CHEM 111 Lecture-8

Gases &
The Kinetic Molecular Theory

Presented by:
Dr. Faizul Azam
faizulazam@gmail.com
1
The three states of matter

2
An Overview of the Physical States of Matter
Distinguishing gases from liquids and solids.
• Gas volume changes significantly with pressure.
– Solid and liquid volumes are not greatly affected by pressure.

• Gas volume changes significantly with temperature.

– Gases expand when heated and shrink when cooled.
– The volume change is 50 to 100 times greater for gases than for liquids
and solids.

• Gases flow very freely.

• Gases have relatively low densities.

• Gases form a solution in any proportions.

– Gases are freely miscible with each other. 3
 Gas Pressure and its Measurement

• Just as a ball exerts a force when it

bounces against a wall, a gaseous
atom or molecule exerts a force when
it collides with a surface.

• The result of many of these molecular

collisions is pressure.

• Pressure is the force exerted per unit

area by gas molecules as they strike
the surfaces around them.

The force exerted by gas molecules on the wall of the

container is defined as the gas pressure. 4
 force
Pressure =
area

Force(N)
P (Pa) =
Area(m2)

Pa = Pascal; N = newtons ; m= meter

Pressure is defined as force per unit area.

Atmospheric pressure arises from the force exerted by atmospheric

gases on the earth’s surface.

Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude. 5

Effect of atmospheric pressure on a familiar object.

6
 Pressure exerted by a gas is dependent on the number of gas
particles in a given volume.

 The fewer the gas particles, the lower the force per unit area and
the lower the pressure.

 A low density of gas

particles results in low
pressure.

 A high density of gas

particles results in high
pressure.

7
 Barometric Pressure

Measuring atmospheric pressure

The atmospheric pressure can be measured by a device called barometer.

The Hg levels are equal inside and In a mercury barometer, a column of Hg

outside the tube because the tube is 760 mm high is maintained in a closed end
Open to the atmosphere and filled Tube by a standard atmospheric pressure.
with air. 8
A mercury barometer

9
 The Manometer

• The pressure of a gas trapped in a container can be measured with an

instrument called a manometer.

• Manometers are U-shaped tubes partially filled with a liquid that are
connected to the gas sample on one side and open to the air on
the other.

• A competition is established between the pressures of the

atmosphere and the gas.

• The difference in the liquid levels is a measure

of the difference in pressure between the gas and the atmosphere.

10
 For this sample the gas pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure, the
mercury level on the left side of the tube is higher than the level on the right.
11
 Closed-end manometer

The Hg levels are equal A gas in the flask pushes the Hg

because both arms of the level down in the left arm.
U tube are evacuated.
The difference in levels, ∆h,
equals the gas pressure, Pgas.

12
 Open-end manometer

When Pgas is less than When Pgas is greater than Patm,

Patm, subtract ∆h from Patm. add ∆h to Patm.
Pgas < Patm Pgas > Patm
Pgas = Patm - ∆h Pgas = Patm + ∆h

13
Common Units of Pressure

14
 Example

PROBLEM: A Saudi weather report gives the atmospheric

pressure as 100.2 kPa. What is the pressure
expressed in the unit torr?

SOLUTION: 1 atm = 760 torr = 101.325 kPa

If 101.325 kPa = 760 torr

760 torr × 100.2 kPa

Then, 100.2 kPa =
101.325 kPa

= 751.6 Torr

15
 The Gas Laws

• There are four basic properties of a gas:

– pressure (P)
– temperature (T)
– volume (V)
– amount (number of moles, n)

 These properties are interrelated—when one changes, it affects the

others.

 The simple gas laws describe the relationships between pairs of

these properties.

 An ideal gas is a gas that exhibits linear relationships among these

variables.

 No ideal gas actually exists, but most simple gases behave nearly ideally at
ordinary temperatures and pressures. 16
 Boyle’s Law

At constant temperature, the volume occupied by a

fixed amount of gas is inversely proportional to the
external pressure.

V∝ 1 At fixed T and n,
P P decreases as V increases
P increases as V decreases
or PV = constant
Pressure x Volume = constant

P x V = k
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Boyle’s law, the relationship between the volume and pressure of a gas

18
 If the volume of a cylinder of gas is halved, the
pressure of the gas inside the cylinder doubles.

•This behavior can be explained by the equation:

P1V1 = P2V2
initial conditions new conditions
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 HOW TO Use Boyle’s Law to Calculate a New Gas
Volume or Pressure

Example If a 4.0-L container of helium gas has a

pressure of 10.0 atm, what pressure does
the gas exert if the volume is increased
to 6.0 L?

