensile strength
1. Strength.
Increase in hardness
2. Hardness.
0.1% Increase in carbon 1.4%
3. Ductility.
Decrease in elongation
Steel alloys can be divided into five main Plain carbon steels come in three types
groups
Low Carbon Steels 0.01 - 0.3%C
1. Carbon steels.
2. Alloy steels. Medium Carbon Steels 0.3 - 0.6%C
3. Quenched & tempered steels.
4. Heat treatable low alloy steels. High Carbon Steels 0.6 - 1.4%C
5. Chromium molybdenum steels.
11‐2
Alloy Steels
Manganese (Mn) - Primary desulphuriser & Molybdenum (Mo) - Improves creep resistance
secondary deoxidizer. and temper embrittlement.
11‐3
Carbon Content Vs Carbon Equivalent Carbon Content Vs Carbon Equivalent
Because Manganese has 1/6 of the effect on A steel contains 0.12%C and 1.3%Mn.
hardenability compared to one part Carbon.
What is the carbon equivalent?
The formula can be shortened to:
Ceq% = C + Mn
Ceq% = C + Mn 6
6 = 0.12 + 1.3
6
= 0.12 + 0.216
Ceq = 0.336%
Grain Structures
Simplified Continuous
Critical Cooling Rate
Cooling Diagram
Critical cooling rate Austenite
The rate of cooling from the austenite region
which determines the final grain structure.
Temperature
Martensite Bainite
Ferrite + Pearlite
Time
11‐4
Weld Process Crack Mechanisms TWI – Welding Inspection
2. Solidification cracking.
3. Lamellar tearing.
4. Re-heat cracking.
Factor Quantum
Water vapour in
Diffusible > 15ml/100gm. Of weld metal the air or in the Moisture on
hydrogen content for C steels. Can reduce with shielding gas the electrode
higher strength levels or grease on
the wire
H2
Stress > 0.5 of yield strength
H2
11‐5
The Process of HICC The Process of HICC
Hydrogen enters the weld via the welding arc. As the weld cools some hydrogen atoms can
become trapped between grain boundaries as
Heat of the arc breaks down molecular hydrogen the lattice structure of the steel also contracts
(H2) into atomic hydrogen (H). and changes.
As weld cools hydrogen diffuses outwards into Below 300°C hydrogen prefers to be in its
parent plate and atmosphere. molecular form (H2) so individual atoms are
attracted towards each other.
Molecular
Hydrogen
(H2)
Steel in expanded condition Steel under contraction
Above 300oC Below 300oC
This can lead to cracking in susceptible 3. Use a low hydrogen welding process.
microstructures where ductility is poor.
11‐6
Avoidance of HICC Avoidance of HICC
Below is a list of welding process in order of Below is a list of hydrogen scales taken from BS
lowest hydrogen content (H2/100 grams of EN 1011 with regards to 100 grams of weld
deposited weld metal). metal deposited.
11‐7
Solidification Cracking Solidification Cracking
Factors for solidification cracking
Sulphur in the parent material may dilute in the
weld metal to form iron sulphides (low strength, Columnar grain growth with impurities in weld
low melting point compounds). metal (sulphur, phosphorus and carbon).
The amount of stress/restraint.
During weld metal solidification, columnar crystals Joint design high depth to width ratios.
push still liquid iron sulphides in front to the last Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying
grains.
High contractional strains are present.
place of solidification, weld centerline .
Intergranular liquid
Columnar film
Liquid Iron Sulphide films grains Columnar
HAZ grains HAZ
11‐8
TWI – Welding Inspection Lamellar Tearing
Location: Parent metal just below the HAZ.
Steel Type: Any steel type possible.
Susceptible Microstructure: Poor through thickness
ductility.
11‐9
Lamellar Tearing Lamellar Tearing
Susceptible Non-Susceptible
Susceptible
11‐10
STRA Test Weldability
Question 1 Question 2
One of your inspectors suggests to you that You notice from the WPS on certain joints a pre heat of
lamellar tearing may have occurred in a single 150°C is required, on other joints the preheat is only
75°C. Why do you think some joints require more pre heat
bevel butt joint. Would you agree with this than others?
comment?
a. This would be due to the different thickness of
materials being used and the increased chances of
a. No, this defect can only occur in single v butt solidification cracking
welds b. This would be due to the different thickness of
b. No, this type of defect will only occur in C/Mn materials being used and the increased chances of
hydrogen cracking
steels with a CE value >0.48%
c. This would be due to the fact that some welders
c. Yes, this defect is possible in a single bevel require more preheat than others as it increases
butt, but it would require RT for clarification penetration
d. All options are incorrect; it’s due to lamellar tearing in
d. All options are incorrect thicker materials
Question 3 Question 4
One of your inspectors suggests to you that the pre heat One of your inspectors asks you what are the
temperatures are too low to prevent hydrogen cracking main factors affecting hydrogen cracking. Which
occurring. Which of the following combinations are correct
for determining a correct pre heat temperature to be
of the following would be your best reply?
applied prior to welding?
a. Temperature, the amount of stress, molecular
a. Material thickness, joint design, the amount of hydrogen and material composition
hydrogen and welding process b. Material thickness, atomic hydrogen, material
b. Material thickness, the amount of stress, hydrogen composition and the amount of stress
content and material type c. Sulphur content >0.03%, hydrogen content >
c. Material type and thickness, hydrogen scale and heat 15ml, the amount of stress and material
input composition
d. The amount of stress, welding process, hydrogen d. All options have insufficient information given
content and material type
11‐11
Question 5 Question 6
During visual inspection one of your inspectors One of your welding inspectors informs you that
detects a longitudinal crack along the weld during welding one of the welders is using an
centerline approximately 100mm in length. excessive long arc length. Which of the following
Which of the following would be reasons for the issues could be caused by this situation?
occurrence of this type of crack?
a. An increase in hydrogen content in the weld
a. Sulphur contents and manganese contents
too low b. An increased risk of carbide precipitation
b. Sulphur contents too high, manganese occurring
contents too low c. An increased risk of solidification cracking
c. Sulphur contents too low, manganese occurring
contents too high d. An increased risk of lamellar tearing occurring
d. All options would cause this type of cracking after welding.
Question 7 Question 8
When inspecting the material certificates you notice Which of the following could be used to prevent
some of the materials are classified as Z steels. the formation of hydrogen cracking?
What does this relate to?
a. All these materials when welded will be free from a. The use of E8018 electrodes in standard
solidification issues/cracking packaging
b. All these materials will have a guaranteed b. The use of E8010 electrodes, baked to 350°C
minimum UTS value of 500N/mm2, this will help prior to use to remove moisture
prevent the formation of hydrogen cracking c. The use of E6012 electrodes, used in a dried
c. All these materials will have a probable freedom condition will give a lower UTS value which
from lamellar tearing when welded will give an increased elongation value
d. All these materials have properties of zero
d. All options are incorrect
ductility
Question 9 Question 10
One of your inspectors suggests increasing the During the inspection of the materials prior to fabrication
restraint on all single V butt joints to reduce one of the NDT inspection personnel reports back to you
that he has detected lamellar type defects running in the
distortion. Which of the following may have center of the parent plate, sub-surface. Which of the
detrimental affect of this? following is correct?
a. An increase risk of solidification cracking and a. The defects detected would most likely be plate
laminations and definitely not lamellar tearing
lamellar tearing
b. Lamellar tearing does not happen sub surface, it is a
b. An increased risk of solidification and surface breaking cracking mechanism
hydrogen cracking c. If its been located in the center of the plate then it
c. An increased risk of weld decay and hydrogen would most likely be solidification cracking
cracking d. NDT does not locate lamellar tearing it requires
through thickness ductility testing to locate it when
d. All options are correct present
11‐12
Se ct ion 1 2
W e ld Fr a ct u r e s
12 W e ld Fr a ct ur es
Welds m ay suffer t hree different fract ure m echanism s:
Duct ile.
Brit t le.
Fat igue.
Oft en a com plet e fract ure of a weldm ent will be a com binat ion of fract ure t ypes
eg init ially fat igue followed by final duct ile fract ure.
1 2 .1 D uct ile fr a ct ur e s
Occur in inst ances wher e t he st rengt h and t he cross- sect ional area of t he
m at erial are insufficient t o carr y t he applied load.
Such fract ures ar e com m only seen on m at erial and welding procedur e t ensile
t est specim ens wher e failure is accom panied by yielding, st ret ching and
t hinning as shown below.
The fract ure edges ar e at 45° t o t he applied load a nd ar e known as shear lips.
1 2 .2 Br it t le fr a ct u r e
I s a fast , unst able t ype of fract ure which can lead t o cat ast r ophic failure.
The phenom enon was first ident ified during World War 2 when m any Libert y
Ships broke in t wo for no appar ent r eason. Since t hat t im e m any brit t le failures
have occur red in bridges, boilers, pr essure v essels et c som et im es wit h loss of
life and always wit h expensive dam age.
WI S10- 30816
Weld Fract ures 12-1 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Court esy of Douglas E. William s, P.E., Welding Handbook, Vol.1, Nint h Edit ion, reprint ed by
perm ission of t he Am erican Welding Society.
WI S10- 30816
Weld Fract ures 12-2 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 2 .3 Fa t igue fr a ct u r e
Fat igue fract ur es occur in sit uat ions wher e loading is of a cyclic nat ure and at
st ress levels w ell below t he yield st ress of t he m at erial.
Typically fat igue cracks will be found on bridges, cranes, aircraft and it em s
affect ed by out of balance or vibrat ing forces.
I nit iat ion t akes place from st r ess concent rat ions such as changes of sect ion,
arc- st rikes, t oes of welds. Ev en t he best designed and m ade welds have som e
degr ee of st ress concent rat ion.
As fat igue crack s t ak e t im e first ly t o init iat e t hen t o gr ow, t his slow progression
allows such crack s t o be found by regular inspect ion schedules on t hose it em s
known t o be fat igue sensit ive.
The gr owt h r at e of fat igue cr ack s is dependant on t he loading and t he num ber
of cycles. I t is not t im e dependant
Fat igue failures are not rest rict ed t o any one t ype of m at erial or t em perat ur e
range. St r ess- relief has lit t le effect upon fat igue life.
St ruct ures known t o be at risk of fat igue failure ar e usually designed t o codes
t hat acknowledge t he risk and lays down t he rules and calculat ions t o predict it s
design life.
WI S10- 30816
Weld Fract ures 12-3 Copyright © TWI Lt d
I dent ifying feat ures of fat igue fract ure ar e:
Ver y sm oot h fract ur e surface, alt hough m ay have st eps due t o m ult iple
init iat ion point s.
Bounded by cur ved crack fr ont .
Bands m ay be visible indicat ing crack progression.
I nit iat ion point opposit e curv e crack fr ont .
Surface at 90° t o applied loading.
Fat igue crack s som et im es st op of t heir own accord if t he crack runs int o an area
of low st r ess. On t he ot her hand t hey m ay grow unt il t he rem aining cross-
sect ion is insufficient t o support t he applied loads. At t his point final failure will
t ake place by a secondary m echanism ie duct ile or brit t le.
WI S10- 30816
Weld Fract ures 12-4 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Fracture Mechanisms
Ductile fracture.
Brittle fracture.
Fatigue fracture.
Weld Fractures
Section 12
Ductile Fracture
12‐1
Brittle Fracture Brittle Fracture
12‐2
Brittle Fracture Brittle Fracture
If a material is subjected to a static load, final Location: Any stress concentration area.
rupture is preceded by very large strains.
Steel Type: All steel types.
If the same material is subjected to cyclic
loads, failure may occur:
At stress well below elastic limit.
Susceptible Microstructure: All grain
structures.
With little or no plastic deformation.
12‐3
Fatigue Fracture Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue cracks occur under cyclic stress Precautions against Fatigue Cracks
conditions. Toe grinding, profile grinding.
Fracture normally occurs at a change in The elimination of poor profiles.
The elimination of partial penetration welds
section, notch and weld defects ie stress
concentration area.
All materials are susceptible to fatigue and weld defects.
cracking. Operating conditions under the materials
Fatigue cracking starts at a specific point endurance limits.
referred to as a initiation point. The elimination of notch effects eg mechanical
The fracture surface is smooth in appearance damage cap/root undercut.
sometimes displaying beach markings. The selection of the correct material for the
The final mode of failure may be brittle or service conditions of the component.
ductile or a combination of both.
Points of initiation
Beach Marks
12‐4
Products Liable to Fatigue Failure Fatigue Fracture
Overhead Cranes Lifting equipment
Fatigue fracture occurs in structures subject to
repeated application of tensile stress.
Fractures Question 1
A large C-Mn structure is due for inspection after A failure has occurred at the termination of a
prolonged use. fillet weld. Part of the surface condition of the
fractured surface shows variations in colour
It has been used in a variety of environments contrast between different parts. This can be
including temperatures below zero and at times described as:
subjected to intense cyclic loading.
a. Beach marks
There are a number of failed joints within the b. Shear lips
structure which you have to assess and report c. Reduction in area
on. d. Crystallization marks
Question 2 Question 3
You discover a thick section failure, with a flat Cyclic loading can cause failure over time. What
surface, over one metre long. You need to best describes this?
establish the initiation point of this failure. What
feature on the failed surface could help you to a. Repeated loading of varying magnitude
find this?
b. Loads above the UTS of the material
c. Stress above the Rm point
a. Crystalline zone
d. Impact loading at low temperatures
b. Chevron marks
c. Crescent marks
d. Crack direction line
12‐5
Question 4 Question 5
Brittle failure is consistent with which On the failed structure, some of the failures
combinations? show distinct initiation points. Which of the
following is more likely to be these points?
a. High temperature and static loading
b. Low temperature and residual stress a. Concave weld features
c. Temperatures that vary considerably and a b. Mitre like weld features
load below Re c. Convex weld features
d. Temperatures above ambient and low loading d. Unequal leg length features
Question 6 Question 7
Question 8 Question 9
Which of the following materials does not suffer One of the failed joints on the structure, has a
from fatigue failure? torn feature with shear lips at the point of
failure. What is the most likely cause of this
a. HSLA failure?
b. 316L stainless steel
c. Q/T steels a. Cyclic loading
d. None of the options are correct b. High residual stress
c. Over loading
d. Over loading in combination with low
temperatures
12‐6
Question 10
a. Sudden failure
b. Slow, progressive crack propagation
c. Loading above the UTS value
d. Ductile failure
12‐7
Se ct ion 1 3
W e ldin g Sym bols
13 W e ldin g Sym bols
A weld j oint can be r epresent ed on an engineering drawing by m eans of a
det ailed sket ch showing ev er y det ail and dim ension of t he j oint preparat ion - as
shown below.
8- 12°
≈R6
1- 3m m
1- 4m m
Single U pr e pa r a t ion.
While t his m et hod of represent at ion gives com prehensive inform at ion, it can be
t im e- consum ing and can also ov erburden t he drawing.
An alt ernat ive m et hod is t o use a sym bolic repr esent at ion t o specify t he
required inform at ion - as shown below for t he sam e j oint det ail.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Sym bols 13-1 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 3 .1 St a nda r ds for sym bolic r e pr e se nt a t ion of w e lde d j oint s on dr a w in gs
Ther e ar e t wo principal st andards t hat are used for w elding sym bols:
Eu r ope a n St a n da r d
BS EN I SO 2553 – Welded, brazed and soldered j oint s – Sy m bolic
represent at ion on dr awings.
Am e r ica n St a nda r d
AWS A2.4 – St andard Sym bols for Welding, Brazing, and Non- dest ruct ive
Exam inat ion.
These st andards ar e v er y sim ilar in m any respect s, but t her e are also som e
m aj or differences t hat need t o be underst ood t o avoid m is- int erpret at ion.
Det ails of t he Eur opean St andard are given in t he following sub- sect ions wit h
only brief inform at ion about how t he Am er ican St andard differs from t he
Eur opean St andard.
Exam ples of sym bols used by BS EN I SO 2553 are shown on following pages.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Sym bols 13-2 Copyright © TWI Lt d
13.2 Elementary welding symbols
Designation Illustration of joint preparation Symbol
Square butt weld
Fillet weld
Surfacing (cladding)
Backing run
(back or backing weld)
Backing bar
WIS10-30816
Welding Symbols 13-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
1 3 .3 Com bin a t ion of e le m e nt a r y sym bols
For sym m et rical welds m ade fr om bot h sides, t he applicable elem ent ary
sym bols are com bined – as shown below.
Double V but t
weld ( X weld)
WI S10- 30816
Welding Sym bols 13-4 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 3 .4 Supp le m e nt a r y sy m b ols
Weld sym bols m ay be com plem ent ed by a sym bol t o indicat e t he required
shape of t he w eld.
Convex double V
but t weld
N ot e : I f t he weld sy m bol does not hav e a supplem ent ary sym bol t hen t he
shape of t he w eld surface does not need t o be indicat ed precisely.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Sym bols 13-5 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 3 .5 Posit ion of sy m bols on dr a w ings
I n order t o be able t o pr ovide com prehensive det ails for w eld j oint s, it is
necessary t o dist inguish t he t wo sides of t he w eld j oint .
An arr ow line.
A dual refer ence line consist ing of a cont inuous line and a dashed line.
3
2a
1 = Arrow line
2a = Reference line
1
( cont inuous line)
2b = I dent ificat ion line
( dashed line)
2b 3 = Welding sym bol
( single V j oint )
Joint line
The ar row side is always t he end of t he j oint line t hat t he arrow line point s t o
( and t ouches) .
I t can be at eit her end of t he j oint line and it is t he draught sm an who decides
which end t o m ak e t he arr ow side.
arrow line
‘arrow side’
‘other side’
‘other side’
‘arrow side’ arrow line
WI S10- 30816
Welding Sym bols 13-6 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Ther e ar e som e conv ent ions about t he ar r ow line:
An exam ple of how a single- bevel but t j oint should be repr esent ed is shown
below.
For a non- sym m et rical weld it is essent ial t hat t he arr ow side and ot her side of
t he weld be dist inguished.
Sym bols for t he weld det ails required on t he arr ow side m ust be placed on
t he cont inuous line.
Sym bols for t he weld det ails on ot her side m ust be placed on t he dashed
line.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Sym bols 13-7 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 3 .8 Posit ion s of t h e cont inuou s line a n d t he da she d lin e
BS EN ISO 2553 allows t he dashed line t o be eit her above or below t he cont inuous line
– as shown below.
or
I f t he weld is a sym m et rical weld t hen it is not necessary t o dist inguish bet ween
t he t wo sides and BS EN I SO 2553 st at es t hat t he dashed line should be
om it t ed. Thus, a single V but t weld wit h a backing run can be shown by eit her
of t he four sym bolic represent at ions shown below.
N ot e : This flexibilit y wit h t he posit ion of t he cont inuous and dashed lines is an
int erim m easur e t hat BS EN I SO 2553 allows so t hat old drawings ( t o t he
obsolet e BS 499 Part 2, for exam ple) can be conv enient ly conv ert ed t o show
t he EN m et hod of represent at ion.
1 3 .9 D im e nsion ing of w e ld s
Ge n e r a l r ule s
Dim ensions m ay need t o be specified for som e t ypes of w eld and BS EN I SO
2553 specifies a convent ion for t his.