Step 1 Identify the known quantities and the

desired quantity.

P1 = 10.0 atm P2 = ?
V1 = 4.0 L V2 = 6.0 L
known quantities desired quantity 20
 Write the equation and rearrange it to isolate
Step 2
the desired quantity on one side.

Solve for P2 by dividing

P1V1 = P2V2
both sides by V2.

P1V1
= P2
V2

Step 3 Solve the problem.

P1V1 (10.0 atm)(4.0 L)

P2 = = = 6.7 atm
V2 (6.0 L)
Answer
Liters cancel
21
The process of breathing applies the gas laws
To inhale:

•The rib cage expands and

the diaphragm lowers.

•This increases the volume

of the lungs.

•Increasing the volume

causes the pressure to
decrease.

•Air is drawn into the lungs

to equalize the pressure.
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To exhale:

•The rib cage contracts and

the diaphragm is raised.

•This decreases the volume

of the lungs.

•Decreasing the volume

causes the pressure to
increase.

•Air is expelled out of the

lungs to equalize the pressure.
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 Charles’s Law

At constant pressure, the volume occupied by a

fixed amount of gas is directly proportional to its
absolute (Kelvin) temperature.

V
V∝T = constant
T
V
= k
T

At fixed P and n,
V decreases as T decreases
V increases as T increases
24
If we move a balloon from an ice water bath to a boiling
water bath, its volume expands as the gas particles within
the balloon move faster (due to the increased temperature)
and collectively occupy more space.
25
•If the temperature of the cylinder is doubled, the
volume of the gas inside the cylinder doubles.

•This behavior can be explained by the equation:

V1 V2
=
T1 T2

initial conditions new conditions 26

27
• A 132 L helium balloon is heated from 20 °C to 40 °C.
What is the final volume at constant P?
Solution
We first have to convert the temp from °C to K:
20 °C + 273 = 293 K

40 °C + 273 = 313 K

T2
V1 x = V2
T1

313 K
132 L x = 141 L
293 K
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 Gay–Lussac’s Law

For a fixed amount of gas at

constant volume, the pressure
of a gas is proportional to its
Kelvin temperature.

•If one quantity increases, the other increases as well.

•Dividing pressure by temperature is a constant, k.

Pressure P
= constant = k
Temperature T 29
•Increasing the temperature increases the kinetic
energy of the gas particles, causing the pressure
exerted by the particles to increase.

•This behavior can be explained by the equation:

P1 P2
=
T1 T2

initial conditions new conditions

30
 Calculations Using Gay-Lussac’s Law

A gas has a pressure at 2.0 atm at 18 °C. What is the new pressure
when the temperature is 62 °C (constant volume and moles)?

STEP 1 Organize the data in a table of initial and final

conditions.

Volume and moles remain constant.

31
STEP 2 Rearrange to solve for unknown quantity P2.
Solve Gay-Lussac’s law for P2:

STEP 3 Substitute the values into the gas law equation

and calculate.

32
A gas has a pressure of 645 Torr at 128 °C. What is the temperature in
Celsius if the pressure increases to 824 Torr (V and n remain
constant)?

STEP 1 Organize the data in a table of initial and final conditions.

Volume and moles remain constant.

33
STEP 2 Rearrange to solve for unknown quantity T2
Solve Gay-Lussac’s law for T2:

STEP 3 Substitute the values into the gas law equation

and calculate.

34
 Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point

When liquid molecules with sufficient kinetic energy break away

from the surface of a liquid, they become a vapor.

• In an open container, all the liquid will eventually evaporate.

• In a closed container, the vapor accumulates and creates
pressure called vapor pressure.

A liquid
• exerts its own vapor pressure at a given temperature.
• boils when its vapor pressure becomes equal to the external
pressure.

35
 Pressure and the
boiling point of water.
At high altitudes
• atmospheric pressure is lower
than 1 atm, 760 Torr.
• the boiling point of water is
lower than 100 °C.

In a closed container, such as a

pressure cooker
• a pressure greater than
1 atm, 760 Torr, can be
obtained.
• water boils at a higher
temperature than 100 °C.

36
37
 The Combined Gas Law

•All three gas laws (Boyle’s, Charles’s & Gay–Lussac’s)

can be combined into one equation:

P1V1 P2V2
=
T1 T2

initial conditions new conditions

•This equation is used for determining the effect

of changing two factors (e.g., P and T) on the
third factor (V).
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Summary of the Gas Laws that relate P, V & T

39
 Combined Gas Law Problem

• A sample of gas occupies 249 L at 12.1 mm Hg

pressure. The pressure is changed to 654 mm Hg;
calculate the new volume of the gas. (Assume
temperature and moles of gas remain the same).