Dim ensions for t he cross- sect ion of t he w eld are w rit t en on t he left - hand
side of t he sym bol.
Lengt h dim ensions for t he weld are writ t en on t he right hand side of t he
sym bol.
I n t he absence of any indicat ion t o t he cont rar y, all but t welds ar e full
penet rat ion w elds.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Sym bols 13-8 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 3 .9 .1 Sym bols for cr oss- se ct ion dim e n sions
The following let t ers ar e used t o indicat e dim ensions:
Som e exam ples of how t hese sym bols ar e used are shown below.
Z8
Fillet weld wit h
8m m leg
8m m
a6
Fillet weld wit h
6m m t hroat
6m m
WI S10- 30816
Welding Sym bols 13-9 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 3 .9 .2 Sym bols for le ngt h dim e nsion s
To specify weld lengt h dim ensions and, for int erm it t ent welds t he num ber of
individual weld lengt hs ( weld elem ent s) , t he following let t ers ar e used:
l Lengt h of w eld.
( e) Dist ance bet w een adj acent weld elem ent s.
n Num ber of w eld elem ent s.
The use of t hese let t ers is illust rat ed for t he int erm it t ent double- sided fillet weld
shown below.
100m m
150m m
Plan view End view
Z8 3 × 150 ( 100)
3 × 150 ( 100)
zZ n x l ( e)
Z8
Z n x l ( e)
WI S10- 30816
Welding Sym bols 13-10 Copyright © TWI Lt d
I f an int erm it t ent double- sided fillet weld is t o be st agger ed, t he conv ent ion for
indicat ing t his is shown below.
l ( e)
Exam ples ar e:
WI S10- 30816
Welding Sym bols 13-11 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 3 .1 0 I ndica t ion of t he w e lding pr oce ss
I f r equired, t he w elding process is t o be sy m bolised by a num ber writ t en
bet ween t he t wo branches of a fork at t he end of t he reference line – as shown
below.
111 = MMA
111 121 = SAW
131 = MI G
135 = MAG
141 = TI G
A closed t ail can also be used int o which refer ence t o a specific inst ruct ion can
be added – as shown below.
WPS 014
WI S10- 30816
Welding Sym bols 13-12 Copyright © TWI Lt d
These differences ar e illust rat ed by t he following exam ple.
Arrow side
Ot her side
WI S10- 30816
Welding Sym bols 13-13 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Weld Symbols on Drawings
Welding Symbols
The symbolic representation includes (BS EN ISO 2553 & AWS A2.4)
An arrow line. Convention of the arrow line
A reference line. Shall touch the joint intersection.
An elementary symbol. Shall not be parallel to the drawing.
Shall point towards a single plate preparation
The elementary symbol may be completed by (when only one plate has preparation).
A supplementary symbol.
A means of showing dimensions.
Some complementary indications.
13‐1
Reference Line Reference Line
Fillet weld
Double V Double U
13‐2
Dimensions Supplementary Symbols
In a butt weld, the size of the weld is based on the Further supplementary information, such as WPS number, or
depth of the joint preparation. NDT may be placed in the fish tail
Concave or Convex
Reference lines
Arrow line
Arrow side
13‐3
BS EN ISO 2553 BS EN ISO 2553
a b
Mitre Convex
Toes shall
Concave
c d be blended
Peripheral welds
NDT WPS
z10
10
The component requires Additional information,
NDT inspection the reference document
is included in the box 10
13‐4
BS EN ISO 2553 BS EN ISO 2553
a4 n x l (e)
a 4mm Design throat
z s
Welds to be
staggered
z6 s6 2 x 40 (50)
111
6mm leg 6mm Actual throat 3 x 40 (50)
Process
z5 3 x 80 (90)
z8 3 x 80 (90)
z6 3 x 80 (90)
z6 3 x 80 (90)
5 80 80 6
80 80 80 80
5
6
8 90 90
90
6 90 90 90
8
6
Single V butt with Single U butt with Single bevel butt Double bevel butt
permanent backing strip removable backing strip
Single V butt flush cap Single U butt with sealing run Single bevel butt Single J butt
13‐5
BS EN ISO 2553 BS EN ISO 2553
BS EN ISO 2553
BS EN ISO 2553
Compound Weld Ex
Numerical values for welding processes Complete the symbol drawing for the welded
111: MMA welding with covered electrode cruciform joint provided below
All welds are welded with the MAG process and fillet welds
121: Sub-arc welding with wire electrode
with the MMA process
131: MIG welding with inert gas shield
135: MAG welding with non-inert gas shield
7 10
136: Flux core arc welding
141: TIG welding 35 20
311: Oxy-acetylene welding 15
30
72: Electro-slag welding
15: Plasma arc welding
All fillet weld leg lengths 10 mm
13‐6
BS EN ISO 2553
Welding Symbols
Rules - Example
All leg lengths shall be preceded by z and throat
by a or s (in case of deep penetration welds)
z 10 3 x 50 (50)
AWS A2.4
50
50
10
Welding process
Depth of Root opening
bevel
GSFCAW
1 (1-1/8) 1(1-1/8)
1/8 1/8
60° 60°
GMAW
Effective throat Groove angle
GTAW
SAW
Welds to be staggered
3 – 10 3rd Operation
SMAW
Sequence of
3 – 10 operations
2nd Operation
Process
3 3 1st Operation
FCAW
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60°
10
13‐7
AWS Welding Symbols AWS A 2.4 Rules
10 3 x 50 (70)
Any Questions
10
50
70
?
Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd
Question 1
a b c d
13‐8
Question 2 Question 3
Based on the information given, what would be At position 3, what would be the appropriate
the appropriate weld symbol to BS EN ISO 2553 weld symbol to BS EN ISO 2553 , if a set on
for the joint numbered 2, if it was welded from nozzle type configuration, welded from the
the outside of the vessel by the SAW process outside of the vessel using the MMA welding
with a sealing run on the inside of the vessel? process?
111
111
111 15 121 SUB 131 111
ARC
a b c d a b c d
Question 4 Question 5
At position 3, what would be the appropriate At position 4 on the vessel, what would be the
weld symbol to BS EN ISO 2553 , if a set appropriate symbol to BS EN ISO 2553 , if a fillet
through joint configuration was used and a weld was required with a 26mm leg length fillet
14mm design throat was required on the inside, on the outside of the flange and a 14mm design
and a 20mm leg length fillet on the outside of throat on the inside on the flange?
the vessel, using the MAG welding process?
Question 6 Question 7
At position 3 on the vessel, what would be the At position 1, the material thickness has been
appropriate weld symbol to BS EN ISO 2553 , if changed to 5mm. What would be the appropriate
a compound weld was required on the outside of welding symbol to BS EN ISO 2553 , if a single
the vessel with a 30mm leg length and a 14mm sided weld from the outside of the vessel was
design throat weld on the inside of the vessel used with removable backing using the MAG
using the MMA process? process?
13‐9
Question 8 Question 9
When using BS EN ISO 2553 , the term At position 2 on the vessel, if a single sided
symmetrical means? bevel joint was required on the dished end when
welding from the outside, in accordance with
a. The same, arrow and other side BS EN ISO 2553 which would be the correct
symbol?
b. Different arrow and other side
c. Only refers to the arrow side
d. Only refers to the other side
a b c d
Question 10
13‐10
Se ct ion 1 4
NDT
14 NDT
Radiographic, ult rasonic, dye- penet rant and m agnet ic part icle m et hods are
briefly described below. The relat ive advant ages and lim it at ions of t he m et hods
are discussed in t erm s of t heir applicabilit y t o t he exam inat ion of w elds.
Digit al t echnology has enabled t he st oring of radiographs using com put er s. The
present discussion is confined t o film radiography since t his is st ill by far t he
m ost com m on m et hod applied t o welds.
fission) , in which case t hey are t erm ed γ- rays. Ot her form s of penet rat ing
which case t hey are t erm ed X ray s, or fr om nuclear disint egrat ions ( at om ic
radiat ion exist but t hey are of lim it ed int erest in weld radiography.
1 4 .1 .2 X rays
X rays used in t he indust rial radiography of welds generally have phot on
energies in t he range 30keV up t o 20MeV. Up t o 400keV t hey are generat ed by
conv ent ional X ray t ubes which dependant upon out put m ay be suit able for
port able or fixed inst allat ions.
Port abilit y falls off rapidly wit h increasing kilovolt age and radiat ion out put .
Above 400keV X ray s are produced using devices such as bet at r ons and linear
accelerat ors. These dev ices are not generally suit able for use out side of fixed
inst allat ions. All sources of X rays produce a cont inuous spect rum of radiat ion,
reflect ing t he spread of kinet ic energies of elect rons wit hin t he elect ron beam .
Low energy radiat ions are m ore easily absorbed and t he presence of low energy
t herefor e bet t er radiographic sensit ivit y t han is in t he case wit h γ- rays which
radiat ions, wit hin t he X ray beam , gives rise t o bet t er r adiographic cont rast and
Convent ional X ray unit s ar e capable of per for m ing high qualit y radiography on
st eel of up t o 60m m t hickness, bet at r ons and linear accelerat ors ar e capable of
penet rat ing in excess of 300m m of st eel.
WI S10- 30816
NDT 14-1 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 4 .1 .3 γ- r a ys
The early sources of γ- rays used in indust rial radiography w er e in general
com posed of nat urally occurring radium . The act ivit y of t hese sources was not
very high, t herefor e t hey wer e physically rat her large by m odern st andards
ev en for quit e m odest out put s of radiat ion and t he radiographs pr oduced by
t hem wer e not of a part icularly high st andard.
sour ces do not pr oduce a cont inuous dist ribut ion of quant um energies. γ-
sour ces produce a num ber of specific quant um energies which ar e unique for
any part icular isot ope.
Yt t erbium 169 has only fairly recent ly becom e available as an isot ope for
indust rial use, it ’s ener gy is sim ilar t o t hat of 120keV X ray s and it is useful for
t he radiography of st eel up t o appr oxim at ely 12m m t hickness.
I ridium 192 is probably t he m ost com m only encount er ed isot opic sour ce of
radiat ion used in t he radiographic exam inat ion of w elds, it has a relat ively high
specific act ivit y and high out put sources wit h physical dim ensions of 2- 3m m are
in com m on usage, it ’s energy is approxim at ely equivalent t o t hat of 500 keV X
rays and it is useful for t he radiography of st eel in t he t hickness range 10-
75m m .
Cobalt 60 has an energy approxim at ing t o t hat of 1.2MeV X ray s, due t o t his
relat ively high energy suit able source cont ainer s are large and rat her heavy.
Cobalt 60 sour ces ar e for t his r eason not fully port able. They are useful for t he
radiography of st eel in t he t hickness range 40- 150m m .
WI S10- 30816
NDT 14-2 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 4 .1 .4 Ra d iog r a p hy of w e ld s
Radiographic t echniques depend upon det ect ing differ ences in absorpt ion of t he
beam ie: changes in t he effect ive t hickness of t he t est obj ect , in order t o r ev eal
defect ive areas.
Volum et ric weld defect s such as slag inclusions ( ex cept in som e special cases
wher e t he slag absorbs radiat ion t o a great er ext ent t han does t he weld m et al)
and various form s of gas porosit y are easily det ect ed by radiographic
t echniques due t o t he large negat ive absorpt ion difference bet w een t he par ent
m et al and t he slag or gas.
Planar defect s such as cracks or lack of side w all or int er- run fusion are m uch
less likely t o be det ect ed by radiography since such defect s m ay cause lit t le or
no change in t he penet rat ed t hickness. Wher e defect s of t his t ype are likely t o
occur ot her NDE t echniques such as ult rasonic t est ing are pr eferable t o
radiography. This lack of sensit ivit y t o planar defect s m ak es radiogr aphy an
unsuit able t echnique wher e a fit ness- for- purpose appr oach is t aken when
assessing t he accept abilit y of a w eld.
How ev er, film radiography produces a perm anent record of t he w eld condit ion,
which can be archived for fut ur e reference; it also provides an excellent m eans
of assessing t he welder’s per form ance and for t hese r easons it is oft en st ill t he
preferr ed m et hod for new const ruct ion.
WI S10- 30816
NDT 14-3 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Figur e 1 4 .3 X r a y of a w e lde d se a m sh ow in g por osit y.
1 4 .1 .5 Ra diogr a phic t e st in g
The sam e laws of physics apply equally t o ult rasonic wav es as t hey do t o light
waves. Because ult rasonic waves ar e r efract ed at a boundar y bet ween t w o
m at erials having different acoust ic pr opert ies, probes m ay be const ruct ed which
can beam sound int o a m at erial at ( wit hin cert ain lim it s) any given angle.
WI S10- 30816
NDT 14-4 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Careful observat ion of t he echo pat t ern of a given reflect or and it s behaviour as
t he ult rasonic probe is m ov ed t oget her wit h t he posit ional inform at ion obt ained
abov e and knowledge of t he com ponent hist or y enables t he experienced
ult rasonic operat or t o classify t he reflect or as say slag lack of fusion or a crack .
a A f la w de t e ct or com pr ising:
Piezo- elect ric cryst al elem ent capable of conv ert ing elect rical vibrat ions t o
m echanical vibrat ions and vice- versa.
Probe shoe, norm ally a Per spex block t o which t he cry st al is firm ly at t ached
using a suit able adhesive.
Elect rical and/ or m echanical cryst al dam ping facilit ies t o prevent excessive
ringing.
Such equipm ent is light weight and ext rem ely port able. Aut om at ed or sem i-
aut om at ed syst em s for ult rasonic t est ing ut ilise t he sam e basic equipm ent
alt hough in general t his will be m ult i- channel equipm ent , it is bulkier and less
port able.
Probes for aut om at ed syst em s are set in array s and som e form of m anipulat or
is necessary in order t o feed posit ional infor m at ion about t he pr obes t o t he
com put er. Aut om at ed syst em s generat e v ery large am ount s of dat a and m ake
large dem ands upon t he RAM of t he com put er . Recent advances in aut om at ed
UT have led t o a r educed am ount of dat a being recorded for a given lengt h of
weld.
Sim plified probe ar ray s have great ly reduced t he com plexit y of set t ing up t he
aut om at ed sy st em t o carr y out a part icular t ask. Aut om at ed UT syst em s now
provide a serious alt ernat ive t o radiography on such const ruct ions as pipelines
wher e a large num ber of sim ilar inspect ions allow t he unit cost of syst em
dev elopm ent t o be reduced t o a com pet it ive lev el.
WI S10- 30816
NDT 14-5 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Figur e 1 4 .5 Com pr e ssion a nd she a r w a ve pr obe s.
WI S10- 30816
NDT 14-6 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 4 .2 M a gn e t ic pa r t icle t e st ing
Surface breaking or ver y near surface discont inuit ies in fer r om agnet ic m at erials
give rise t o leakage fields when high levels of m agnet ic flux are applied. These
leakage fields will at t ract m agnet ic part icles ( finely divided m agnet it e) t o
t hem selves and t his process leads t o t he form at ion of an indicat ion.
WI S10- 30816
NDT 14-7 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 4 .2 .1 M a gn e t ic pa r t icle t e st ing
1 4 .3 D ye pe n e t r a n t t e st in g
Any liquid t hat has good wet t ing propert ies will act as a penet rant . Penet rant s
are at t ract ed int o surface breaking discont inuit ies by capillary for ces. Penet rant ,
which has ent ered a t ight discont inuit y, will rem ain even when t he excess
penet rant is r em ov ed.
Applicat ion of a suit able dev eloper will encourage t he penet rant wit hin such
discont inuit ies t o bleed out . I f t her e is a suit able cont rast bet ween t he
penet rant and t he dev eloper an indicat ion visible t o t he eye will be for m ed. This
cont rast m ay be pr ovided by eit her visible or fluorescent dyes. Use of
fluorescent dy es considerably increases t he sensit ivit y of t he t echnique.
WI S10- 30816
NDT 14-8 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Figur e 1 4 .1 1 Cr a ck fou n d usin g dye - pe ne t r a nt inspe ct ion.
1 4 .3 .1 D ye pe n e t r a n t
Ult rasonic inspect ion m ay not det ect near surface defect s easily since t he
indicat ions m ay be m asked by echoes arising fr om t he com ponent geom et r y
and should t herefor e be supplem ent ed by an appropriat e surface crack
det ect ion t echnique for m axim um t est confidence.
Ge n e r a l r e qu ir e m e nt s:
Dat e/ t im e/ st age of inspect ion.
Place of inspect ion.
Procedure or St andard t o which t he t est was perform ed.
St andard used for accept ance crit eria.
Mat erial t ype and t hickness.
Joint configurat ion.
All defect s ident ified, locat ed and sized.
NDT t echnicians nam e and qualificat ion.
St am ped signed and dat ed.
WI S10- 30816
NDT 14-9 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Ult r a son ic spe cif ic – not e not su it a ble for a ll w e ld m e t a l t ype s
Surface finish ie as- welded or ground.
Type of equipm ent .
Probe t ypes – com pression and shear wave.
Probe sizes – usually 10m m .
Probe fr equency – t ypically 2.5–5MHz.
Probe angles – t ypically 45, 60, 70, 90.
Type of couplant .
Calibrat ion block t ype and hole size.
Calibrat ion range set t ing.
Scanning pat t ern.
Sensit ivit y set t ing.
Recording level.
Pe n e t r a n t spe cific
Met hod – colour cont rast or fluorescent .
Surface pr eparat ion.
Penet rant t ype.
Applicat ion m et hod and t im e ( 5- 60m in) .
Met hod of r em oval.
Type and applicat ion of dev eloper.
Cont rast light – 500 Lux m in.
Black light – 20 Lux.
Operat ing t em perat ur e - 5–50 ° C.
WI S10- 30816
NDT 14-10 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Non-Destructive Testing
Source
Source
Image quality indicator
Radiation beam
Image quality indicator
Radiation beam
Test specimen
Test specimen
Radiographic film
14‐1
Radiographic Testing Radiographic Density
Density - relates to the degree of darkness. 1.23 1.88 2.13 2.44 2.63 2.93 3.03 3.53 4.23
7FE12
14‐2
Radiographic Techniques Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
Single Wall Single Image Panoramic Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
Film
IQI’s are placed on the film side. Film
Source inside film outside (single exposure). IQI’s are placed on the film side.
Source outside film outside (multiple exposure).
This technique is intended for pipe diameters
over 100mm.
Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd
14‐3
Gamma Isotopes Half Life Radiographic Testing
The half life of an isotope is the time taken for Lead intensification screens (Pb)
an isotope to reduce its initial activity by a half. < 100 Kv’s None or up to 0.03mm thickness.
After two half life's the activity is reduced to one 100 to 250 KV’s up to 0.15mm thickness.
quarter of its initial activity. Isotopes are > 250 KV’s / Ir192 up to 0.2mm thickness.
normally replaced after 3 half life's. Co60 0.25 to 0.7mm thickness.
Source Size
Ir192 1.5 X 1.5 17Ci, 2.0 X 2.0 60Ci, 3 X 2 120Ci 4 X 4
Cobalt 60 5.3 years.
300Ci.
Iridium 192 74 days. Processing
Ytterbium 169 32 days. Development typically 4minutes at 20°C.
Selenium 75 120 days. Fixing typically around 2-4 minutes at 20°C.
Density typically 2 to 3.5.
Sensitivity typically 2% or less.
Advantages Disadvantages
Permanent record. Expensive consumables.
Little surface Bulky equipment.
preparation. Harmful radiation.
Defect identification. Defect require significant
No material type depth in relation to the
limitation. radiation beam (not good
Not so reliant upon for planar defects).
operator skill. Slow results.
Thin materials. Very little indication of
depths.
Access to both sides
required.
Main features
Surface and sub-surface detection.
Pulse echo signals Digital
A scan display UT set
This detection method uses high frequency sound
waves, typically above 2MHz to pass through a material.
A probe is used which contains a piezo electric crystal to
transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses and display the
signals on a cathode ray tube or digital display.
The actual display relates to the time taken for the
ultrasonic pulses to travel the distance to the interface
and back.
An interface could be the back of a plate material or a
defect.
For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be
introduced between the probe and specimen. Compression probe Checking the material thickness
14‐4
Ultrasonic Testing Ultrasonic Testing
Material Thk
Defect
0 10 20 30 40 50
0 25 100
70o
0 100 200
V1/A2 Block
V1 (A2) Block Thickness 25mm
14‐5
Ultrasonic Testing Magnetic Particle Testing
Advantages Disadvantages
Rapid results. Trained and skilled
Both surface and operator required.
Sub-surface detection. Requires high operator
Safe. skill.
Capable of measuring the Good surface finish
required.
Defect identification.
depth of defects.
May be battery powered.
Portable. Couplant may
contaminate.
No permanent record.
Calibration Required.
Ferritic material
(mostly).
Alternatively to contrast
inks, fluorescent inks
may be used for greater
sensitivity.
A crack like
indication
These inks require a UV-
A light source and a
darkened viewing area to
inspect the component.
14‐6
Magnetic Particle Testing Magnetic Particle Testing
Advantages Disadvantages
Simple to use. Surface or slight
Inexpensive. sub-surface
Rapid results. detection only.
Little surface Magnetic materials
only.
No indication of
preparation required.
Possible to inspect
defects depths.
Only suitable for
through thin
coatings.
linear defects.
Detection is required
in two directions.
14‐7
Penetrant Testing Penetrant Testing
Test procedure
Penetrant time 5-15 minutes.
Development/inspection time 0-30 minutes.
Light requirements
White light 500 Lux minimum.
Black light 20 Lux or 1.0mW/cm2, below 20 Lux
ambient light.
Inspectors should wait 5 minutes before
conducting inspection using fluorescent methods to
allow the eyes to become adapted to the
Colour contrast penetrant conditions.
crack indication
Temperature
Between 10-50°C.
Fluorescent penetrant
crack indication
14‐8
Penetrant Testing
Advantages Disadvantages
Simple to use. Surface breaking defect
Inexpensive. only.
Quick results. Little indication of depths.
Penetrant may
Any Questions
Can be used on any non-
porous material. contaminate component.
Portability. Surface preparation
Low operator skill
required.
critical.
Post cleaning required.
Potentially hazardous
chemicals.
Can not test unlimited
times.
Temperature dependant.
?
Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd
14‐9
Se ct ion 1 5
W e ldin g Con su m a ble s
15 W e ldin g Con su m a ble s
Welding consum ables are defined as all t hose t hings t hat are used up in t he
product ion of a w eld.
This list could include m any t hings including elect rical energy; howev er w e
norm ally refer t o w elding consum ables as t hose t hings used up by a part icular
welding process.
1 5 .1 M M A e le ct r ode s
MMA elect rodes can be cat egorised according t o t he t ype of cov ering t hey hav e
and consequent ly t he charact erist ics t hat it confers.
For C- Mn and low alloy st eels t her e ar e 3 gener ic t ypes of elect r odes:
Cellulosic.
Rut ile.
Basic.
These generic nam es indicat e t he t ype of m iner al/ com pound t hat is dom inant in
t he covering.
1 5 .1 .1 Cove r e d e le ct r ode m a n uf a ct u r e
Elect r ode m anufact ur er s pr oduce elect rodes by :
St raight ening and cut t ing core wire t o st andar d lengt hs ( t ypically 300, 350
and 450m m depending on elect rode classificat ion and diam et er) .
Making a dry m ix of powder ed com pounds/ m inerals ( precise levels of
addit ions depend on individual m anufact urer’s form ulat ions) .
Making a wet m ix by adding t he dry powder s t o a liquid binder.
Ext ruding t he covering ( concent rically) on t o t he cor e wire.
Hardening t he cov ering by drying t he elect rodes. *
Carr ying out bat ch t est s - as required for elect r ode cert ificat ion.
Packing t he elect r odes int o suit able cont ainers.
*
For low hydr ogen elect rodes t his is a high t em perat ur e bake - ≥~450ºC.
Vacuum pack ed elect rodes ar e packed in sm all quant it ies int o packaging
t hat is im m ediat ely vacuum sealed – t o ensure no m oist ure pick- up.
Elect r odes t hat need t o be r e- bak ed ar e pack ed int o st andard pack et s and
as t his m ay be som e t im e aft er baking, and t he packaging m ay not be
sealed, t hey do not r each t he end- user in a guarant eed low hydrogen
condit ion, t hey t her efore r equire r e- baking at a t ypical t em perat ur e of
350º C for appr oxim at ely 2 hours,
For individual bat ch cer t ificat ion t his will require t he m anufact ure of a t est pad
for chem ical analysis and m ay require m anufact ure of a t est w eld from which a
t ensile t est and Charpy V not ch t est pieces are t est ed.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-1 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 5 .1 .2 Ele ct r ode cove r ings
Cor e wires used for m ost C- Mn elect r odes, and som e low alloy st eel elect r odes,
are a v er y low C st eel* and it is t he form ulat ion of t he covering t hat det erm ines
t he com posit ion of t he deposit ed weld m et al and t he operat ing charact erist ics of
t he elect rode.
The flux cov ering on an elect r ode is form ulat ed t o aid t he m anufact uring
process and t o provide a num ber of funct ions during welding.
Facilit at e arc ignit ion/ re- ignit ion and give ar c st abilisat ion.
Generat e gas for shielding t he arc and m olt en m et al from cont am inat ion by
air.
I nt eract wit h t he m olt en weld m et al t o give de- oxidat ion and flux im purit ies
int o t he slag t o cleanse/ refine t he m olt en weld m et al.
Form a slag for prot ect ion of t he hot w eld m et al from air cont am inat ion.
Provide elem ent s t o give t he weld m et al t he r equired m echanical propert ies.
Enable posit ional welding by m eans of slag form ers t hat fr eeze at
t em perat ur es abov e t he solidificat ion t em per at ure range of t he weld m et al.
E 46 3 B
Check s should also be m ade t o ensur e t hat ba sic e le ct r ode s have been
t hrough t he cor r ect pr e - u se pr oce du r e . Having been baked t o t he cor rect
flux coat ings will det eriorat e rapidly when dam p and care should be t aken t o
inspect st orage facilit ies t o ensur e t hat t hey are adequat ely dry , and t hat all
elect r odes ar e st ored in condit ions of cont rolled t em perat ur e and hum idit y.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-2 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 5 .2 Ce llu losic e le ct r ode s
Cellulose is t he principal subst ance in t his t ype of elect rode and com prising
t ypically ~ 40% of t he flux const it uent s.
Cellulose is an organic m at erial ( nat urally occurring) such as cot t on and wood,
but it is wood pulp t hat is t he principal source of cellulose used in t he
m anufact ure of elect rode cov erings.
Cellulose br eaks down during welding and produces carbon m onoxide and
dioxide and hydr ogen.
Hydr ogen provides part of t he gas shielding funct ion and gives a relat ively
high arc v olt age.
The high arc volt age gives t he elect rode a hard and forceful arc wit h good
penet rat ion/ fusion abilit y.
The v olum e of slag form ed is r elat ively sm all.
Cellulosic elect rodes cannot be baked during m anufact ure or before welding
because t his would dest roy t he cellulose; t he m anufact uring procedure is t o
harden t he coat ing by drying ( t ypically at 70- 100º C) .
Because of t he high hydrogen levels t her e is always som e risk of H cracking
which requires cont r ol m easur es such as hot - pass w elding t o facilit at e t he
rapid escape of hydrogen.
Because of t he risk of H cracking t here are lim it s on t he st rengt h/
com posit ion and t hickness of st eels on which t hey can be used ( elect rode
are m anufact ur ed in classes E60xx , E70xx , E80xx and E90xx but bot h lower
st rengt h grades t end t o be t he m ost com m only used) .
High t oughness at low t em perat ur es cannot be consist ent ly achieved fr om
t his t ype of elect r ode ( t ypically only down t o about - 20º C) .
The niche applicat ion for t his t ype of elect r ode is girt h seam welding of large
diam et er st eel pipes for overland pipelines ( Tr ansco ( BGAS) P2, BS 4515 and
API 1104 applicat ions) . No ot her t ype of elect r ode has t he abilit y t o allow root
pass w elding at high speed and st ill give good root penet rat ion when t he root
gap is less t han ideal.
Because of t heir penet r at ion abilit y t hese elect r odes hav e also found applicat ion
on oil st orage t anks – for v ert ical and circum ferent ial seam welding of t he
upper/ t hinner cour ses for which pr eparat ions wit h large root faces or squar e
edge pr eparat ions are used.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-3 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 5 .3 Ru t ile e le ct r ode s
Rut ile is a m ineral t hat consist s of about 90% t it anium dioxide ( TiO 2 ) and is
present in C and C- Mn st eel rut ile elect r odes at t ypically ~ 50% .
They hav e a ver y sm oot h and st able arc and produce a r elat ively t hin slag
cov ering t hat is easy t o rem ov e.
They give a sm oot h w eld profile.
They ar e r egarded as t he m ost user- friendly of t he various elect rode t ypes.
They have relat ively high com bined m oist ure cont ent and because t hey
cont ain t ypically up t o ~ 10% cellulose t hey cannot be baked and
consequent ly t hey do not give a low H w eld deposit .
Because of t he risk of cracking t hey ar e not designed for w elding of high
st rengt h or t hick sect ion st eel.
( Alt hough elect rodes ar e m anufact ur ed in classes E60xx , E70x x, E80x x t he
E60xx grade is by far t he m ost com m only used) .
They do not give high t oughness at low t em perat ur es ( t ypically only down
t o about - 20º C) .
The abov e list ed charact erist ics m ean t hat t his t ype of elect r ode is used for
general- purpose fabricat ion of unalloyed, low st rengt h st eels in relat ively t hin
sections (typically ≤ ~13mm).
Such elect r odes give w eld deposit s t hat weigh bet ween ~ 135 and 190% of t heir
core wire w eight and so r efer r ed t o as high recov er y elect rodes, or m or e
specifically for exam ple a 170% recovery elect r ode.
The w eld deposit fr om such elect r odes can be r elat ively large and fluid and t his
rest rict s welding t o t he flat posit ion and for st anding fillet s for elect r odes wit h
t he highest recovery rat es.
I n all ot her r espect s t hese elect r odes have t he charact erist ics list ed for st andard
rut ile elect rodes.
1 5 .4 Ba sic e le ct r ode s
Basic elect rodes ar e so nam ed because t he cov ering is m ade wit h a high
proport ion of basic m inerals/ com pounds ( alkaline com pounds) , such as calcium
carbonat e ( CaCO 3 ) , m agnesium carbonat e ( MgCO 3 ) and calcium fluoride
( CaF2 ) .
A fully basic elect rode cov ering will be m ade up wit h about 60% of t hese basic
m inerals/ com pounds.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-4 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Charact erist ics of basic elect r odes ar e:
The basic slag t hat for m s when t he cov ering m elt s react s wit h im purit ies,
such as sulphur and phosphorus, and also reduces t he ox ygen cont ent of
t he weld m et al by de- ox idat ion.
The r elat ively clean weld m et al t hat is deposit ed gives a very significant
im provem ent in weld m et al t oughness ( C- Mn elect rodes wit h Ni addit ions
can give good t oughness down t o - 90°C) .
They can be baked at relat ively high t em perat ures wit hout any of t he
com pounds pr esent in t he cov ering being dest r oy ed, t her eby giving low
m oist ure cont ent in t he cov ering and low hydrogen levels in weld m et al.
I n order t o m aint ain t he elect r odes in a low hydrogen condit ion t hey need t o
be pr ot ect ed fr om m oist ure pick- up.
Basic slag is relat ively viscous and t hick which m eans t hat elect rode
m anipulat ion requires m or e skill and should be used wit h a short arc t o
m inim ise t he risk of por osit y.
The sur face pr ofile of weld deposit s from basic elect rodes t ends t o be
conv ex and slag rem oval requires m or e effort .
To avoid t he risk of hydrogen cracking basic elect rodes have t o be used for
welding hardenable st eels ( m ost C- Mn and all low alloy st eels) and for m ost
st eels when t he j oint t hickness is gr eat er t han about 15m m .
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-5 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 5 .5 Cla ssif ica t ion of e le ct r ode s
Nat ional st andards for elect rodes t hat are used for w elding are:
1 5 .5 .1 BS EN I SO 2 5 6 0
BS EN I SO 2560 - Cov ered elect r odes for m anual m et al arc welding of non- alloy
and fine grain st eels ( see Figure 15.1) .
This is t he designat ion t hat m anufact urer s print on t o each elect rode so t hat it
can be easily ident ified. The classificat ion is split int o t wo sect ions:
Type of pr oduct .
St rengt h.
I m pact pr opert ies.
Chem ical com posit ion.
Type of elect rode cov ering.
The designat ion, com pulsor y ( st r engt h, t oughness and coat ing including any
light alloying elem ent s) m ust be ident ified on t he elect rode, how ev er t he
opt iona l ( posit ion, hydrogen levels et c are not m a nda t or y and m ay not be
shown on all elect rodes.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-6 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Figur e 1 5 .1 The e le ct r ode cla ssifica t ion syst e m of BS EN I SO 2 5 6 0 .
1 5 .5 .2 AW S A5 .1 / 5 .1 M : 2 0 0 3
AWS A5.1/ 5.1M: 2003 - Specificat ion for carbon st eel elect rodes for shielded
m et al arc w elding ( see Figure 15.2) .
This specificat ion est ablishes t he requirem ent s for classificat ion of cov er ed
elect r odes wit h carbon st eel cor es for MMA welding. Requirem ent s include
m echanical propert ies of w eld m et al; weld m et al soundness; and usabilit y of
elect r odes.
Requirem ent s for chem ical com posit ion of t he weld m et al, m oist ure cont ent of
low hydrogen elect rodes, st andard sizes and lengt hs, m arking, m anufact uring
and packaging are also included.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-7 Copyright © TWI Lt d
A guide t o t he use of t he st andard is given in an appendix. Opt ional
supplem ent ary requirem ent s include im proved t oughness and duct ilit y, lower
m oist ure cont ent s and diffusible hydrogen lim it s.
The AWS classificat ion syst em has m andat or y and opt ional designat ors and
requires t hat bot h t he m andat ory classificat ion designat ors and any opt ional
designat ors be print ed on each elect r ode. The last t wo digit s of t he m andat ory
part of t he classificat ion are used t o designat e t he t ype of elect r ode
coat ing/ covering and ex am ples of som e of t he m or e widely used elect r odes are
shown below.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-8 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Ta ble 1 5 .1 Com m on e le ct r ode s t ha t a r e cla ssifie d t o BS EN I SO 2 5 6 0 & AW S
A5 .1 / 5 .5 .
E 42 3 C 25 E7 0 1 0 - P 1 *
E 46 4 1Ni C 25 E8 0 1 0 - P 1 *
E9018- G
E10018- G
* Vert ical- down low H elect r odes
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-9 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 5 .6 TI G fille r w ir e s
Filler wires m anufact ur ed for TI G w elding have com posit ions very sim ilar t o
t hose of base m at erials. How ev er, t hey m ay cont ain ver y sm all addit ions of
elem ent s t hat will com bine wit h oxygen and nit rogen as a m eans of scavenging
any cont am inant s from t he surface of t he base m at erial or from t he
at m osphere.
For m aking precision root runs for pipe but t welds ( part icularly for aut om at ed
TI G welding) consum able insert s can be used t hat are m ade from m at erial t he
sam e as t he base m at er ial, or ar e com pat ible wit h it .
For sm all diam et er pipe, t he insert m ay be a ring but for larger diam et er pipe
an insert of t he appropr iat e diam et er is m ade from shaped st rip/ wire, exam ples
of which ar e shown below.
1 5 .6 .1 TI G sh ie lding ga se s
Pure argon is t he shielding gas t hat is used for m ost applicat ions and is t he
preferr ed gas for TI G welding of st eel and gas flow rat es are t ypically ~ 8- 12
lit res/ m in for shielding.
The shielding gas not only prot ect s t he arc and weld pool but also is t he
m edium required t o est ablish a st able arc by being easy t o ionise. A st able arc
cannot be est ablished in air and hence t he w elder w ould not be able t o weld if
t he shielding gas wer e not swit ched on.
Argon wit h a helium addit ion – t ypically ~ 30% m ay be used when a hot t er ar c
is needed such as when welding m et als wit h high t herm al conduct ivit y, such as
copper/ copper alloys or t hicker sect ion alum inium / alum inium alloys.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-10 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Ther e ar e som e circum st ances when special shielding gases ar e beneficial, for
exam ple:
1 5 .6 .2 TI G ba ck - pur gin g
For m ost m at erials, t he underside of a w eld root bead needs t o be pr ot ect ed by
an inert gas ( a back- pur ge) – t ypically ~ 6- 8 lit res/ m in during welding.
For C steels and low alloy steels with total alloying additions ≤2.5% it may not
always be necessary t o use a back- purge but for higher alloyed st eels and m ost
ot her m at erials t here m ay be excessive oxidat ion – and risk of lack of fusion if it
is not used.
1 5 .7 M I G/ M AG f ille r w ir e s
Solid filler wires m anufact ured for MI G/ MAG generally have chem ical
com posit ions t hat have been form ulat ed for part icular base m at erials and t he
wires have com posit ions sim ilar t o t hese base m at erials. Solid wires for welding
st eels wit h act ive shielding gases ar e deoxidised wit h m anganese and silicon t o
avoid por osit y. Ther e m ay also be t it anium and alum inium addit ions.
Mild st eel filler wires ar e available wit h different levels of deoxidant s, k nown as
double or t riple de- oxidised wires. Mor e highly deoxidised wires are m or e
expensive but ar e m or e t olerant of t he plat e surface condit ion, eg m ill scale,
surface rust , oil, paint and dust . There m ay, t her efor e, be a reduct ion in t he
am ount of cleaning of t he st eel befor e welding.
These deoxidiser addit ions yield a sm all am ount of glassy slag on t he surface of
t he weld deposit , com m only refer red t o as silica deposit s. These sm all pocket s
of slag are easily rem ov ed wit h light brushing; but when galvanising or paint ing
aft er w elding, it is necessar y t o use shot blast ing.
During welding, it is com m on pract ice t o w eld ov er t hese sm all islands since
t hey do not r epr esent a t hick slag, and t hey usually spall off during t he
cont ract ion of t he weld bead. How ev er , when m ult ipass welding, t he slag level
m ay build up t o an unaccept able level causing weld defect s and unr eliable arc
st art ing.