P1V1 P2V2
= T constant → T1 = T2
T1 T2

V1P1 = V2P2

(249 L)(12.1 mm Hg) = V2(654 mm Hg)

𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝐋𝐋

40
 Combined Gas Law Problem

• A 25.2 mL sample of helium gas at 29 °C is heated to

151 °C. What will be the new volume of the helium
sample?

P1V1 P2V2 P constant → P1 = P2

=
T1 T2
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
25.2 mL V2
=
(273 + 29 K) (273 + 151 K)
𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟒𝟒 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 41
 Combined Gas Law Problem
A 10.0 L cylinder of carbon dioxide gas is kept at 300 K and
1.00 atm. If the volume and Kelvin temperature double, what
is the new pressure?

Conditions P V T
initial 1.00 atm 10.0 L 300 K
final P2 20.0 L 600 K

V1 T2
P2 = P1 x x
V2 T1
10.0 L 600 K P2 = 1.00 atm
P2 = 1.00 atm x x
20.0 L 300 K 42
 Avogadro’s Law

When the pressure and temperature are held constant, the

volume of a gas is proportional to the number of moles present.

•If one quantity increases, the other increases as well.

•Dividing the volume by the number of moles is a constant, k.

Volume V
= constant = k
Number of moles n

•If the number of moles of gas in a cylinder is increased,

the volume of the cylinder will increase as well.
43
increasing the moles of gas at constant pressure
means more volume is needed to hold the gas.

•This behavior can be explained by the equation:

V1 V2
=
n1 n2

initial conditions new conditions 44

 Avogadro’s Law Problem

• If 0.105 mol of helium gas occupies a volume 2.35 L at a certain

temperature and pressure, what volume would 0.337 mol of helium
occupy under the same conditions?

V1 V2
=
n1 n2

2.35 L V2
=
0.105 mol 0.337 mol

𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝐋𝐋

45
 Standard Conditions
• Because the volume of a gas varies with pressure and
temperature, chemists have agreed on a set of conditions to
report our measurements so that comparison is easy.

 We call these standard conditions.

 STP
•STP conditions are:
1 atm (760 mm Hg) for pressure
273 K (0 ºC) for temperature

•At STP, 1 mole of any gas has a volume of 22.4 L.

•22.4 L is called the standard molar volume.

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 Molar Volume of an Ideal Gas

• For 1 mole of an ideal gas at 0°C and 1 atm, the volume of the
gas is 22.42 L.

V=
nRT
=
(1.000 mol)( 0.08206 L ⋅ atm/K ⋅ mol)( 273.2 K ) = 22.42 L
P 1.000 atm

• STP = standard temperature and pressure

 0°C and 1 atm
 Therefore, the molar volume is 22.42 L at STP.

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 1 mol N2 1 mol He
22.4 L 22.4 L
6.02 x 1023 particles 6.02 x 1023 particles
28.0 g N2 4.0 g H2

48
 HOW TO Convert Moles of Gas to Volume at STP

Example How many moles are contained in 2.0 L of N2 at STP

Step [1] Identify the known quantities and the desired quantity.
2.0 L of N2 ? moles of N2
original quantity desired quantity

Step [2] Identify the STP conditions (V = 22.4 L, n = 1 mol).

V1 V2
=
n1 n2
22.4 L 2.0 L 2.0 L × 1 mol
= n2 =
1 mol n2 22.4 L

𝐧𝐧𝟐𝟐 = 0.089 mol N2 49

 The Ideal-Gas Law
• So far we’ve seen that V ∝ 1/P (Boyle’s law).
V ∝ T (Charles’s law).
V ∝ n (Avogadro’s law).

nT
• Combining these, we get V∝
P
All four properties of gases (i.e., P, V, n, and T) can be combined into a
single equation called the ideal gas law.

PV = nRT
•R is the universal gas constant:
L • atm
For atm: R = 0.0821
mol • K

L • mm Hg
For mm Hg: R = 62.4 50
mol • K
The Ideal Gas Law pV = nRT

PV 1 atm x 22.414 L 0.0821 atm·L

R= = =
nT 1 mol x 273.15 K mol·K
R is the universal gas constant;
the numerical value of R depends on the units used.