St eel wires usually have a flash coat ing of copper t o im prove curr ent pick- up
and t o ext end t he shelf life of t he wire. However, t he copper coat ing can
som et im es flake off and be drawn int o t he liner and wire feed m echanism ,
part icularly if t here is m isalignm ent in t he wire feed syst em . This m ay cause
clogging and errat ic wire feed.
Uncoat ed wires are available as an alt ernat ive, alt hough elect rical cont act m ay
not be as good as wit h copper- coat ed wires, and cont act t ip operat ing
t em perat ur es m ay be higher.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-11 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Som e t ypical St andards for specificat ion of st eel wire consum ables are:
BS EN I SO 1 4 3 4 1
Welding consum ables - Wire elect rodes and deposit s for gas shielded m et al arc
welding of non- alloy and fine grain st eels - Classificat ion.
BS EN I SO 1 6 8 3 4
Welding consum ables - Wire elect rodes, wires, r ods and deposit s for gas
shielded m et al arc welding of high st rengt h st eels - Classificat ion.
Flux- cored and m et al- cored wires ar e also used ext ensively alt hough t he
process is t hen referr ed t o as FCAW ( flux- cored ar c welding) and M CAW
( m et al cor ed arc welding)
1 5 .7 .1 M I G/ M AG ga s shie lding
For non- ferr ous m et als and t heir alloys ( such as Al, Ni and Cu) an inert
shielding gas m ust be used. This is usually eit her pure argon or an argon rich
gas wit h a helium addit ion.
The use of a fully inert gas is t he reason why t he process is also called M I G
welding ( m et al inert gas) and for pr ecise use of t erm inology t his nam e should
only be used when r efer ring t o t he welding of non- ferr ous m et als.
The addit ion of som e helium t o argon gives a m or e uniform heat concent rat ion
wit hin t he arc plasm a and t his affect s t he shape of t he weld bead pr ofile.
Argon- helium m ixt ures effect ively give a hot t er arc and so t hey are beneficial
for w elding t hicker base m at erials t hose wit h higher t herm al conduct ivit y eg
copper or alum inium .
For w elding of st eels – all grades, including st ainless st eels – t here needs t o be
a cont rolled addit ion of oxygen or carbon dioxide in order t o generat e a st able
arc and give good droplet wet t ing. Because t hese addit ions react wit h t he
m olt en m et al t hey are referr ed t o as act ive gases and hence t he nam e M AG
welding ( m et al a ct ive gas) is t he t echnical t erm t hat is use when r eferring t o
t he welding of st eels.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-12 Copyright © TWI Lt d
The percent age of carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ) or oxy gen depends on t he t ype of st eel
being welded and t he m ode of m et al t ransfer being used – as indicat ed below:
100% CO 2
For low carbon st eel t o give deeper penet rat ion ( Figure 15.3) and fast er
welding t his gas prom ot es globular droplet t ransfer and gives high levels of
spat t er and welding fum e.
Argon + 15 t o 25% CO 2
Widely used for carbon and som e low alloy st eels ( and FCAW of st ainless
st eels) .
Argon + 1 t o 5% O 2
Widely used for st ainless st eels and som e low alloy st eels.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-13 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Gas m ixt ures - helium in place of argon gives a hot t er arc, m or e fluid weld pool
and bet t er w eld profile. These quat ernar y m ixt ures perm it higher welding
speeds, but m ay not be suit able for t hin sect ions.
St a in le ss st e e ls
Aust enit ic st ainless st eels are t ypically welded wit h argon- CO 2 / O 2 m ixt ures for
spray t ransfer, or argon- helium - CO 2 m ixt ures for all m odes of t ransfer. The
oxidising pot ent ial of t he m ixt ures are k ept t o a m inim um ( 2- 2.5% m axim um
CO 2 cont ent ) in order t o st abilise t he arc, but wit h t he m inim um effect on
corr osion perform ance. Because aust enit ic st eels have a high t herm al
conduct ivit y, t he addit ion of helium helps t o avoid lack of fusion defect s and
ov er com e t he high heat dissipat ion int o t he m at erial. Helium addit ions are up t o
85% , com pared wit h ~ 25% for m ixt ures used for carbon and low alloy st eels.
CO 2 - cont aining m ixt ures are som et im es av oided t o elim inat e pot ent ial carbon
pick- up.
For m art ensit ic and duplex st ainless st eels, specialist advice should be sought .
Som e Ar- He m ixt ures cont aining up t o 2.5% N 2 are available for w elding duplex
st ainless st eels.
Light alloys, eg alum inium and m agnesium , and copper and nickel and t heir
alloys
I nert gases are used for light alloys and alloys t hat are sensit ive t o oxidat ion.
Welding grade inert gases should be purchased rat her t han com m ercial purit y
t o ensure good w eld qualit y.
Ar gon
Argon can be used for alum inium because t her e is sufficient surface oxide
available t o st abilise t he arc. For m at erials t hat are sensit ive t o oxygen, such as
t it anium and nickel alloys, ar c st abilit y m ay be difficult t o achieve wit h inert
gases in som e applicat ions.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-14 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Ar gon- h e lium m ix t u r e s
Argon is m ost com m only used for MI G w elding of light alloys, but som e
advant age can be gained by t he use of helium and argon/ helium m ixt ures.
Helium possesses a higher t herm al conduct ivit y t han argon. The hot t er weld
pool produces im prov ed penet rat ion and/ or an increase in welding speed. High
helium cont ent s give a deep broad penet r at ion profile, but produce high spat t er
levels. Wit h less t han 80% argon, a t rue spr ay t ransfer is not possible. Wit h
globular- t ype t ransfer, t he w elder should use a 'buried' arc t o m inim ise spat t er .
Arc st abilit y can be pr oblem at ic in helium and argon- helium m ixt ures, since
helium raises t he ar c volt age, and t her efore t here is a larger change in arc
volt age wit h respect t o arc lengt h. Helium m ixt ures r equire higher flow rat es
t han argon shielding in order t o provide t he sam e gas pr ot ect ion.
Ther e is a reduced risk of lack of fusion defect s when using argon- helium
m ixt ures, part icularly on t hick sect ion alum inium . Ar- He gas m ixt ures will offset
t he high heat dissipat ion in m at erial over about 3m m t hickness.
A sum m ary t able of shielding gases and m ixt ures used for differ ent base
m at erials is given in Table 15.2.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-15 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Sum m a r y
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-16 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 5 .8 SAW fille r w ir e s
Filler wires for SAW are m ade t o AWS and EN st andards and t he m ost
com m only used sizes are 2.4, 3.2, 4 and 5m m diam et er and ar e av ailable for
welding a wide range of st eels and som e non- fer rous applicat ions, t hey hav e
com posit ions sim ilar t o t he base m at erial but for cert ificat ion st andards require
flux/ wire w eld m et al deposit s t o be m ade for analysis and t est ing as r equired
Fuse d f lux
These t ypes are m anufact ured by m ixing cert ain suit able m inerals/
com pounds, fusing t hem t oget her , crushing t he solid m ass and t hen sieving t he
crushed m ass t o r ecov er granules wit hin a part icular size range.
Cont ain a high proport ion of silica ( up t o ~ 60% ) and so t he flux granules
have sim ilar in appearance t o crushed glass – irregular shaped and hard -
and have a sm oot h, and slight ly shiny, surface.
During re- circulat ion t hey have good r esist ance t o br eaking down int o fine
part icles – referr ed t o as fines.
Hav e v ery low m oist ure cont ent as m anufact ured and does not absorb
m oist ure during exposure and so t hey should always give low hydrogen
weld m et al.
Give w elds beads wit h good surface finish and profile and de- slag easily.
The m ain disadvant age of fused fluxes is t hat t he com pounds t hat give de-
oxidat ion cannot be added so t hat welds have high oxygen cont ent and so st eel
weld m et al does not have good t oughness at sub- zero t em perat ur es.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-17 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Agglom e r a t e d flux
This is m anufact ured by m ixing fine powder ed m inerals/ com pounds, adding a
wet binder and furt her m ixing t o form flux granules of t he required size. These
are dried/ baked t o r em ov e m oist ure, siev ed and packaged in sealed cont ainers
t o ensure t hey ar e in low hydr ogen condit ion when supplied t o t he user .
Som e of t he m inerals/ com pounds used in t hese fluxes cannot be subj ect ed t o
t he high t em perat ur es r equired t o m ak e fused fluxes because t hey would break
down and lose t he propert ies t hat are needed during welding.
* Agglom erat ed fluxes are sim ilar t o fluxes used for basic cov er ed elect r odes
and suscept ible t o m oist ure pick- up when t hey are cold and left exposed.
A t ypical cont rolled handling pract ice is t o t ransfer flux from t he m anufact ur er ’s
drum / bag t o a heat ed silo ( ~ 120- 150°C) . This act s like t he holding ov en for
basic elect r odes.
Warm flux is t ransfer red t o t he flux hopper on t he m achine ( usually unheat ed)
and at t he end of a shift or when t her e is t o be an int errupt ion in welding, t he
hopper flux should be t r ansferr ed t o t he silo.
The part icular advant age of agglom erat ed fluxes is t her e abilit y t o give weld
m et als wit h low oxygen cont ent and t his enables st eel weld m et al t o be
produced wit h good sub- zero t oughness.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-18 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 5 .8 .2 SAW flux ba sicit y inde x
Fluxes are oft en referr ed t o as having a cert ain basicit y or basicit y index ( BI ) .
The BI indicat es t he flux form ulat ion according t o t he rat io of basic com pounds
t o acid com pounds and is used t o give an indicat ion of flux/ weld react ion and
can be int erpret ed as follows:
A flux wit h a BI = 1 has an equal rat io of basic and acid com pounds and
t hus is neit her basic nor acid but said t o be n e u t r a l.*
A flux wit h BI > 1 has ba sic charact erist ics; fully basic fluxes have BI of ~ 3-
~ 3.5.
A flux wit h BI < 1 has acid charact erist ics.
Fused and agglom erat ed fluxes are m ixed t o produce fluxes referr ed t o as
sem i- basic.
* I n t he USA it is cust om ary t o use t he t erm s neut ral t o indicat e t hat t he flux
has no significant influence on t he com posit ion by t ransfer of elem ent s from
flux t o weld pool and act ive t o indicat e t hat t he flux does t ransfer som e
elem ent s.
Fused fluxes have acid charact erist ics and agglom erat ed fluxes have basic
charact erist ics.
Alt hough t here are EN and AWS st andards for flux classificat ion, it is com m on
UK pract ice t o order fluxes by m anufact urer nam e and use t his nam e on WPSs.
WI S10- 30816
Welding Consum ables 15-19 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Welding Consumables
15‐1
Welding Consumable Gases Welding Consumables
Welding consumables
Filler material must be stored in an area with
controlled temperature and humidity.
Poor handling and incorrect stacking may damage
coatings, rendering the electrodes unusable.
There should be an issue and return policy for
MMA Covered Electrodes
welding consumables (system procedure).
Control systems for electrode treatment must be
checked and calibrated; those operations must be
recorded.
Filler material suppliers must be approved before
purchasing any material.
Tin can
Cellulosic electrodes.
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
15‐2
MMA Welding Consumables MMA Welding Consumables
BS EN ISO 2560
MMA Welding Consumables
MMA Covered Electrodes
Contain calcium fluoride and calcium
carbonate compounds. Compulsory
Cannot be rebaked indefinitely!
Low hydrogen potential gives weld metal very
good toughness and YS.
Have the lowest level of hydrogen (less than
5ml/100g of weld metal).
Optional
15‐3
MMA Welding Consumables Covered Electrode Treatment
Types of electrodes (for C, C-Mn steels):
Cellulosic Use straight from the box -
BE EN ISO No baking/drying!
AWS A5.1 electrodes
2560
EXX10
Cellulosic E XX X C
EXX11
Rutile If necessary, dry up to
EXX12 electrodes 120°C - No baking!
Rutile E XX X R
EXX13
Rutile heavy
E XX X RR EXX24
coated
Vacuum Use straight from the pack
EXX15 packed basic within manufacturers
Basic E XX X B EXX16 electrodes recommendations
EXX18
EN 2560-E 50 3 B
15‐4
TIG Welding Consumables Fusible Inserts
Welding rods
Supplied in cardboard/plastic tubes.
Pre-placed filler material
Shielding Gases for TIG Welding Shielding Gases for TIG Welding
Argon Helium
Low cost and greater availability. Costly and lower availability than Argon.
Heavier than air - lower flow rates than Lighter than air - requires a higher flow rate
Helium. compared with argon (2-3 times).
Low thermal conductivity - wide top bead Higher ionisation potential - poor arc stability
profile. with AC, less forgiving for manual welding.
Low ionisation potential - easier arc starting, For the same arc current produce more heat
better arc stability with AC, cleaning effect. than argon - increased penetration, welding of
For the same arc current produce less heat metals with high melting point or thermal
than helium - reduced penetration, wider HAZ. conductivity.
To obtain the same arc power, argon requires To obtain the same arc power, helium requires
a higher current - increased undercut. a lower current - no undercut.
Shielding Gases for TIG Welding Shielding Gases for TIG Welding
Hydrogen Nitrogen
Not an inert gas - not used as a primary Not an inert gas.
shielding gas. High availability – cheap.
Increase the heat input - faster travel speed Added to argon (up to 5%) - only for back
and increased penetration. purge for duplex stainless, austenitic stainless
Better wetting action - improved bead profile. steels and copper alloys.
Produce a cleaner weld bead surface. Not used for mild steels (age embrittlement).
Added to argon (up to 5%) - only for Strictly prohibited in case of Ni and Ni alloys
austenitic stainless steels and nickel alloys. (porosity).
Flammable and explosive.
15‐5
Welding Consumables MIG/MAG Welding Consumables
Wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust.
Flux cored wires does not require baking or drying.
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
15‐6
MIG/MAG Shielding Gases MIG/MAG Shielding Gases
15‐7
Types of Cored Wire Welding Consumables
Wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust.
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
15‐8
SAW Consumables SAW Consumables
Why?
To assess whether the products are in
compliance with the requirements of the order
or not - see BS EN 10204.
Welding Consumables How?
Inspection and Validation Non-specific inspection:
Carried out by the manufacturer in accordance
with its own procedures.
The products inspected are not necessarily the
products supplied!
15‐9
Inspection of Consumables BS EN 10204-Type of Documents
Specific
inspection
documents
Type 3.1 Type 3.2
Name: Name: Any Questions
− Inspection certificate 3.1. − Inspection certificate 3.2.
Content: Content:
?
− Statement of compliance − Statement of compliance with
with the order (include the order (include specific test
specific test results!) results!)
Who validate it ? Who validate it?
− The manufacturer − The manufacturer inspection
inspection (independent (independent of manufacturing
of manufacturing department!) + purchaser’s/
department!) official designated authorised
inspector.
You are currently employed as a Senior Welding One of your inspectors informs you that a batch of E8018
Inspector in a fabrication yard. electrodes has arrived on site and requires a heat treatment
before use. Which of the following best applies to this type
of electrode?
The yard has numerous major oil and gas
projects under construction. a. Generally this type of electrode can be used directly
from the container with no heat treatments required
b. In accordance with the TWI Specification, these types of
Part of your duties is to monitor the control, electrodes are not permitted for use on this type of
storage and handling of welding consumables fabrication
used during the construction. c. This type of electrode can be used providing the
electrodes flux has been recycled to a maximum of
50:50 ratios old to new
d. All options are incorrect
15‐10
Question 2 Question 3
During welding one of your inspectors informs you that the You are informed that the approved supplier of electrodes
fabricators are recycling SAW welding flux 30% new to cannot make a delivery for two weeks. He asks if another
70% old. Is this permitted in accordance with the TWI manufacturer can be used, the electrodes are the same
Specification? specification and size.
a. This would not be permitted as the TWI specification a. No, the electrodes must be from the original
states a ratio of 50:50 shall be applied manufacturer (Table 7)
b. SAW fluxes can’t be recycled under any conditions b. Yes, the electrodes can be used as they are the same
c. This would be permitted as it’s in accordance with the specification.
TWI Specifications c. It depends on whether the client will accept the change
d. This decision would generally be up to the welding d. They can be accepted once an all weld tensile test is
supervisor completed.
Question 4 Question 5
A large batch of MAG wires has arrived on site, one of your A batch of E46 3 1Ni B electrodes has arrived on site. One
inspectors informs you that the copper coating on some of of your inspectors asks the question "what is the minimum
the wire spools has been damaged during transportation. yield value of these electrodes". Which of the following is
What is the purpose of the copper coating? correct?
a. The copper is added to the wire to aid fusion and a. In accordance with AWS A5.1 the minimum UTS value
improve mechanical properties of the deposited weld would be 460 N/mm2
metal. b. In accordance with BS EN ISO 2560 the minimum UTS
b. The copper aides electrical pick up and protects the value would be 720 N/mm2
wire from corrosion c. In accordance with BS EN ISO 2560 the minimum yield
c. The copper coating promotes weld metal fluidity and value would be 460 N/mm2
improves positional welding d. In accordance with BS EN ISO 2560 the minimum yield
d. All options are incorrect value would be 500 N/mm2
Question 6 Question 7
You notice a batch of cellulosic electrodes in the welding During your morning inspection of the welding stores, you
consumable store, which of the following statements is notice that certain electrodes are being baked in their
correct for this type of electrode? original container in correctly controlled baking ovens. In
accordance with the TWI Specification is this a correct
a. These electrodes can be used to control hydrogen practice?
levels to below 15ml per 100 grams of weld metal
b. These electrodes should be baked prior to use a. Yes, providing the treatment is in accordance with the
c. These type of electrodes are especially suited to the PG manufacturers instructions
welding position b. No, under no circumstances should electrodes be
d. 2 Options are correct baked
c. Yes providing after baking the electrodes are stored in
such a way as to keep them free from moisture intake
d. No, not permitted
15‐11
Question 8 Question 9
A Q&T section is being welded with rutile electrodes. It has One of your inspectors is unsure of the toughness value of
been proved that Hydrogen cracking does not occur in this an electrode classified as E50 3 2Ni B, which of the
type of parent material. Which of the following statements following is the correct answer?
are true?
a. Maximum toughness 47J at -30°C
a. If HICC is not a problem in the parent material, rutile b. Minimum toughness 50J at -20°C
electrodes can be used. c. Minimum toughness 47J at -30°C
b. Basic electrodes must be used as the cracking occurs in d. Maximum toughness 50J at -20°C
the weld metal
c. If the rutile electrodes are baked before use, the
hydrogen level should not be a problem
d. Any process that produces less than 20ml of hydrogen
per 100 grams of weld metal should stop any HICC
occurring.
Question 10
15‐12
Se ct ion 1 6
M AG W e ldin g
16 M AG W e ldin g
1 6 .1 The pr oce ss
Known in t he USA as gas m et al arc welding ( GMAW) . The MI G/ MAG welding
process is a ver sat ile t echnique suit able for bot h t hin sheet and t hick sect ion
com ponent s in m ost m et allic m at erials.
I n t he process, an arc is st ruck bet w een t he end of a wir e elect r ode and t he
wor kpiece, m elt ing bot h t o form a w eld pool. The wire ser ves as t he sour ce of
heat ( via t he ar c at t he wire t ip) and filler m et al for t he j oint .
The wire is fed t hrough a copper cont act t ube ( also called a cont act t ip) which
conduct s welding current int o t he wire. The weld pool is prot ect ed from t he
surr ounding at m ospher e by a shielding gas fed t hrough a nozzle surrounding
t he wire.
The process offers high pr oduct ivit y and is econom ical because t he consum able
wire is cont inuously fed. A diagram of t he process is shown in Figure 16.1.
I n m echanised welding, all param et er s ar e under aut om at ic cont r ol, but t hey
can be varied m anually during welding, eg st eering of t he w elding head and
adj ust m ent of wire feed speed and arc volt age.
Wit h aut om at ic equipm ent , t her e is no m anual int ervent ion during welding.
Figure 16.2 show s equipm ent r equired for t he MI G/ MAG pr ocess.
Figur e 1 6 .1 M I G/ M AG w e lding.
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Figur e 1 6 .2 M I G/ M AG w e lding e quipm e n t .
Adv a nt a ge s of t he M I G/ M AG pr oce ss
Cont inuous wire feed.
Aut om at ic self- regulat ion of t he ar c lengt h.
High deposit ion rat e and m inim al num ber of st op/ st art locat ions.
High consum able efficiency.
Heat input s in t he range 0.1- 2.0kJ/ m m .
Low hydr ogen pot ent ial process.
Welder has good visibilit y of w eld pool and j oint line.
Lit t le or no post w eld cleaning.
Can be used in all posit ions ( dip t ransfer) .
Good pr ocess cont r ol possibilit ies.
Wide range of applicat ion.
D isa dv a nt a ge s
No independent cont r ol of filler addit ion.
Difficult t o set up opt im um param et er s t o m inim ise spat t er levels.
Risk of lack of fusion when using dip t ransfer on t hicker w eldm ent s.
High level of equipm ent m aint enance.
Low er heat input can lead t o high hardness values.
Higher equipm ent cost t han MMA ( m anual m et al arc) welding.
Sit e welding requires special precaut ions t o exclude draught s which m ay
dist urb t he gas shield.
Joint and part access is not as good as MMA or TI G welding.
Cleanliness of base m et al slag processes can t olerat e great er cont am inat ion.
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1 6 .2 Pr oce ss va r ia ble s
The prim ary variables in MI G/ MAG w elding are:
1 6 .2 .1 W e ldin g cu r r e n t / w ir e fe e d spe e d
On MI G/ MAG w elding set s t here is no cont r ol t o set t he welding current . The
elect rical charact erist ics of t he welding set ( flat or const ant v olt age t ype)
aut om at ically alt ers t he welding current wit h changes t o t he set wire feed speed
t o achieve a const ant ar c lengt h.
I ncreasing t he wire feed, and t her efor e curr ent , increases wire burn- off,
deposit ion rat e and penet rat ion.
Curr ent t ype is alm ost always DC+ v e, alt hough som e cor ed wires require DC- v e
for best r esult s.
1 6 .2 .2 Volt a ge
This is set t o achieve st eady sm oot h welding condit ions and is generally
increased as t he wire feed speed is increased.
I ncrease in volt age increases t he widt h of t he weld and reduces penet rat ion.
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Penet rat ion Deep Moderat e Shallow
Excess weld m et al Maxim um Moderat e Minim um
Undercut Severe Moderat e Minim um
Cont act t ip
Gas nozzle
Cont act t ip
set back
Elect r ode
Cont act t ip-
Nozzle- t o- wor k ext ension
t o- work
( st and- off)
Arc le n gt h dist ance
dist ance
Workpiece
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I ncreased ext ension
The elect r ode ext ension should be check ed when set t ing- up welding condit ions
or when fit t ing a new cont act t ube. Nor m ally m easur ed from t he cont act t ube t o
t he wor k piece ( Figure 16.5) suggest ed CTWDs for t he principal m et al t ransfer
m odes are:
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1 6 .2 .7 Type s of m e t a l t r a n sf e r
1 D ip t r a nsf e r :
I n dip t ransfer t he wire short - circuit s t he arc bet ween 50–200 t im es/ sec. This
t ype of t ransfer is norm ally achieved wit h CO 2 or m ixt ures of CO 2 and argon gas
+ low am ps and w elding volt s < 24V.
Figur e 1 6 .8 D ip t r a nsfe r .
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2 Spr a y t r a nsf e r :
Spray t ransfer occur s at high current s and high volt ages. Abov e t he t ransit ion
curr ent , m et al t ransfer is in t he form of a fine spray of sm all droplet s, which are
proj ect ed across t he arc wit h low spat t er levels. The high welding cur rent
produces st rong elect rom agnet ic forces ( know n as t he pinch effect ' t hat cause
t he m olt en filam ent support ing t he dr oplet t o neck down. The droplet s det ach
from t he t ip of t he wire and accelerat e across t he arc gap.
Wit h st eels it can be used only in down- hand but t s and H/ V fillet welds, but
gives significant ly higher deposit ion rat e, penet rat ion and fusion t han t he dip
t ransfer m ode. Wit h alum inum alloys it can be used in all posit ions.
3 Pulse d t r a nsfe r :
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Pulsing t he welding current ext ends t he range of spray t ransfer oper at ion well
below t he nat ural t ransit ion from dip t o spray t ransfer. This allows sm oot h,
spat t er- fr ee spray t ransfer t o be obt ained at m ean cur rent s below t he t ransit ion
level, eg 50- 150A and at lower heat input s.
A t ypical pulse waveform and t he m ain pulse welding variables are show n
in Figure 16.10. Pulse t ransfer uses pulses of curr ent t o fire a single globule of
m et al acr oss t he arc gap at a fr equency bet ween 50–300 pulses/ sec. Pulse
t ransfer is a dev elopm ent of spray t ransfer t hat gives posit ional welding
capabilit y for st eels, com bined wit h cont rolled heat input , good fusion, and high
product ivit y. I t m ay be used for all sheet st eel t hickness > 1m m , but is m ainly
used for posit ional welding of st eels > 6m m .
4 Globula r t r a n sfe r :
The globular t ransfer range occupies t he t r ansit ional range of ar c v olt age
bet ween fr ee flight and fully short - circuit ing t ransfer. I rr egular droplet t ransfer
and arc inst abilit y are inherent , part icularly when operat ing near t he t ransit ion
t hreshold. I n globular t ransfer , a m olt en dr oplet of sev eral t im es t he elect r ode
diam et er form s on t he wire t ip. Gravit y ev ent ually det aches t he globule when
it s weight over com es surface t ension forces and t ransfer t ak es place oft en wit h
excessive spat t er
To m inim ise spat t er levels, it is com m on t o operat e wit h a very short arc lengt h
and in som e cases a buried arc t echnique is adopt ed. Globular t ransfer can only
be used in t he flat posit ion and is oft en associat ed wit h lack of penet rat ion,
fusion defect s and uneven weld beads, because of t he irregular t ransfer and
t endency for arc wander .
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1 6 .2 .8 I nduct a nce
W ha t doe s induct a nce do?
When MI G w elding in t he dip t ransfer m ode, t he welding elect rode t ouches t he
weld pool, causing a short circuit . During t he short circuit , t he arc volt age is
nearly zer o. I f t he const ant volt age power supply responded inst ant ly, ver y high
curr ent w ould im m ediat ely begin t o flow t hrough t he weldingcircuit . The rapid
rise in current t o a high value would m elt t he short - circuit ed elect rode fr ee wit h
explosive for ce, dispelling t he weld m et al and causing considerable spat t er.
I nduct ance is t he propert y in an elect rical circuit t hat slows down t he rat e of
curr ent rise ( Figure 16.11) . The curr ent t rav elling t hrough an induct ance coil
cr eat es a m agnet ic field. This m agnet ic field cr eat es a curr ent in t he w elding
circuit t hat is in opposit ion t o t he welding current . I ncr easing t he induct ance will
also increase t he arc t im e and decrease t he fr equency of short - circuit ing.
For each elect rode feed rat e, t her e is an opt im um value of induct ance. Too lit t le
induct ance result s in excessive spat t er. I f t oo m uch induct ance is used, t he
curr ent will not rise fast enough and t he m olt en t ip of t he elect rode is not
heat ed sufficient ly causing t he elect r ode t o st ub int o t he base m et al. Modern
elect r onic power sour ces aut om at ically set t he induct ance t o give a sm oot h ar c
and m et al t ransfer.
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1 6 .3 .2 Flux cor e d w ir e s
A cored wire consist s of a m et al sheat h cont aining a granular flux. This flux can
cont ain elem ent s t hat would norm ally be used in MMA elect rodes and so t he
process has a v ery wide range of applicat ions.
I n addit ion we can also add gas producing elem ent s and com pounds t o t he flux
and so t he process can becom e independent of a separat e gas shield, which
rest rict ed t he use of convent ional MI G/ MAG w elding in m any field applicat ions.
Most wires ar e sealed m echanically and herm et ically wit h various form s of j oint .
The effect iveness of t he j oint of t he wire is an inspect ion point of cor ed wire
welding as m oist ure can easily be absorbed int o a dam aged or poor seam .
Baking of cored wires is ineffect ive and will do not hing t o rest or e t he condit ion
of a cont am inat ed flux wit hin a wire.
N ot e : Unlike MMA elect rodes t he pot ent ial hydrogen levels and m echanical
propert ies of welds wit h rut ile wires can equal t hose of t he basic t ypes.
2 The e le ct r ode w ir e
The diam et er, specificat ion and t he qualit y of t he wire are t he m ain
inspect ion headings. The level of de- oxidat ion of t he wire is an im port ant
fact or wit h single, double and t riple de- oxidised wires being available.
very difficult t o drive t hrough t he liner and result in arcing in t he cont act t ip
and excessive w ear of t he cont act t ip and liner.
Check t hat t he liner is t he cor rect t ype and size for t he wir e. A size of liner
will generally fit 2 sizes of wire ie ( 0.6 and 0.8) ( 1.0 and 1.2) ( 1.4 and 1.6)
m m diam et er. St eel liner s ar e used for st eel wires and Teflon liners for
alum inium wires.
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4 The cont a ct t ip
Check t hat t he cont act t ip is t he cor rect size for t he wire being driven, and
check t he am ount of w ear fr equent ly. Any loss of cont act bet w een t he wire
and cont act t ip will reduce t he efficiency of curr ent pick. Most st eel wires
are copper- coat ed t o m axim ise t he t ransfer of curr ent by cont act bet w een 2
copper sur faces at t he cont act t ip, t his also inhibit s corr osion. The cont act
t ip should be r eplaced r egularly.
6 Ga s a n d ga s f low r a t e
The t ype of gas used is ext r em ely im port ant t o MI G/ MAG welding, as is t he
flow rat e from t he cylinder, which m ust be adequat e t o give good cov erage
ov er t he solidifying and m olt en m et al t o avoid oxidat ion and porosit y.
7 Ot he r va r ia ble w e ldin g pa r a m e t e r s
Check s should be m ade for cor r ect wire feed speed, volt age, speed of
t ravel, and all ot her essent ial variables of t he pr ocess given on t he
approv ed w elding procedure.
8 Sa fe t y ch e ck s
Check s should be m ade on t he cur rent carr ying capacit y, or dut y cy cle of
equipm ent and elect rical insulat ion. Corr ect ext ract ion syst em s should be in
use t o av oid exposur e t o ozone and fum es.
1 Silica inclusion s, ( on ferrit ic st eels only) caused by poor int er- run
cleaning.
2 La ck of side w a ll f usion during dip t ransfer w elding t hick sect ion vert ically
down.
3 Por osit y caused from loss of gas shield and low t olerance t o cont am inant s.
4 Bur n - t hr ough from using t he incorr ect m et al t ransfer m ode on sheet
m et al.
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Se ct ion 1 7
M M A W e ldin g
17 M M A W e ldin g
1 7 .1 M a nu a l m e t a l a r c/ shie lde d m e t a l a r c w e lding ( M M A/ SM AW )
The m ost v er sat ile of t he welding processes, m anual m et al arc ( MMA) welding is
suit able for w elding m ost fer rous and non- ferr ous m et als, over a wide range of
t hicknesses. The MMA welding process can be used in all posit ions, wit h
reasonable ease of use and relat ively econom ically. The final weld qualit y is
prim arily dependent on t he skill of t he w elder.
When an ar c is st ruck bet ween t he coat ed elect rode and t he workpiece, bot h
t he elect r ode and wor kpiece surface m elt t o for m a w eld pool. The av erage
t em perat ur e of t he arc is approxim at ely 6000°C, whi ch is sufficient t o
sim ult aneously m elt t he par ent m et al, consum able core wire and t he flux
coat ing. The flux form s gas and slag, which prot ect s t he w eld pool from oxygen
and nit rogen in t he surr ounding at m osphere. The m olt en slag solidifies and
cools and m ust be chipped off t he weld bead once t he weld run is com plet e ( or
befor e t he next w eld pass is deposit ed) . The process allows only short lengt hs
of weld t o be pr oduced before a new elect r ode needs t o be insert ed in t he
holder.
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1 7 .2 M M A w e lding ba sic e quipm e nt r e qu ir e m e n t s
10 1
9 2
8 3
4
7
6 5
1 7 .3 Pow e r r e quir e m e nt s
Manual m et al arc welding can be carried out using eit her direct ( DC) or
alt ernat ing ( AC) curr ent . Wit h DC welding curr ent eit her posit ive ( + ve) or
negat ive ( - ve) polarit y can be used, so cur rent is flowing in one direct ion. AC
welding current flows fr om negat ive t o posit ive and is t wo direct ional.
Pow er sources for MMA welding are t ransform er s ( which t ransform s m ains AC
t o AC suit able for w elding) , t ransform er- r ect ifier s ( which rect ifies AC t o DC) ,
diesel or pet rol driven generat ors ( pr efer red for sit e work) or invert er s ( a m ore
recent addit ion t o welding power sour ces) . For MMA w elding a power source
wit h a const ant cur rent ( drooping) out put charact erist ic m ust be used.
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The power source m ust provide:
An open circuit volt age ( OCV) t o init iat e t he arc, bet w een 50 and 90V.
Welding volt age t o m aint ain t he arc during welding, bet w een 20 and 30V.
A suit able curr ent range, t ypically 30- 350A.
A st able arc. Rapid arc r ecov ery or arc r e- ignit ion wit hout current surge.
A const ant welding current . The arc lengt h m ay change during welding, but
consist ent elect r ode bur n- off rat e and weld penet rat ion charact erist ics m ust
be m aint ained during welding.
1 7 .4 W e lding v a r ia ble s
Ot her fact ors, or w elding variables, which affect t he final qualit y of t he MMA
weld, ar e:
1 7 .4 .1 Cur r e n t ( a m pe r a ge )
Am perage cont rols burn- off rat e and dept h of penet rat ion. Welding current level
is det erm ined by t he size of elect rode and t he welding posit ion - m anufact ur er s
recom m end t he norm al operat ing range and cur rent .
I ncor r ect am perage set t ings when using MMA can cont ribut e t o t he following:
Am p e r a ge t oo low
Poor fusion or penet rat ion, irregular weld bead shape, slag inclusion unst able
arc, porosit y, pot ent ial arc st rikes, difficult st art ing.
Am pe r a ge t oo high
Excessive penet rat ion, burn- t hrough, undercut , spat t er , porosit y, deep crat ers,
elect r ode dam age due t o overheat ing, high deposit ion m aking posit ional
welding difficult .
1 7 .5 Volt a ge
Open circuit volt age ( OCV) is t he volt age m easur ed bet ween t he out put
t erm inals of t he power sour ce when no curr ent is flowing t hrough t he welding
circuit .
For safet y reasons t his should not exceed 100V and is usually bet ween 50- 90V.
Arc v olt age is t he volt age r equired t o m aint ain t he arc during welding and is
usually bet ween 20–30V. As ar c v olt age is a funct ion of arc lengt h t he w elder
cont r ols t he ar c lengt h and t herefor e t he arc v olt age.
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The effect s of having t he w rong arc volt age can be:
Ar c V olt a ge t oo low
Poor penet rat ion, elect rode st ubbing, lack of fusion defect s, pot ent ial for arc
st rikes, slag inclusion, unst able arc condit ion, irregular w eld bead shape.
Ar c volt a g e t oo hig h
Excessive spat t er, por osit y, arc wander, irr egular weld bead shape, slag
inclusions, fluid weld pool m aking posit ional welding difficult .
1 7 .5 .1 Tr a ve l spe e d
Trav el speed is r elat ed t o whet her t he w elding is progressed by st ringer beads
or by weaving. Oft en t he run out lengt h ( ROL) ie t he lengt h of deposit from one
st andard elect rode is quot ed on procedures rat her t han speed as it is easier for
t he welder t o visualise.
Tr a ve l spe e d t oo fa st
Nar row t hin weld bead, fast cooling, slag inclusions, undercut , poor
fusion/ penet rat ion.
Tr a ve l spe e d t oo slow
Cold lap, excess weld deposit ion, irregular bead shape, under cut .
1 7 .6 Type of cu r r e nt a nd pola r it y
Polarit y will det erm ine t he dist ribut ion of heat energy at t he w elding arc. The
preferr ed polarit y of t he MMA sy st em depends prim arily upon t he elect r ode
being used and t he desired pr opert ies of t he weld.
When using direct curr ent t he arc can be affect ed by arc blow. The deflect ion of
t he ar c from it s norm al pat h due t o m agnet ic forces.
Ope r a t in g f a ct or ( O/ F)
The per cent age ( % ) of arc on t im e in a given t im e span.
When com par ed wit h sem i aut om at ic welding processes t he MMA welding
process has a low O/ F of approxim at ely 30% Manual sem i- aut om at ic MI G/ MAG
O/ F is in t he region 60% wit h fully aut om at ed MI G/ MAG in t he region of 90%
O/ F. A w elding process O/ F can be direct ly linked t o pr oduct ivit y .
Operat ing Fact or should not t o be conf use d wit h t he t erm dut y cycle , which
is a safet y value given as t he % of t im e a conduct or can carry a curr ent and is
given as a specific curr ent at 6 0 and 1 0 0 % of 10 m inut es ie 350A 60% and
300A 100% .
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1 7 .7 Type of consu m a ble e le ct r ode
For MMA w elding t here are t hree generic t ypes of flux cov ering:
1 7 .8 Typica l w e lding de fe ct s
1 Sla g inclu sions caused by poor welding t echnique or insufficient int er- run
cleaning.
2 Por osit y from using dam p or dam aged elect r odes or when welding
cont am inat ed or unclean m at erial.
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Se ct ion 1 8
Su bm e r ge d Ar c W e ldin g
18 Su bm e r ge d Ar c W e ldin g
1 8 .1 The pr oce ss
Abbreviat ed as SAW, t his is a welding process wher e an arc is st ruck bet ween a
cont inuous bare wire and t he parent plat e. The arc, elect r ode end and t he
m olt en pool ar e subm erged in an agglom erat ed or fused powder ed flux, which
t urns, int o gas and slag in it s lower layer s w hen subj ect ed t o t he heat of t he
arc, t hus pr ot ect ing t he weld from cont am inat ion.