The ideal gas law can also be expressed by the

combined equation:

P1V1 P2V2
=
n1T1 n2T2

51
HOW TO Carry Out Calculations with the Ideal Gas Law

How many moles of gas are contained in a typical human breath

Example
that takes in 0.50 L of air at 1.0 atm pressure and 37 oC?

Identify the known quantities and the desired quantity.

Step [1]
P = 1.0 atm
n = ? mol
V = 0.50 L
T = 37 oC

Step [2] Convert all values to proper units and choose the value of R
that contains these units.
•Temperature is given in oC, but must be in K:
K = oC + 273
K = 37 oC + 273
K = 310 K
•The pressure is given in atm, so use the following R value:
L • atm
R = 0.0821 52
mol • K
 Write the equation and rearrange it to isolate
Step [3]
the desired quantity on one side.

PV = nRT Solve for n by dividing both sides by RT.

PV
RT = n

Step [4] Solve the problem.

(1.0 atm) (0.50 L)

PV
n = = = 0.020 mol
RT
L • atm (310 K)
0.0821 Answer
mol • K

53
 Example:

• Given three of the variables in the Ideal Gas Law,

calculate the fourth, unknown quantity.
• P = 0.98 atm, n = 0.1021 mol, T = 302 K. V = ???

PV = nRT

L atm
nRT (0.1021 mol)(0.08206 mol K
)(302 K)
V= V=
P (0.98 atm)

𝐕𝐕 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟔𝟔 𝐋𝐋
54
 Example:

• At what temperature will a 1.00 g sample of neon gas

exert a pressure of 500. torr in a 5.00 L container?

PV = nRT 1 mol
1.00 g × = 0.04955 mol
20.18 g
PV 1 atm
T= 500 torr × = 0.6579 atm
nR 760 torr

(0.6579 atm) (5.00 L)

T= L atm
(0.04955 mol)(0.08206 mol K
)
𝐓𝐓 = 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝐊𝐊
55
 Dalton’s Law of partial pressure
 The total pressure in a container is the sum of the pressure each gas
would exert if it were alone in the container.

 The total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures.

 PTotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5 ...

56
57
 P1 P2 P3

n1RT n2RT n3RT

P1= P2 = P3 =
V V V

PT = P1 + P2 + P3

PT = n1(RT/V) + n2(RT/V) + n3(RT/V)

PT = (n1 + n2+ n3) (RT/V)

PT = ntotal ( RT )
V
58
For a mixture of ideal gases, the total number of moles is important.
(not the identity of the individual gas particles)

0.75 mol H2 1.00 mol N2

0.75 mol He 0.50 mol O2
1.75 mol He V=5L 0.25 mol Ne V=5L 0.25 mol Ar V=5L
T=20°C T=20°C T=20°C
1.75 mol 1.75 mol

PT = 8.4 atm PT = 8.4 atm PT = 8.4 atm

1. Volume of the individual gas particles must not be very important.

2. Forces among the particles must not be very important.

59
Sample Problem
A sample of exhaled air contains four gases with the following partial
pressures: N2 (563 mm Hg), O2 (118 mm Hg), CO2 (30 mm Hg), and H2O
(50 mm Hg). What is the total pressure of the sample?

Ptotal = PN2 + PO2 + PCO2 + PH2O

Ptotal = 563 + 118 + 30 + 50

Ptotal = 761 mm Hg Answer

• A sample of noble gases contains helium, neon, argon, and krypton. If the
partial pressure of helium is 125 mm Hg; neon is 45 mm Hg; argon is 158
mm Hg; and krypton is 17 mm Hg, what is the total pressure of the
sample?

Ptotal = PHe + PNe + PAr + PKr

Ptotal = 125 mm Hg + 45 mm Hg + 158 mm Hg + 17 mm Hg
60
Ptotal = 345 mm Hg Answer
 Postulates of the Kinetic Molecular Theory

1) The particles are so small compared with the distances between

them that the volume of the individual particles can be assumed
to be negligible (zero).

2) The particles are in constant motion. The collisions of the

particles with the walls of the container are the cause of the
pressure exerted by the gas.

3) The particles are assumed to exert no forces on each other; they

are assumed neither to attract nor to repel each other.

4) The average kinetic energy of a collection of gas particles is

assumed to be directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature
of the gas.
61
 Effusion & Diffusion

 Effusion – describes the passage of a gas through a tiny

hole into an evacuated chamber.
 Rate of effusion measures the speed at which the gas is
transferred into the chamber.

62
 Diffusion – the mixing of gases
(is the spread of one substance
throughout a space or a second
substance).

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Study time !
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