The wire elect r ode is fed cont inuously by a feed unit of m ot or- driven rollers,
which usually are volt age- cont rolled t o ensure an arc of const ant lengt h. The
flux is fed fr om a hopper fixed t o t he welding head, and a t ube from t he hopper
spr eads t he flux in a cont inuous elongat ed m ound in front of t he arc along t he
line of t he int ended weld and of sufficient dept h t o subm erge t he arc com plet ely
so t hat t her e is no spat t er, t he weld is shielded from t he at m ospher e and t here
are no ult raviolet or infra- r ed radiat ion effect s ( see below) . Unm elt ed flux is
reclaim ed for use. The use of powder ed flux rest rict s t he pr ocess t o t he flat and
horizont al- vert ical welding posit ions.
Subm erged arc w elding is not ed for it s abilit y t o em ploy high weld curr ent s
owing t o t he propert ies and funct ions of t he flux. Such current s give deep
penet rat ion and high deposit ion rat es. Generally a DC elect rode posit ive polarit y
is em ployed up t o about 1000A because it produces a deep penet r at ion. On
som e applicat ions ( ie cladding operat ions) DC elect r ode negat ive is needed t o
reduce penet rat ion and dilut ion. At higher curr ent s or in case of m ult iple
elect r ode syst em s, AC is oft en preferr ed t o av oid t he problem of ar c blow ( when
used wit h m ult iple elect rode syst em s, DC elect r ode posit ive is used for t he lead
arc and AC is used for t he t rail arc) .
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Pow er sources can be of t he const ant cur rent or const ant volt age t y pe eit her
m ay have out put s ex ceeding 1000A.
M a t e r ia ls j oine d
Welding of carbon st eels.
Welding low alloy st eels ( eg fine grained and cr eep r esist ing) .
Welding st ainless st eels.
Welding nickel alloys.
Cladding t o base m et als t o im prov e w ear and corr osion r esist ance.
1 8 .2 Pr oce ss va r ia ble s
Ther e ar e sev er al variables which when changed can have an effect on t he weld
appearance and m echanical propert ies:
1 8 .2 .1 W e lding cu r r e nt
Welding current effect on weld profile ( 2.4m m elect rode diam et er, 35V arc
volt age and 610m m / m in t ravel speed)
Excessively high current produces a deep penet rat ing arc wit h a t endency t o
burn- t hrough, undercut or a high, narrow bead prone t o solidificat ion
cracking.
Excessively low curr ent produces an unst able arc, lack of penet rat ion and
possibly lack of fusion.
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350A 500A 650A
1 8 .2 .2 Ar c volt a ge
Arc v olt age adj ust m ent varies t he lengt h of t he arc bet ween t he elect rode and
t he m olt en weld m et al. I f t he ar c volt age increases, t he arc lengt h increases
and vice ver sa. The volt age principally det erm ines t he shape of t he w eld bead
cr oss sect ion and it s ext ernal appearance.
Arc volt age effect on weld profile ( 2.4m m elect r ode diam et er, 500A welding
curr ent and 610m m / m in t ravel speed) .
Produce a wide bead shape t hat is subj ect t o solidificat ion cracking.
Make slag rem oval difficult in groove welds.
Produce a concav e shaped fillet weld t hat m ay be subj ect t o cracking.
I ncrease under cut along t he edge( s) of fillet welds.
Ov er- alloy t he weld m et al, via t he flux.
Reducing t he arc volt age wit h const ant curr ent and t ravel speed will:
Produce a st iffer arc which im proves penet rat ion in a deep weld groov e and
resist s ar c blow.
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1 8 .2 .3 Tr a ve l spe e d
I f t he t rav el speed is increased:
Trav el speed effect on weld profile ( 2.4m m elect r ode diam et er , 500A welding
curr ent and 35V arc volt age) .
The w eld bead shape and t he dept h of penet rat ion at a given cur rent : a high
curr ent densit y result s in a st iff arc t hat penet rat es int o t he base m et al.
Conversely, a lower cur rent densit y in t he sam e size elect r ode r esult s in a
soft arc t hat is less penet rat ing.
The deposit ion rat e: at any given am perage set t ing, a sm all diam et er
elect r ode will have a higher cur rent densit y and a higher deposit ion rat e of
m olt en m et al t han a larger diam et er elect rode. However, a larger diam et er
elect r ode can car ry m ore cur rent t han a sm aller elect r ode, so t he larger
elect r ode can ult im at ely produce a higher deposit ion rat e at higher
am perage.
Elect r ode size effect on weld profile ( 600A welding current , 30V ar c volt age and
760m m / m in t ravel speed) .
WI S10- 30816
Subm erged Arc Welding 18-4 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 8 .2 .5 Ele ct r ode e x t e n sion
The elect r ode ext ension is t he dist ance t he cont inuous elect rode prot rudes
beyond t he cont act t ip. At high current densit ies, resist ance heat ing of t he
elect r ode bet w een t he cont act t ip and t he arc can be ut ilised t o increase t he
elect r ode m elt ing rat e ( as m uch as 25- 50% ) . The longer t he ext ension, t he
great er t he am ount of heat ing and t he higher t he m elt ing rat e ( see below) .
1 8 .2 .6 Type of e le ct r ode
An elect r ode wit h a low elect rical conduct ivit y, such as st ainless st eel, can wit h
a norm al elect rode ext ension experience great er r esist ance heat ing. Thus for
t he sam e size elect r ode and curr ent , t he m elt ing rat e of a st ainless st eel
elect r ode will be higher t han t hat of a carbon st eel elect r ode.
1 8 .2 .7 W idt h a nd de pt h of f lux
The widt h and dept h of t he layer of granular flux influence t he appear ance and
soundness of t he finished weld as well as t he welding act ion. I f t he granular
layer is t oo deep, t he arc is t oo confined and a rough weld wit h a rope- like
appearance is likely t o result , it m ay also produce local flat areas on t he surface
oft en r eferr ed t o as gas flat s. The gases generat ed during welding cannot
readily escape, and t he surface of t he m olt en weld m et al is irregularly dist ort ed.
I f t he granular layer is t oo shallow, t he arc w ill not be ent irely subm erged in
flux. Flashing and spat t ering will occur. The w eld will have a poor appearance,
and it m ay show por osit y.
1 8 .3 St or a ge a nd ca r e of consu m a ble s
Care m ust be given t o fluxes supplied for SAW which, alt hough t hey m ay be dry
when packaged, m ay be exposed t o high hum idit y during st orage. I n such
cases t hey should be st or ed in accordance wit h t he m anufact urer's
recom m endat ions befor e use, or por osit y or cracking m ay r esult . I t rarely
pract ical or econom ical t o r e- dr y fluxes which m ay have picked up m oist ure.
Fer rous wire coils supplied as cont inuous feeding elect rodes ar e usually copper-
coat ed. This provides som e cor rosion r esist ance, ensures good elect rical
cont act s and helps in sm oot h feeding. Rust and m echanical dam age should be
avoided in such product s, as t hey will bot h int errupt sm oot h feeding of t he
elect r ode. Rust will be det rim ent al t o weld qualit y generally since r ust is a
hygroscopic m at erial ( m ay cont ain or absorb m oist ure) and t hus it can lead t o
hydrogen induced cracking.
Cont am inat ion by carbon cont aining m at erials such as oil, grease, paint and
drawing lubricant s is especially harm ful wit h ferr ous m et als. Carbon pick- up in
t he weld m et al can cause a m ark ed and usually undesirable change in
propert ies. Such cont am inant s m ay also result in hydrogen being absorbed in
t he weld pool.
Welders should always follow t he m anufact urer's r ecom m endat ions for
consum ables st orage and handling.
WI S10- 30816
Subm erged Arc Welding 18-5 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Se ct ion 1 9
TI G W e ldin g
19 TI G W e ldin g
1 9 .1 Pr oce ss ch a r a ct e r ist ics
I n t he USA t he TI G process is also called gas t ungst en arc w elding ( GTAW) . TI G
welding is a pr ocess w her e m elt ing is produced by heat ing wit h an arc st ruck
bet ween a non- consum able t ungst en elect r ode and t he workpiece.
An inert gas is used t o shield t he elect rode and weld zone t o pr ev ent oxidat ion
of t he t ungst en elect rode and at m ospheric cont am inat ion of t he weld and hot
filler wire ( as shown below) .
Figur e 1 9 .1 M a n ua l TI G w e lding.
Tungst en is used because it has a m elt ing point of 3370°C, which is well above
any ot her com m on m et al.
1 9 .2 Pr oce ss va r ia ble s
The m ain variables in TI G w elding are:
WI S10- 30816
TI G Welding 19-1 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 9 .2 .1 W e lding cu r r e nt
Weld penet rat ion is direct ly relat ed t o welding curr ent .
I f t he w elding current is t oo low, t he elect r ode t ip will not be properly
heat ed and an unst able arc m ay result .
I f t he welding current is set t oo high, t he elect rode t ip m ight overheat and
m elt , leading t o t ungst en inclusions.
1 9 .2 .3 Tr a ve l spe e d
Trav el speed affect s bot h weld widt h and penet r at ion but t he effect on widt h
is m ore pr onounced t han on penet rat ion.
I ncreasing t he t rav el speed r educes t he penet rat ion and widt h.
Reducing t he t ravel speed increases t he penet r at ion and widt h.
t horia is slight ly radioact ive ( em it t ing α radiat ion) and t he dust generat ed
t ungst en elect r odes and m aint ain a sharp t ip for longer. Unfort unat ely,
during t ip grinding should not be inhaled. Elect r ode grinding m achines used
for t horiat ed t ungst en grinding should be fit t ed wit h a dust ext r act ion
syst em .
Ce r ia t e d a n d la n t h a n a t e d e le ct r ode s ar e alloyed wit h cerium and
lant hanum oxides, for t he sam e r eason as t horiat ed elect rodes. They
operat e successfully wit h DC or AC but since cerium and lant hanum are not
radioact ive, t hese t ypes have been used as replacem ent s for t horiat ed
elect r odes
Zir con ia t e d e le ct r ode s ar e alloyed wit h zirconium oxide. Oper at ing
charact erist ics of t hese elect r odes fall bet ween t he t horiat ed t ypes and pure
t ungst en. How ev er, since t hey ar e able t o ret ain a balled end during
welding, t hey are recom m ended for AC welding. Also, t hey have a high
resist ance t o cont am inat ion and so t hey are used for high int egrit y welds
wher e t ungst en inclusions m ust be av oided.
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TI G Welding 19-2 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 9 .2 .5 Sha pe of t ungst e n e le ct r ode t ip
Wit h DC elect rode negat ive, t horiat ed, ceriat ed or lant hanat ed t ungst en
elect r odes ar e used wit h t he end is ground t o a specific angle ( t he elect rode
t ip angle or v ert ex angle – shown below) .
As a general rule, t he lengt h of t he ground port ion of t he t ip of t he elect rode
should have a lengt h equal t o approxim at ely 2- 2.5 t im es t he elect rode
diam et er.
The t ip of t he elect r ode is ground flat t o m inim ise t he risk of t he t ip
breaking off when t he arc is init iat ed or during welding ( shown below) .
I f t he vert ex angle is incr eased, t he penet rat ion increases.
I f t he vert ex angle is decr eased, bead widt h increases.
For AC w elding, pure or zirconiat ed t ungst en elect rodes ar e used.
These are used wit h a hem ispherical ( ‘balled’) end ( as shown below) .
I n order t o pr oduce a balled end t he elect r ode is grounded, an ar c init iat ed
and t he cur rent incr eased unt il it m elt s t he t ip of t he elect rode.
1 9 .3 Fille r w ir e s a nd sh ie lding ga se s
These ar e select ed on t he basis of t he m at erials being welded. See t he relevant
chapt er in t hese not es.
Therm al shock t o t he t ungst en causing sm all fragm ent s t o ent er t he weld pool
is a com m on cause of t ungst en inclusions and is t he reason why m odern power
sour ces hav e a cur rent slope- up device t o m inim ise t his risk.
This device allows t he curr ent t o rise t o t he set value over a short period and so
t he t ungst en is heat ed m or e slowly and gent ly.
WI S10- 30816
TI G Welding 19-3 Copyright © TWI Lt d
1 9 .5 Cr a t e r cr a ck ing
Crat er cracking is one form of solidificat ion cracking and som e filler m et als can
be sensit ive t o it .
Modern pow er sour ces have a curr ent slope- out device so t hat at t he end of a
weld when t he welder swit ches off t he cur rent it reduces gradually and t he weld
pool get s sm aller and shallower.
This m eans t hat t he weld pool has a m ore favourable shape when it finally
solidifies and crat er cr acking can be avoided.
Using filler wires, TI G is used for m aking high qualit y j oint s in heavier gauge
pipe and t ubing for t he chem ical, pet roleum and pow er generat ing indust ries.
1 9 .7 Adv a nt a ge s of t he TI G pr oce ss
I t produces superior qualit y welds, wit h ver y low lev els of diffusible
hydrogen and so t here is less danger of cold cracking.
I t does not give w eld spat t er nor slag inclusions which m akes it part icularly
suit able for applicat ions t hat r equire a high degr ee of cleanliness ( eg
pipework for t he food and drinks indust ry, sem i- conduct ors m anufact uring,
et c) .
I t can be used wit h filler m et al and on t hin sect ions wit hout filler; it can
produce w elds at r elat ively high speed.
I t enables welding variables t o be accurat ely cont r olled and is part icularly
good for cont r olling weld root penet r at ion in all posit ions of w elding.
I t can be used t o w eld alm ost all weldable m et als, including dissim ilar j oint s,
but is not generally used for t hose wit h low m elt ing point s such as lead and
t in. The m et hod is especially useful in welding t he react ive m et als wit h very
st able oxides such as alum inium , m agnesium , t it anium and zirconium .
The heat source and filler m et al addit ions are cont r olled independent ly and
t hus it is very good for j oining t hin base m et als.
1 9 .8 D isa dv a n t a ge s of t h e TI G pr oce ss
I t gives low deposit ion rat es com par ed wit h ot her ar c w elding processes.
Ther e is a need for higher dext erit y and welder co- ordinat ion t han wit h
MI G/ MAG or MMA w elding.
I t is less econom ical t han MMA or MI G/ MAG for sect ions t hicker t han
~ 10m m .
I t is difficult t o fully shield t he weld zone in dr aught y condit ions and so m ay
not be suit able for sit e/ field welding.
Tungst en inclusions can occur if t he elect rode is allowed t o cont act t he weld
pool.
The process does not have any cleaning act ion and so has low t olerance for
cont am inant s on filler or base m et als.
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Se ct ion 2 0
W e ldin g Re pa ir s
20 W e ld Re pa ir s
Weld repairs can be divided int o t wo specific areas:
The r easons for m aking a repair are m any and varied. Typically, t hey range
from t he r em oval of w eld defect s induced dur ing m anufact ure t o a quick and
t em porar y running- repair t o an it em of product ion plant . I n t hese t erm s, t he
subj ect of w elding repairs is also wide and varied and oft en confused wit h
m aint enance and refurbishm ent where t he w ork can be scheduled.
Wit h planned m aint enance and r efurbishm ent , sufficient t im e can be allowed t o
enable t he t asks t o be com plet ed wit hout product ion pressur es being applied.
I n cont rast , repairs are usually unplanned and m ay result in short cut s being
t aken t o allow t he product ion program m e t o cont inue. I t is, t herefore, advisable
for a fabricat or t o hav e an est ablished policy on r epairs and t o have repair
m et hods and pr ocedur es in place.
The m anually cont rolled welding processes are t he easiest t o use, part icularly if
it is a local repair or one t o be car ried out on- sit e. Probably t he m ost frequent ly
used of t hese processes is m anual m et al arc ( MMA) as t his is versat ile, port able
and readily applicable t o m any alloys because of t he wide range of off- t he- shelf
consum ables. Repairs alm ost always result in higher r esidual st resses and
increased dist ort ion com pared wit h first t im e welds. Wit h carbon- m anganese
and low/ m edium alloy st eels, t he applicat ion of preheat and post - w eld heat
t reat m ent s m ay be r equired.
The m ost im port ant being a j udgem ent as t o whet her it is financially
wort hwhile. Befor e t his j udgem ent can be m ade, t he fabricat or needs t o answ er
t he following quest ions:
Alt hough a weld repair m ay be a r elat ively st raight forward act ivit y, in m any
inst ances it can be quit e com plex and various engineering disciplines m ay need
t o be involved t o ensur e a successful out com e.
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Weld Repairs 20-1 Copyright © TWI Lt d
I n general t erm s, a welding repair involves:
( * Appropriat e’ m eans suit able for t he alloys being repaired and m ay not apply
in specific sit uat ions)
2 0 .1 Pr oduct ion r e pa ir s
Repairs are usually ident ified during product ion inspect ion and evaluat ion of t he
report s is usually carr ied out by t he Welding I nspect or , or NDT operat or.
Discont inuit ies in t he welds are only classed as defect s when t hey ar e out side
t he perm it t ed range per m it t ed by t he applied code or st andard.
Befor e t he r epair can com m ence, a num ber of elem ent s need t o be fulfilled.
2 0 .1 .1 An a ly sis
As t his defect is surface br eaking and has occurr ed at t he fusion face t he
problem could be cracking or lack of sidewall fusion. I f t he defect is found t o be
cracking t he cause m ay be associat ed wit h t he m at erial or t he welding
procedur e, however if t he defect is lack of sidewall fusion t his can be
apport ioned t o t he lack of skill of t he welder .
2 0 .1 .2 Asse ssm e nt
I n t his part icular case as t he defect is open t o t he surface, m agnet ic part icle
inspect ion ( MPI ) or dy e penet rant inspect ion ( DPI ) m ay be used t o gauge t he
lengt h of t he defect and ult rasonic t est ing ( U/ T) used t o gauge t he dept h.
WI S10- 30816
Weld Repairs 20-2 Copyright © TWI Lt d
A t ypical defect is show n below:
2 0 .1 .3 Ex ca va t ion
I f a t herm al m et hod of excavat ion is being used ie arc- air gouging it m ay be a
requirem ent t o qualify a procedur e as t he heat generat ed m ay have an affect
on t he m et allurgical st ruct ure, r esult ing in t he risk of cracking in t he weld or
parent m at erial
The dept h t o widt h rat io shall not be less t han 1 ( dept h) t o 1 ( widt h) ideally 1
t o 1.5 would be r ecom m ended ( rat io: dept h 1 t o t he widt h 1.5) .
WI S10- 30816
Weld Repairs 20-3 Copyright © TWI Lt d
Side view of ex cavat ion for slight sub surface defect .
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Weld Repairs 20-4 Copyright © TWI Lt d
2 0 .1 .4 Cle a n ing of t he e x ca v a t ion
At t his st age grinding of t he repair area is im port ant , due t o t he risk of carbon
becom ing im pregnat ed int o t he w eld m et al/ parent m at erial.
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Weld Repairs 20-5 Copyright © TWI Lt d
2 0 .1 .5 Re - w e lding of t he e x ca va t ion
Prior t o re- w elding of t he excavat ion a det ailed repair welding procedur e/
m et hod st at em ent shall be approved.
2 0 .2 I n- se r v ice r e pa ir s
Most in- service r epairs can be of a very com plex nat ure, as t he com ponent is
very likely t o be in a different w elding posit ion and condit ion t han it was during
product ion. I t m ay also have been in cont act wit h t oxic or com bust ible fluids
hence a perm it t o w or k will need t o be sought prior t o any work being car ried
out . The r epair welding procedur e m ay look ver y different t o t he original
product ion pr ocedure due t o changes in t hese elem ent s.
Repair of in service defect s m ay require considerat ion of t hese and m any ot her
fact ors, and as such ar e generally considered m or e com plicat ed t han pr oduct ion
repairs.
Joining t echnologies oft en play a vit al role in t he repair and m aint enance of
st ruct ur es. Part s can be replaced, worn or cor roded part s can be built up, and
cracks can be r epaired.
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Weld Repairs 20-6 Copyright © TWI Lt d
When a r epair is required it is im port ant t o det erm ine t wo t hings: first ly, t he
reason for failure and, secondly, can t he com ponent act ually be repaired? The
lat t er point infers t hat t he m at erial t ype is known. For m et als, part icularly t hose
t o be welded, t he chem ical com posit ion is vit ally im port ant . Failure m odes oft en
indicat e t he approach r equired t o m ake a sound repair. When t he cause- effect
analysis, however sim ple, is not followed t hrough it is oft en t he case t hat t he
repair is unsafe - som et im es disast rously so.
I n m any inst ances, t he St andard or Code used t o design t he st ruct ure will
define t he t ype of r epair t hat can be car ried out and will also give guidance on
t he m et hods t o be followed. St andards im ply t hat when designing or
m anufact uring a new product it is im port ant t o consider a m aint enance regim e
and repair procedures. Repairs m ay be r equired during m anufact ure and t his
sit uat ion should also be consider ed.
Nor m ally, t here is m or e t han one way of m aking a repair. For exam ple, cracks
in cast iron m ight be held t oget her or r epaired by: pinning, bolt ing, rivet ing,
welding, or brazing. The m et hod chosen will depend on fact ors such as t he
reason for t he failure, t he m at erial com posit ion and cleanliness, t he
environm ent and t he size and shape of t he com ponent .
I t is ve r y im por t a nt t hat repair and m aint enance w elding are not r egarded as
act ivit ies, which are sim ple or st raight forward. I n m any inst ances a r epair m ay
seem undem anding but t he consequences of get t ing it wrong can be
cat ast r ophic failure wit h disast rous consequences.
I s w e lding t he be st m e t hod of r e pa ir ?
I f repair is called for because a com ponent has a local irregularit y or a shallow
defect , grinding out any defect s and blending t o a sm oot h cont our m ight well be
accept able. I t will cert ainly be preferable if t he st eel has poor weldabilit y or if
fat igue loading is severe. I t is oft en bet t er t o reduce t he so- called fact or of
safet y slight ly, t han t o risk put t ing defect s, st r ess concent rat ions and residual
st resses int o a brit t le m at erial.
I n fact brit t le m at erials - which can include som e st eels ( part icularly in t hick
sect ions) as well as cast irons - m ay not be able t o wit hst and t he residual
st resses im posed by heavy w eld repairs, par t icularly if defect s ar e not all
rem ov ed, leaving st r ess concent rat ions t o init iat e cracking.
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I f t here is any doubt about t he com posit ion, a chem ical analysis should be
car ried out . I t is im port ant t o analyse for all elem ent s, which m ay affect
weldabilit y ( Ni, Cr, Mo, Cu, V, Nb and B) as well as t hose usually, specified ( C,
S, P, Si and Mn) .
A sm all cost spent on analysis could prev ent a valuable com ponent being ruined
by ill- prepared r epairs or, sav e m oney by reducing or avoiding t he need for
preheat if t he com posit ion were leaner t han ex pect ed. Once t he com posit ion is
known, a welding procedure can be devised.
W h a t st r e n gt h is r e qu ir e d fr om t h e r e pa ir ?
The higher t he yield st rengt h of t he repair w eld m et al, t he great er will be t he
residual st ress level on com plet ion of welding, t he great er t he risk of cracking,
t he great er t he clam ping needed t o av oid dist ort ion and m or e difficult y in
for m ulat ing t he welding procedur e. I n any case, t he pract ical lim it for t he yield
st rengt h of conv ent ional st eel weld m et als is about 1000N/ m m 2 .
Ca n pr e h e a t be t ole r a t e d?
Not only does a high lev el of preheat m ak e condit ions m or e difficult for t he
welder; t he par ent st eel can be dam aged if it has been t em pered at a low
t em perat ur e. I n ot her cases t he st eel being repaired m ay cont ain it em s, which
are dam aged by ex cessive heat ing. Preheat lev els can be r educed by using
consum ables of ult ra- low hydrogen cont ent or by non- fer rit ic weld m et als. Of
t hese, aust enit ic elect rodes m ay need som e preheat , but t he m or e expensive
nickel alloys usually do not . However, t he lat t er m ay be sensit ive t o high
sulphur and phosphorus cont ent s in t he par ent st eel if dilut ed int o t he weld
m et al.
I s PW H T pr a ct ica ble ?
Alt hough it m ay be desirable, PWHT m ay not be possible for t he sam e reasons
t hat preheat ing is not possible. For large st ruct ures, local PWHT m ay be
possible, but car e should be t aken t o abide by t he r elevant codes, because it is
all t oo easy t o int roduce new residual st resses by im properly ex ecut ed PWHT.
I s PW H T ne ce ssa r y?
PWHT m ay be needed for one of sev eral reasons, and t he reason m ust be
known befor e considering whet her it can be av oided.
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W ill t h e r e pa ir r e sist it s e nvir onm e nt ?
Besides cor rosion, it is im port ant t o consider t he possibilit y of st r ess cor rosion,
corr osion fat igue, t herm al fat igue and oxidat ion in service.
Cor rosion and oxidat ion r esist ance usually requires t hat t he com posit ion of t he
filler m et al is at least as noble or oxidat ion resist ant as t he parent m et al. For
corr osion fat igue r esist ance, t he repair w eld profile m ay need t o be sm oot hed.
To r esist st r ess cor rosion, PWHT m ay be necessary t o rest ore t he cor r ect
m icrost ruct ure, reduce hardness and reduce t he residual st ress left by t he
repair.
Ca n t h e r e pa ir be in spe ct e d a n d t e st e d?
For onerous service, radiography and/ or ult rasonic ex am inat ion are oft en
desirable, but problem s are likely if st ainless st eel or nickel alloy filler is used;
m or eover, such r epairs cannot be assessed by m agnet ic part icle inspect ion. I n
such cases, it is part icularly im port ant t o car ry out t he pr ocedural t est s for
repairs v ery crit ically, t o ensure t hat t here are no risks of cracking and no
likelihood of serious w elder- induced defect s.
I ndeed, for all repair welds, it is vit al t o ensur e t hat t he w elders ar e properly
m ot ivat ed and car efully super vised.
As- w e lde d r e pa ir s
Repair wit hout PWHT is, of cour se, norm al wher e t he original weld was not heat
t reat ed, but som e alloy st eels and m any t hick- sect ioned com ponent s requir e
PWHT t o m aint ain a reasonable level of t oughness, cor rosion resist ance et c.
How ev er, PWHT of com ponent s in service is not always easy or ev en possible,
and local PWHT m ay give rise t o m or e pr oblem s t han it solves except in sim ple
st ruct ur es.
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Repair Considerations
Welder time £ Inspector Identify repair area ££ Local pre heat and welding could lead to
Consumable & gas £ Inspector Mark out repair area ££ distortion and residual stress.
Visual inspection £ Welder Remove defect ££
In service repairs more complex, electrical and
NDT ££ Inspector Visual inspection of excavation ££
combustible material issues, contamination.
Production repairs less complex.
Documentation £ Inspector NDT area of excavation ££
Penalty % NDT ££
Investigation Investigation
What is the nature of the defect? How was the defect detected?
If the defect can be attributed to Visual.
workmanship, it may not require further Dye Penetrant.
investigation. Magnetic particle.
However, if it is some form of cracking, it will Radiography.
Ultrasonics.
require further investigation as the problem
accurate.
Human error etc.
20‐1
Where is the Defect? What is the Defect?
Defects found on the surface by a NDT method The process can help determine defect?
that is surface only, may require further A sub surface NDT method can help establish
investigation using sub surface NDT. defect type with good interpretation.
Remove defect and investigate further. Porosity tends to be central in the weld and at
Internal defects will be found with UT or restarts and finishes.
X-Ray. Slag inclusions and lack of fusion defects tend
UT, will be able to size and locate defect far to be between runs and at the side walls of
better than X-Ray. the original preparation.
20‐2
Production Weld Repairs Arc Air Gouging
The shape of the repaired area is very Ideal repair shape Potential for lack of
important. fusion defects
A boat type shape with large radius is
preferred to allow good access and prevent
any lack of fusion defects which could occur
with straight edges.
Pre heat, ref original procedure. PWHT to remove residual stress and/or
Distortion control measures, this could be hydrogen release.
quite dramatic as the heat concentration will The repair may need dressing to give it the
generally be very localised. same geometry as the rest of the weld.
Materials such as S/S may require back Inspection of finished repair including NDT as
purging; pipes etc. original process used.
Process to use, TIG is probably the most Pressure testing if required.
versatile but there may be consumable match
issues.
20‐3
Repairs Question 1
You are working as a Senior Welding Inspector One of the circumferential seams has a linear slag
on a high pressure gas supply pipe line. inclusion 450mm in length and has been detected by
radiography. Can this defect be repaired in accordance
with the TWI Specification?
The pipe has a wall thickness of 12mm and in
certain areas 25mm. The pipe is a 24” a. This defect can be repaired providing the welding is
longitudinal seamed X60 grade, welded with the conducted in the same direction as the original welding
and under constant supervision
SAW process.
b. Any defect exceeding 450mm in length cant be
repaired in accordance with the TWI Specification
All circumferential seams are welded with an c. This defect can be welded in accordance with the TWI
E6010 electrode for the root and hot pass, fillers specification, but must be welded using a basic type
and capping E8010 electrode, all passes in the electrode and under constant supervision
PF position. d. All options are incorrect
Question 2 Question 3
While witnessing a weld repair on a circumferential One of your welding inspectors reports back to you that a
welded joint, the fabricator uses a preheat of weld repair has been removed using the arc air gouging
process. Is this acceptable in accordance with the TWI
200°C. Would this pre heat temperature be correct
Specification?
in accordance with the TWI Specification?
a. No, defective areas shall be removed by thermal
a. No, only 75°C preheats shall be used cutting, grinding back to clean metal and inspected by
MPI before commencement of welding
b. Yes providing the original preheat applied to the b. Yes, providing the gouged area is cleaned by grinding
circumferential joint was 200°C back to clean metal, inspected by PT before
c. Yes, providing the original preheat applied to commencement of welding
the circumferential joint was 125°C c. Yes, providing the gouged area is cleaned by grinding
back to clean metal, then visual inspection before the
d. No, preheats aren’t permitted for repair welds commencement of welding
on the circumferential seams d. All options are incorrect
Question 4 Question 5
You notice that no weld repair procedures have One of your inspectors reports back to you that a
been approved for this pipeline. In this situation crack has been repaired in Weld 42, section 34.
would you permit any repairs to be conducted? Which of the following statements are correct?
a. Yes, providing all weld repairs are conducted in a. This would not be permitted, as cracks can’t be
accordance with the TWI Specification repaired in accordance with the TWI Specification
b. Yes, providing that all welders are qualified to b. This would be permitted providing the crack
conduct the repairs didn’t exceed the maximum repairable defect
c. No, all repair welding shall have an approved length
welding repair procedure c. This would be permitted providing the repair has
d. No, repairs aren’t generally conducted on be carried out in accordance with the approved
pipelines; any defects detected would normally repair WPS
require the entire weld to be removed d. A crack like defect can’t occur using the
electrodes stated
20‐4
Question 6 Question 7
After conducting a repair a slag inclusion that exceeds the One of your welding inspectors informs you that
maximum permitted length has been detected by a weld repair has been conducted without a
radiography. The fabricator requests approval from you to
conduct a weld repair in this defective area. Would you
qualified welding inspector present. In this
permit this repair? situation which of the following applies?
a. Yes, a repair can be conducted on this type of defect in a. This is not permitted by the TWI Specification
accordance with the TWI Specification b. Providing the welder is qualified this is
b. No, weld repairs are not permitted in accordance with
the TWI Specification
acceptable in accordance with the TWI
c. The TWI Specification makes no reference to this Specification
situation; you would need to ask advice on this c. Providing the welder informs you that the
situation approved repair WPS has been strictly
d. No, in this situation the entire weld would have to be adhered to this is acceptable
removed, a cutout
d. No options are correct
Question 8 Question 9
You suspect that lack of inter run fusion has Some codes and standards only permit weld
occurred during the welding of one of the pipes repairs to be conducted for a minimum amount of
to pipe circumferential seams. Which of the times before a full cut out is required. Why do you
following NDT methods would best detect this think this is the case?
defect
a. If a weld is repaired an unlimited amount of
a. MPI or DPI as this defect is usually surface times it may affect the mechanical and
breaking metallurgical properties of the weld
b. RT would be best suited to detect this defect b. The amount of preheat will be too high for the
welder to weld
if no slag was present
c. A critical post heat treat will always be required
c. UT would be best suited to detect this defect
d. It would be difficult to find approved welders to
if no slag was present
conduct these type of repairs
d. 2 options are correct
Question 10
20‐5
Appendix 1
Homework
Senior Welding Inspection: Multiple Choice Questions
Paper 1
1 Which is the best destructive test for showing lack of sidewall fusion in a 25mm
thickness butt weld?
a Nick break.
b Side bend.
c Charpy impact.
d Face bend test.
2 Which of the following would be cause for rejection by most fabrication standards
when inspecting fillet welds with undercut, a small amount of?
a Depth.
b Length.
c Width.
d Sharpness.
3 The European Standard for NDE of fusion welds by visual examination is:
a BS EN ISO 15614.
b BS EN ISO 2560.
c BS EN 287.
d BS EN ISO 17637.
4 When visually inspecting the face of a finished weld which of the following flaws
would be considered the most serious:
6 A fillet weld has an actual throat thickness of 8mm and a leg length of 7mm, what
is the excess weld metal?
a 2.1mm.
b 1.8mm.
c 3.1mm.
d 1.4mm.
WIS10-30816
Appendix 1–Paper 1 A1-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
7 BS EN ISO 17637 allows the use of a magnifying glass for visual inspection, but
recommends that the magnification is:
a x2.
b x2 to x5.
c x5 to x10.
d Not greater than x20.
8 A WPS may specify a maximum width for individual weld beads (weave width)
when welding C-Mn steels. If the width is exceeded it may cause:
a Tungsten spatter.
b Risk of crater cracking.
c Risk of arc strikes.
d Interpass temperature.
10 Pipe bores of some materials must be purged with argon before and during TIG
welding to:
11 According to AWS A2.4 a weld symbol for the other side is placed:
a Nickel.
b Manganese.
c Molybdenum.
d Aluminium.
13 Compound welds:
WIS10-30816
Appendix 1–Paper 1 A1-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
14 Welding inspectors:
15 In an arc welding process, which of the following is the correct term used for the
amount of weld metal deposited per minute?
a Filling rate.
b Deposition rate.
c Weld deposition.
d Weld duty cycle.
a 27.5mm.
b 24mm.
c 13.3mm.
d 12.5mm.
18 What is the maximum allowable linear misalignment for 8mm material if the code
states the following, ‘Linear misalignment is permissible if the maximum dimension
does not exceed 10% of t up to a maximum of 2mm’?
a 0.8mm.
b 2mm.
c 8mm.
d None of the above, insufficient information provided.
19 BS EN ISO 17637:
a The minimum light illumination required for visual inspection is 350 Lux.
b The minimum light illumination required for visual inspection is 500 Lux.
c The minimum light illumination required for visual inspection is 600 Lux at
not less than 30°.
d Doesn’t specify any viewing conditions for visual inspection.
20 Which of the following electrodes and current types may be used for the TIG
welding of nickel and its alloys?
WIS10-30816
Appendix 1–Paper 1 A1-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
21 When considering the MIG/MAG welding process which of the following metal
transfer modes would be the most suited to the welding of thick plates over 25mm
in PA.
a Dip transfer.
b Pulse transfer.
c Spray transfer.
d Globular transfer.
a MMA.
b SAW.
c TIG.
d FCAW.
a Chromium.
b Manganese.
c Carbon.
d Nickel.
24 Brittle fractures:
a The susceptibility in steels will increase with the formation of a fine grain
structure.
b The susceptibility in steels will increase with a reduction in the in-service
temperature to sub-zero conditions.
c The susceptibility in steels will increase with a slow cooling rate.
d All of the above.
a 18%Cr, 8%Ni.
b 2.25Cr 1Mo.
c 9%Cr,1Mo.
d 9%Ni.
WIS10-30816
Appendix 1–Paper 1 A1-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
28 A macrosection is particularly good for showing:
a 100%CO2.
b 100% Argon.
c 80% argon + 20% CO2.
d 98% argon + 2% O2.
30 A crack running along the centreline of a weld bead could be caused by:
WIS10-30816
Appendix 1–Paper 1 A1-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Senior Welding Inspector: Multiple Choice Questions
Paper 2
2 Initiation of a TIG arc using a high frequency spark may not be allowed because it:
3 In friction welding, the metal at the interface when the joining occurs is described
as being in the:
a Liquid state.
b Intercritical state.
c Plastic state.
d Elastic state.
4 What four criteria are necessary to produce hydrogen induced cold cracking?
WIS10-300816
Appendix 1–Paper 2 A1-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
7 In the welding of austenitic stainless steels, the electrode and plate materials are
often specified to be low carbon content. The reason for this:
8 Essential variable:
9 In an all weld metal tensile test, the original test specimens gauge length is 50mm.
After testing the gauge length increased to 72mm, what is the elongation
percentage?
a 44%.
b 144%.
c 69.4%.
d 2.27%.
10 Which of the following will vary the most when varying the arc length using the
MMA welding process?
a Voltage.
b Amperage.
c Polarity.
d Both a and b.
13 A fabrication calls for the toes to be blended in by grinding.The most likely reason
for this is to…
WIS10-300816
Appendix 1–Paper 2 A1-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
14 A carbon equivalent of 0.48%:
a Is high for carbon steel and may require a preheat temperature over 100oC.
b Is insignificant for carbon steel and preheat will not be required.
c Is calculated from the heat-input formula.
d Is not a consideration for determining preheating temperatures.
16 Preheat:
a Manganese.
b Chromium.
c Carbon.
d Nickel.
18 Which of the following is the correct arc energy if the amps are 350, volts 32 and
travel speed 310 mm/minute.
a 2.16 kJ/mm.
b 0.036 kJ/mm.
c 2.61 kJ/mm.
d 0.36 kJ/mm.
a Tensile test.
b Bend test
c Nick break test.
d Both a and b.
a A rough randomly torn fracture surface, an initiation point and beach marks.
b A smooth fracture surface, an initiation point and beach marks.
c Beach marks, step like appearance and a secondary mode of failure.
d All of the above.
WIS10-300816
Appendix 1–Paper 2 A1-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
21 Which of the following weld symbols in accordance with BS EN ISO 2553 represents
a fillet weld made on the other side?
a b
c d
23 In accordance with BS EN ISO 2553 which of the following symbol best represents
a double J butt weld?
a b
c d
24 Which of the following welding symbols would indicate the depth of penetration in
accordance with BS EN ISO 2553?
a b s10
c z10 d 10s
WIS10-300816
Appendix 1–Paper 2 A1-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
25 How can you tell the difference between an EN/ISO weld symbol and an AWS weld
symbol?
a The EN/ISO weld symbol will always have the arrow side weld at the top of
the reference line.
b The EN/ISO symbol has the welds elementary symbol placed on the indication
line lying above or below the solid reference line to indicate a weld on the
other side.
c The EN/ISO symbol has a fillet weld leg length identified by the letter ‘a’.
d The EN/ISO symbol has a fillet weld throat thickness identified by the letter
‘z’.
26 What would the number 141 placed at the end of the reference line indicate on a
welding symbol in accordance with BS EN ISO 2553?
a NDT requirements.
b SAW welding process.
c MMA welding process.
d TIG welding process.
27 What would the number 136 placed at the end of the reference line indicate on a
welding symbol in accordance with BS EN ISO 2553?
29 In the AWS standard for welding symbols which of the following is true.
a The elementary welding symbol is always place below the reference line to
indicate a site weld.
b The elementary welding symbol is always placed above the reference line to
indicate a weld made on the arrow side.
c The elementary welding symbol can be placed above or below the reference
line to indicate a weld made on the other side.
d The elementary welding symbol is always placed below the reference line to
indicate a weld made on the arrow side.
30 Impact test:
WIS10-300816
Appendix 1–Paper 2 A1-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Senior Welding Inspector: Multiple Choice Questions
Paper 3
1 If arc strikes are found on carbon steel (carbon equivalent of 0.5%), what
undesirable grain structure may be present?
a Perlite.
b Martensite.
c Ferrite.
d All of the above are undesirable grain structures in constructional steels.
2 Which of the following units is used to express the energy absorbed by a charpy
specimen?
a Joules.
b Newton’s.
c Mega Pascal’s.
d Both a and c.
4 A multi-run MMA butt weld made on low alloy steel consists of 5 passes using a
6mm diameter electrode, a 12 pass weld made on the same joint using a 4mm
diameter electrode on the same material will:
WIS10-30816
Appendix 1–Paper 3 A1-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
7 Which of the following mechanical properties of a weld made on C-Mn steel is most
affected if the heat input per unit length is excessively high?
a Tensile strength.
b Ductility.
c Toughness.
d Elongation.
8 Which of the following tests would you not expect to be carried out on a welder
qualification test?
a Radiography.
b Tensile test.
c Macro.
d Bend test.
10 What are the units used when measuring light intensities for viewing test
specimens using MPI or DPI testing?
a Tesla.
b Lux.
c Hertz.
d Gray.
a Se 75.
b Tm 170.
c Yb 169
d Co 60.
12 When carrying out inspection on a Double V butt weld (35° bevel angle), which of
the following NDT methods would be the most suited for the detection of lack of
sidewall fusion in the root region?
a Ultrasonic Inspection.
b Radiographic Inspection.
c Magnetic Particle Inspection.
d Dye Penetrant Inspection.
a Radiographic Inspection.
b Magnetic Particle Inspection.
c Ultrasonic Inspection.
d Dye Penetrant Inspection..
WIS10-30816
Appendix 1–Paper 3 A1-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
14 When conducting DPI, which of the following are critical considerations?
a If the component being tested is too large for regular inks to be used.
b During the inspection of components underwater.
c During the inspection of hot components.
d Iron powder is preferred over regular MPI inks due to the higher sensitivity
achieved and ease of application.
17 During MPI inspection using contrast inks, what is the minimum light intensity
requirements in accordance with the EN standards?
a Distortion.
b Stress corrosion cracking.
c Fatigue failure.
d Solidification cracking.
WIS10-30816
Appendix 1–Paper 3 A1-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
21 Which of the following materials will show the greatest amount of distortion,
assuming heat inputs, material thickness etc. are the same?
a Damp electrodes.
b Lack of preheat.
c The presence of sulphur.
d Both a and b.
23 The likelihood of hydrogen cracking in a carbon steel weld can be reduced by:
26 The inclusion of the inductance in the welding circuit when using the MIG/MAG
welding process is to:
WIS10-30816
Appendix 1–Paper 3 A1-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
28 What are the possible effects of having the heat input too low during welding?
29 Which of the following Isotopes may be used for a 25mm thick steel pipe to pipe
weld DWSI (in accordance to BS EN ISO 17636-1)?
a Ir 192.
b Co 60.
c Se 75.
d Yb 169.
30 During a the welding of a test piece for the purpose of approving a WPS the
following parameters have been recorded: Amps 300, Volts 32, ROL 210mm, time
1 minute. What is the arc energy value?
a 4.1 KJ/mm.
b 7.38 KJ/mm.
c 6.4 KJ/mm.
d 2.74 KJ/mm.
WIS10-30816
Appendix 1–Paper 3 A1-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Senior Welding Inspector: Multiple Choice Questions
Paper 4
a Cobalt.
b Nickel.
c Carbon steel.
d Brass.
3 Magnetic particles for use in magnetic ink are generally made from:
a Iron oxide.
b Ferrous sulphate.
c Aluminium oxide.
d A special high nickel alloy
5 When MPI is performed with fluorescent ink, the maximum level of white light
illumination that must be present at the area under inspection is:
a 50 lux.
b 500 lux
c 2000 microwatts per square millimetre.
d 20 lux.
6 Which of the following statements about the use of permanent magnets for MT is
true?
WIS10-30816
Appendix 1–Paper 4 A1-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
7 The region in the neighbourhood of a permanent magnet or current carrying device
in which magnetic forces exist is called a:
a Magnetic circuit.
b Magnetic field.
c Leakage field.
d Magnetic pole.
8 The general name given to a simple device used in MPI to indicate field strength
and direction is:
a Flux indicator.
b Gauss meter.
c Magnetometer.
d Dynamometer.
a Breaking point.
b Curie point.
c Sharp point.
d Turning point.
13 European national codes and standards do not normally permit the penetrant
method to be used outside what temperature range?
a 10-55 C.
b 15-50 C.
c 10-50 C.
d 5-60 C.
WIS10-30816
Appendix 1–Paper 4 A1-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
14 An advantage of colour contrast penetrants over fluorescent penetrants is that
they:
a The inspector should allow a few minutes before starting inspection to allow
night vision to develop.
b The quantity of white light in the inspection booth should be limited to around
20lux.
c Removal of excess penetrant is monitored under UV-A light.
d All of the above.
a Forging laps.
b Grinding cracks.
c Non-metallic internal inclusions.
d Crater cracks.
17 When selecting which penetrant system to employ which of the following factors
must be considered?
a Surface temperature.
b Surface condition & cleanliness.
c Viscosity.
d All of the above.
WIS10-30816
Appendix 1–Paper 4 A1-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
a Angulation.
b Calibration.
c Attenuation.
d Correlation.
a Backing material.
b Lucite wedge.
c Transducer element or crystal.
d Couplant.
a Scanning.
b Attenuation.
c Angulating.
d Resonating.
a Water.
b Oil.
c Gylcerin
d Any of the above.
a Attention.
b Attendance.
c Attemperation.
d Attenuation.
WIS10-30816
Appendix 1–Paper 4 A1-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
28 Any condition that causes reflection of ultrasound in pulse echo testing can be
referred to as:
a A dispenser.
b A discontinuity.
c An attenuator.
d A refractor.
29 If the cap of a single V (60° included angle) full penetration butt-weld is ground
flush 0 degree compression probe is useful for:
31 The two factors that most affect the sensitivity of a radiograph are:
a A densitometer.
b A photometer.
c A radiometer.
d A proportional counter.
a It's cheaper.
b A permanent record is directly produced.
c Lack of fusion is easily detected.
d All of the above are significant advantages.
a Porosity.
b Lack of inter-run fusion.
c Lack of root fusion.
d Heat affected zone crack.
WIS10-30816
Appendix 1–Paper 4 A1-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
35 Which of the following weld defects is least reliably detected by radiography?
a Porosity.
b Slag inclusion.
c Lack of penetration.
d Heat affected zone crack.
a Volumetric flaws.
b Planar flaws.
c Both volumetric and planar flaws.
d Laminations in rolled steel products.
37 DWDI radiography is usually limited to girth welds in pipe with an outside diameter
of (consider EN ISO standard):
a 75mm or less.
b 80mm or less.
c 85mm or less.
d 100mm or less.
39 The correct terminology for the image that forms on a radiographic film during
exposure to radiation is:
a Ghost image.
b Latent image.
c Patent image.
d Spitting image.
a A very thin, continuous or intermittent, straight dark line running parallel with
the edge of the weld cap.
b A broad straight edged image towards the centre of the weld image.
c A dark line of variable width, continuous or intermittent, between the weld &
parent material & following the contour of the edge of the weld cap or root.
d A dark irregular image, within the weld image, continuous or intermittent, of
variable width and film density running essentially parallel to the weld axis
WIS10-30816
Appendix 1–Paper 4 A1-6 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Appendix 2
Training Reports
CSWIP 3.2 TRAINING REPORT MT 01
INSPECTION COMPANY: TWI NDT REPORT NUMBER: 01 PROJECT NUMBER: 1970
CLIENT: Tramcar WELD NUMBER: 48
SPECIFICATION: TWI NDT specification WELD DETAILS: Single V butt weld weld number
TECHNIQUE 132/T SURFACE CONDITION: As welded
PROCEDURE NUMBER: 132 WELDING PROCESS: 111
DATE OF EXAMINATION: 4.8.15 SCOPE OF INSPECTION: 100% of weld and HAZ
LOCATION: Prenton Park workshop PROCESS STAGE: After PWHT
MATERIAL:ASTM 182 LIFT TEST COMPLETED: YES @ 5.4 KG
CONSUMABLES MANUFACTURER TYPE BATCH NUMBERS
Solvent based ink Magnaflux 7HF 120514
Contrast Paint Magnaflux WCP‐2 150415
Solvent Remover Magnaflux SKC‐S 140905
TESTING TECHNIQUE: AC Yoke
TEMPERATURE:Ambient
LIGHT LEVELS: >350Lux at test surface
TEST SENSITIVITY: 3 indications, Burmah castrol strip
CURRENT TYPE: DC
POLE SPACING: 50 mm
TEST RESULTS:
No defects detected
No reportable indications detected
ACTION:
No further actions
OPERATORS NAME: S Jones REPORT DATE: 4.8.15
OPERATORS SIGNATURE: SJones OPERATORS QUALIFICATION: CSWIP Level 2 MPI
SJ Training MT01
CSWIP 3.2 TRAINING REPORT PT 01
INSPECTION COMPANY: TWI NDT REPORT NUMBER: 0011 PROJECT NUMBER: 1970
CLIENT: Tramcar WELD NUMBER: 69
SPECIFICATION: CSWIP WELD DETAILS: Single V Butt joint weld
TECHNIQUE 132/PT SURFACE CONDITION: As welded
PROCEDURE NUMBER: 132 WELDING PROCESS: 141
DATE OF EXAMINATION: 8.4.15 SCOPE OF INSPECTION: 100%
LOCATION: Prenton Park workshop PROCESS STAGE: Completed
MATERIAL:316 SS VIEWING CONDITIONS: >500Lux
CONSUMABLES MANUFACTURER TYPE BATCH NUMBERS
Solvent Remover Magnaflux 7HF 120514
Penetrant Magnaflux SKL‐SP2 150415
Developer Magnaflow SKC‐S 140905
APPLICATION: Brush
DWELL TIME: 20 minutes
DEVELOPMENT TIME: 10 minutes
TEST TEMPERATURE: 5‐10 oC
TEST RESULTS
ACTIONS
NAME: Dye Pennar QUALIFICATION: CSWIP LT2 PT (ISO 9712)
SJ Training PT1
CSWIP 3.2 TTRAINING REPORT RT 01
DATE OF INSPECTION: 4.8.15 INSPECTION COMPANY: TWI NDT
REPORT NUMBER: 1970 CLIENT: Tramcar
WELDING PROCESS: MMA 111 WELD REFERENCE: 47
JOINT GEOMETRY SURFACE CONDITION: As welded MMA 111
TEST PROCEDURE: 131
STAGE OF TEST: After PWHT
25mm
2.5mm SCOPE OF INSPECTION: 100%
MATERIAL: C‐Mn
Source Strength: 60 Ci FFD/SFD: 150 mm
‐ Bevel Angle 30o + 5o, ‐ 0o
‐ Root Gap 2.5mm. KV's: N/A mA's: N/A
‐ Plate thickness 30 mm
Screen type: Pb Exposure: 4Ci mins
‐Weld Length
Focal Spot: Source Size: 2x2
FILM TYPE: AGFA D4 IQI TYPE: Fe
DEVELOPMENT: 4 mins @ 20oC manual FIXING CONDITIONS 6 mins @ 20oC
RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE: SWSI ISOTOPE TYPE: Ir 192
TEST RESULTS
FILM ID SEN % DENSITY COMMENTS ACTION
1‐2 2% 2‐3 No defects observed Accept
2‐3 2% 2‐3 No defects observed Accept
3‐4 2% 2‐3 No defects observed Accept
4‐5 2% 2‐3 No defects observed Accept
5‐6 2% 2‐3 lack of root penetration Reject
TEST LIMITATIONS:
TEST OPERATOR: Sjones REPORT DATE: 4.8.15
SJ Training RT01
CSWIP TRAINING REPORT UT01
INSPECTION COMPANY: TWI NDT CLIENT: Tramcar
PROJECT NUMBER: 267 REPORT NUMBER:256 WELD NUMBER:24
PROJECT LOCATION: Prenton Workshop DATE OF INSPECTION: 4.8.15
JOINT GEOMETRY SCOPE OF INSPECTION: 100%
MATERIAL: Aluminium 5083
DIMENSIONS: 700mm L FORM:Plate
25mm
2mm SURFACE CONDITION: As welded
WPS: 0069 GTAW TEMPERATURE :Ambient
TEST PROCEDURE: 14
− Root Gap 2mm. DETECTION UNIT: KSM SERIAL NUMBER:6754
− Root to be inspected by MT before commencment
COUPLANT: Sonagel
of next weld pass
CALIBRATION BLOCKS: V1,V2
PROBES SIZE SENSITIVITY SCANNING
BWE 80% F.S.H At test
5 MHz 0O Compression 10mm Twin Crystal At test sensitivity
depth
O
4 MHz 45 Shear 10mm Single Crystal 80% F.S.H 1.5mm Hole At test sensitivity
O
4 MHz 60 Shear 10mm Single Crystal 80% F.S.H 1.5mm Hole At test sensitivity
O
4 MHz 70 Shear 10mm Single Crystal 80% F.S.H 1.5mm Hole At test sensitivity
TEST RESULTS: BS EN ISO 17640:2010
ACCEPTANCE:TWI NDT SPECIFICATION
Not accptabe
NAME: M Rogers
SIGNATURE:
SJ training UT01
Senior Welding Inspector: Training Reports Questions
MT01 Questions
3 In relation to the light levels reported on MT01, is it stated correctly and which is the
correct statement?
a Yes, as so long as you have valid eye test and have completed competency
checks
b Yes, it states a minimum of 350 Lux but recommends 500 Lux
c No, 350 Lux is for black light not white light
d No, 500 Lux is the minimum permitted light intensity
WIS10-30816
Appendix 2 – Questions A2-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
PT01 Questions
8 In accordance with the TWI Specification is the material type stated on PT01
acceptable
a Yes it is acceptable
b No, only non-ferrous based materials can be inspected by DPI
c It is not specified in the TWI Specification regarding this material so I would
accept
d No, Duplex and aluminum are acceptable but the material stated is
unacceptable
9 In accordance with TWI Specification are the viewing conditions acceptable as stated
in PT01
WIS10-30816
Appendix 2 – Questions A2-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
RT01 Questions
a Yes
b No
c This acceptable if the qualification to ISO 17636 has been verified
d This is not acceptable because the level 2 is only a minimum
WIS10-30816
Appendix 2 – Questions A2-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
UT01 Questions
16 Do the calibration blocks shown on UT 01 comply with the requirements of the TWI
specification?
o
17 Is it possible to use the 60 shear probe as reported in UT 01 to scan for the
reported defect 1?
a No
b Yes
c Only the crack like indication ,would be discovered
d It is possible if you scan at 40 o to the probe angle itself
20 How many probes would be used on a 25mm single V butt weld in accordance with
the TWI specification?
WIS10-30816
Appendix 2 – Questions A2-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Appendix 3
Training Drawing
Drawing one CSWIP 3.2 weld symbols training
7
6
10,000
Appendix 4
Specification Questions
Senior Welding Inspector: Specification Questions
2. In the case of a ferrous double sided butt weld, which inspection methods should
be employed before the second side is welded.
3. What would be the largest leg length dimensions and the smallest throat dimension
of a fillet weld deposited on 12mm thick plates.
4. An arc strike has been removed by grinding and the inspection has proven
acceptable. The thickness of the joint is 25mm and the removal depth 1mm deep.
Is this acceptable?
WIS10-30816
Appendix 4 – Questions A4-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
6. Ultrasonic testing of a circumferential pipe butt weld 200mm diameter and 25mm
thick, has detected lack of fusion 180mm in length. The contractor has a repair
procedure and wants to carry out a repair. What would be your course of action?
a) If it’s a first repair and the procedure is being followed, this would be allowable
b) If a qualified inspector witnessed the repair this would be allowable
c) You should not allow this to happen until you witness a repeat of the NDT
d) You should insist on a complete cut out
7. The following parameters were used on a 10mm thick austinetic stainless steel butt
weld using the TIG process, 12 volts, 180 amps and a travel speed of 40mm per
minute. Witnessing this operation, what would be your course of action?
8. A procedure was conducted in the PF position with MMA in 15mm thick C Mn steel.
The following tests were conducted, hardness, macro, side bends, tensile, and
impacts. Which of the following statements is correct?
9. A quenched and tempered steel has to undergo Post Weld Heat Treatment. Which
of the following is correct?
a) Heating rate controlled from 320°c, soak temperature 590°c, cooling rate
controlled to 320°c and thermocouples removed at 110°c
b) Heating rate controlled from 300°c, soak temperature 580°c, cooling rate
controlled to 300°c and thermocouples removed below 110°c
c) Heating rate controlled from 220°c, soak temperature 450°c, cooling rate
controlled to 220°c and removal of thermocouples at this point
d) Heating rate controlled to a soak temperature of 700°c, cooling rate
controlled to ambient at which point thermocouples removed.
10. A quenched and tempered steel 40mm thick requires pre heating at a temperature
of 100°c and a controlled interpass temperature of 100°c. the SAW process id
being used. The heat input must be controlled. Which of the following conforms?
WIS10-30816
Appendix 4 – Questions A4-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd