EXPERIMENTS 1, To determine resistivity of two/three wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus current. (J-To find resistance of a given wire/standard resistor using metre bridge. 3. To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge. OR To verify the laws of combination (parallel) of resistances using a metre bridge. 4. To compare the EMF of two given primary cells using potentiometer. 5. To determine the internal resistance of given primary cell using potentiometer. 6,-To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit. 7. To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into a voltmeter of desired range and to verify the same. OR To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into an ammeter of desired range and to verify the same. ($M find the frequency of AC mains with a sonometer. ‘Scanned wih CamScannerEffect of Temperature on Resistiyi & increases: Py = Po(1 + 08). Hence re Rg = Ry (1 + a8), where a Si. units is measured in (°C) ‘ty. With the increase in temperatu ‘sistance of metals increases wit is coefficie a of @ conductor, f temperature, nt of resistance, @ is the rise in temperature, in Greek letter sigma (0), Sieg ie “eo | Ginn © Og | Aim versus current, Apparatus About 100 cm long resistance wire of about 10 ohm; 20 ohm or 30 ohm resistance in the form of coil, a battery eliminator or an accumulator or two dry cells (0 to 3V), d.c. voltmeter (range 3V), d.c. ammeter (range about 500 mA), a theostat, one plug key, thick connecting wires, sand paper etc. Theory (a) Working formula : Ohm’s law states that when a steady current flows through a conductor the ratio of potential difference between the ends of the conductor and the current flowing through it is constant provided that the physical condition of the conductors such as Pressure, temperature etc. does not change. If V is the potential difference and I is the current, then @IleVv or % = constant (R), R is the resistance of the conductor. RA (i) p=4 where p = specific resistance/resistivity A= Area of wire 1 = length of wire (J, = 10 cm, [, = 20 om, 1, = 30 cm) R = Resistance of wire (®) Circuit Diagram : Fig. 2.1 K Battery USE f Ammeter Rh “Resistance, wi a R Voltmeter Fig. 2.1.Cireuit t0 find the resistance of a wire. Procedure ee 1.Draw the circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 2.1. weasurewenr oF Resistance QUGRES? ‘Scanned wih CamScanner ES mereceNote the range, the least Count and the zero error of voIMelr as that of the ammeter as well 4, Arrange the various cOmPOnEN'S cf the cirevit in the same mannet gs given in the arrangemes 2.2) with plug out diagram (Fig. of one-way key. “4, Rub the ends of the connecting ) wires with a sand paper (0 remove any oxidised insulating, coating. Study the circuit carefully and ‘connect the thick connecting wires ig, 22. Assembly tightly. Ensure that the ‘ammeter cee is i i istance wire with its connected in series with the resis f i erie ofthe battery, Also ensure that the volimeter MH connected in parallel tothe Pesstance coil R in suc mnt enters at its positive terminal, re ‘a manner that the current - Connect the rheostat such that one of its lower terminals and the upper terminal are used. Insert the plug in key ; that the current passing through the resist slide the rheostat contact to the extreme again, These two readings give the extreme va more observations spaced uniformly are to be taken. 7. Adjust the theostat so that a small current flows through the circuit. Record the readings of the ammeter and the voltmeter. 8. Shift the rheostat contact again to increase the current and take the readings. Take similarly eight mote observations everytime increasing the current through the resistance. 9. Cut the resistance wire at the ends just coming out of voltmeter. Stretch it along the metre scale and measure its length ‘I,’ (say 20 cm). 10. Repeat all the above steps for other two resistance wires of length 1, (say 20 cm) or 1, (say 30 cm). 11. Record your observations as follows : Observations and Calculations 1. Ranges of instruments : Ammeter 2. Least counts of : Ammeter scale Least count of metre scale = 3. Zero errors and zero corrections AF possible, adjust the pointer of the i error of the ammeter, ¢ : Zero comection of the ammeter, (-e,) Be error of the voltmeter, e, = ‘ r0 correction of the vol 4: Length of the given wines feo 5. Radius of wire (using sc Physics-X1) 6. Area of wire: xr? = ircuit diagram. 5, K. Slide the rheostat contact to the extreme right (Fig. 2.2) such lance wite is the least. Note its value. Now Teft and note the value of electric curren Jues of current between which eight ww. A, Voltmeter = A, Voltmeter scale om as. referred em bse teferred ij z ves Ty in APC La cm? or .. A LABORATORY MANUAL PHYSICS-Xiy, iB screw gauge, cm or oratory Manual m, ‘Scanned with CamScannerObservation Table : SNo. Observed | i | 1, GO cm). Graph Choose appropriate scales and plot a graph between the values of V corresponding to various values of /, taking / along the x-axis and V along the y-axis as shown in Fig. 2.3. Draw a straight line best fitting through all the points on the graph. Select two points A and B on the graph. Draw the line AC perpendicular to the ‘axis and the line BC perpendicular to the y-axis through B. You will plot 3 graphs for different lengths of wire say 10 cm, 20 cm or 30 em. Slope of graph will give the value of resistance corresponding 10 each Tength fy, fy oF bs. Calculations 1. Calculate ay _ AC Slope = 47 = 56 The graph between V 2. Resistivity of wire! (i for length 4: Pr =] Ts ZL iatie ‘able 2.1. Variation of Potential Drop with Current for [, = 10 em ‘Ammeter reading I (ampere) Corrected | tekeee) | Ye ‘ Volimeter reading V (ol) | Observed | | (20 cm) oF 4. Redraw similar observation table for resistance wire of length fp Graph of Vvs./ Y. Scale : x axis : 1 em =0.100A lyaxis:tom=4.0V 50 45 49 35 30 25 20 ° m0 0% 050 035 040 048 050 I (amperes) ——> Fig. 2.3 Variation of potential drop ‘V" with change in the current ‘T’ the value of slope of V-/ graph. Reading (in volt) at Reading (in amperes) at C- Reading (in amperes) at B eading (in volt) at C and [is a straight lin, hence 7 = constant, - Qom or am weasunenent oF resistance (RES ‘Scanned wih CemScanner eerie |em? or « where, A = 47 : 7, = 10 cm (say) 5 as calculate t RA QM OF « (a for length 13: P2 = 7, .d from slope of graph 1. .. 2m. where, , = 20 em (say) Asa ‘as calculated from slope of graph 2. : Ry s Qm RA QM OF we (ii, for length ly: py = p> = e, fy = 30 em (say) : where, / as calculated from slope of graph 3. ® SEL ’ a | js Pit s+ Ps L . Qom or . 2m. ; Mean resistivity: p = PL* 82" Ps = Precettie ends of the wire should be neat and clean. ai The connections should be tight. : , z The current passed should not be high and it should be passed for a short interval of time. 4, A low resistance rheostat must be used. 5, The voltmeter should be connected in parallel and the ammeter in series and these should be so connected that the current enters at the positive terminal and leaves a the negative terminal. At 6. The connecting wires used should be thick copper wires and the insulation of thei ends should be removed by rubbing them with a sand paper, 7, Before plugging inthe key, it should be ensured that circuit and connections are right. 8. The plug should be inserted only while taking observations, otherwise current would cause unnecessary heating in this circuit, R 9. Measuring instruments of appropriate ranges should be used and zero error in them if any must be taken into account, Sources of Error 1, The connections may be loose, 2, The ratio of WI may not be constant due to heati A iotlonge Hee co cating caused by passage of curren! 3. High resistance theostat may be used, 4 ae Wits may not have uniform thickness, 5. The screw gauge may have faults I : ee S like backlash error and wrong pitch, (© Graph between potential drop «yp rei ine drop ‘V’ and the curre1 (ii) The resistance (ii) The resistivity mt through the conductor ‘?’ is @ for, remain the sa the eg sal istance. The temperature of me while performing the the Condrsarae to nbate wo ‘Scanned wih CamScannerae Aim metre bridge and hence determine the To find the resistance of a given wire using a (resistivity) specific resistance of its material. of the material whose specific resistance is to ‘a galvanometer, a battery ¢liminator or a serew gauge, 8.W.G. tables etc. Apparatus A mete bri be determined), a resistance bo Lechlanche cell, thick connecting Wi ve, a wire about | metre Long ( ‘a jockey, a Key, sand! paper, Theory (a) Working formula + Metre bridge is a form of Wheatstone bridge, under balanced conditions. PLR oY (i) For a metre bridge, the unknown resistance X is given by; 100—) =! Te Where, X is the resistor of unknown value. { Tis the balancing length, ; Q is the resistance from resistance box. Gi) Specific resistance (p) of the material is given by: ° iz 4 Where, D is the diameter of the given wire, is the length of wire. Xis the resistance of given wire, LABORATORY MANUAL PHYSICS-Xil ‘Scanned wih CamScanner¢ > Ge Fig. 2.8 (a) Measuring the unknown resistance of a wire by metre bridge Procedure 1. Draw the circuit diagram in your notebook as shown in Fig. 2.8 (a). coil X, resistance box 2. Arrange the metre bridge and the various components; the ssembly 0, galvanometer G, battery eliminator or Lechlanche cell E as shown in 3 diagram [Fig. 2.8 (b)] with Q in the right gap. Fig. 2.8 (b). Assembly diagram for measuring resistance. 3: Clean the insulation at the ends ofthe connecting wires by rubbing with sand paper Tighten al the plogs of the resistance box by pressing and turning each plug, Connect ‘he ites tightly, Keeping the adjust switch of the eliminator at 2V. 4. Ensure that the wire used for connecting the jockey to the galvanometer is sufficiently long. 5. Take out a plug to introduce a suitable resistance say, Q = 10 © from the resistance box, Use a 2-V connector in the eliminator and close the key K to complete the battery circuit. weasurenenr oF resistance @QRRRE? ‘Scanned with CemScanner&- To check the correctness of the circuit, press the jockey near the left end ofthe wy, at Point A and note the direction of deflection of the galvanometer needle. Now g* the jockey to the other extreme and note the direction of the deflection again wee directions of deflection should be opposite in the above two cases. If the deftecrig. Least count is on one side only, then there is some fault in the circuit. Check or seek the hyp of your teacher and rectify the fault. 7. Now choose an appropriate value of Q from the resistance box such that there, eres no deflection in the galvanometer when the jockey is nearly in the middle of thy Zero cor wire (ie., between 30 em to 70 em). This makes the error in measurement of Ciara smaller, Moreover, it ensures better sensitivity of the bridge as the unbalanced curren, through the galvanometer G per mm change of position of the jockey is more, Note the position of the null point D, the balancing length AD = f cm ang DC = (100 ~ ) em. 8. Repeat the above steps four times more by sele null point to fall between 30 cm and 70 cm. 9. Now cut the resistance wire X at the points where it leaves the binding terminal, Straighten it by stretching and remove any kinks, Measure its length with a metre scale. 1g the st ible values of Q for the 10. Measure the diameter of the wire by a screw gauge whose least count and zero error have been determined in advance. Measure the diameter at four more points uniformly spaced throughout the length of the wire. At each point, the diameter is Caleulati measured in two mutually perpendicular directions. oie ii. uur observations lows > Record your observations as foll 2 Substit Observations and Calculations ; 1. Data available for the wire es Material = (usually manganin of constantan) andes Least count of metre scale = em P. Length of wire om. Nie Actual Table 2.2. Observation for the Resistance of Wire B | i | position of | Balancing | Length DC | (For | S.No. | Resistance Q / Balance Point D | Length AD =!) = 100-1) | x (0) 44.5 x 1¢ : ao em) (em) ey Taha} Percent L Resale | wr es ee | = | | ta 7 ta” | Precau ss faa + 1% j Xe q 4 i 2p ‘Scanned wih CamScanner| i i : : L it \gASUREMENT OF DIAMETER Pitch tof eircular division .01 mm = 0,001 cm em gaat cout of STEW" gage = al 100 L zero error (¢) enw correction (~ ae observation Table : Table 2.3, Observation for the Radius of Wire “MSR. Ne : CSR No (annin seale reading) _| (eireutar scale reading) MSR. + (CSR. x LC) | Mean diameter Mean correlated diameter (d) Mean radius (9), Calculations Observed values. | Substitute the values of J, r and X in the working formula, and calculate the value of p such that = ohm-cn (say constantan, manganin etc.). fal from the tables of constants, ohm-m. Name of the material : ‘Actual value of po for the materi ohm-m Po = (For constantan and manganin, the values of fo are 49.1 x 108 (ohm-m) and 445 x 10° ohm-m, respectively) Percentage Error in the Value of P % error = P—P2x100 = Po Result (@ Within the experimental eror, the unknown value of resistance of the = ‘ohms, and (Gp The value of specific resistance ofthe material ofthe wire is a percentage error of « Precautions 1. The ends of the connect The connections should 2. Plogs in the resistance box should be pr in the clockwise direction. ing wires should be rubbed and cleaned with a sand paper be neat, clean and tight, : ressed and tightened by screwing them a little weasurewe oF Resisuuce QTY Sem ‘Scanned with CamScanner3 The wire should not be pressed with the jockey 100 hard, otberwise the unig, of the wire will not be maintained. 4, To avoid any error due to non-uniformity of bridge wire, the balance poin, Shoug aways be obsinsd near the midpoint ofthe wire, ee 5, To locate the balance point, the jockey should be lifted and placed on the ix : a slided on the wire. Position, and should not be slide f e cel losed first and then the jocke, ‘The key of the battery or the cell should be el ee Ss Si ws wiseoncs the reading tt be taken, The jockey Rey is reo st the battery key immediately after that, to minimize the error due from a ‘momentary kick’ due to self induced e.n.t. produced at the time of ‘make ox ‘break’ of the current in the circuit, 7. A sensitive galvanometer used for the detection of balance point may get damagey if a sudden high current flows through it. The damage can be prevented by using (@) a high resistance in seties and removing it by shorting it when the balance poin, is reached. To avoid the botheration of removing the H.R., the shorting Key K could be used. () @ shunt resistance of low value with the key K’ closed and removing the shunt by opening the key K’. Refer to Fig. 2.9 (a) and Fig. 2.9 (b) below. : : ye shunt 5 Galramometer (igh series resistance as Galvanometer (Low value shunt as protective resistance) Protective resistance), 29 Cal Oreetring the mull point the tig. 2.9 0). nally K" is closed, on nearing ey K is closed. ‘the null point, the key K" is opened. Sources of Error 1. The wire of the metre brid; 'ge may not be of uniform area of eross-section throughout its entire length, 2. The thick copper strips at the two ends of the wire offer some resistance, They coreeuiend tesstances and the erors due to them are called end oreo, and corresponding corrections are called end corrections.» © Seigsorrections. We bave assumed that in a metre bridge te slams soldering atthe ends of the ride wite ae negligible, but actualy they may note eae not be pects Moreover the bridge wire may no be enact one) B 0 Sal that he ‘metre long and the scale may fot be placed exactly with Of making ne nit citer because the wire is slightly longer og snes of making the connections ends of the wire and the sti ale. ict of oes amos aoe of the copper strips and the ‘Scanned wih CamScanner 3. The wire may ge change. Therefore, and the reading is 4. The screw gauge, 5. The length measu not taut along the egal eG) Aim To verify the laws of ei Apparatus ‘A metze bridge, three ‘one-way Key, a galvan sand paper etc. ‘Theory (@ Working Form Laws of combi Series combini in series if the {or the total) re R=R+ () Circuit Diagr x, a Fig. 2.10 (@). Ser Procedure 1. Place the re as explained 2. Similarly, re 3. Place the se x, ——— * This source of en shange the result4. The wire may get heat * Grange. Therefore, to See passage of current and its resistance might i Fa ake mse tN eon te cure sed or sot period 44, The screw gauge may have b: ‘nee acklash error due to loose fitting of its screw. 4, The length measurement ie, of J may have so if th r | * : 2 some error if the metre bridge wire is not taut along the scale in the metre bridge. ‘ eee | * Aim i zo verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge { “Apparatus i ‘a metre bridge, three different resistances or resistance coils. a resistance box, a jockey, @ } ne-way Key, @ galvanometer, battery eliminator or a Daniell cell, thick connecting wires, i cond paper etC. ' Theory | (@) Working Formula | Laws of combination of resistances : | Series combination. Two ot more resistances Ry, Ryy sw ae said to BE connected pergrcs if they are connected end to end as shown in Fig. 2.10 (@), The equivalent {orthe total resistance ofthis combination, R,, between the ends A and Dis given as : R,= Ry + Ry + Rs (#) Circuit Diagram Required Combination 5 Ten Tio — Nem fe ——+— hE € Fig. 2.10 (0). Cireuie diagram for study of the laws of resistances in series. Fig. 2.10 (a). Series Combination Procedure 1. Place the iesstor X; in-gap P im he eircult of Fig. 2.10 (b) and determine its value | as explained in experiment No. 2 repeat the observations for resistor X, and determine its resistance. and X) in the left gap P and determine i 2. Similarly, : 3, Place the series combination of X, x, value ‘pecause small changes in temperature would not 7 This source of emo is, however, not Ut serious change the result appreciably: ; weasuncwent oF resismnce QNBESI” _ REN ‘Scanned with CemScannerfull scale deflection, J, = KNo. Also from the intercept on y-axis, C = a .G. Thus, the resistance of G can be obtained. EXPERIMENT NO. A6 Aim (a) To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method. (b) To find its figure of merit and hence the current for full scale deflection. Ta LABORATORY MANUAL PHYSICS-XIL ‘Scanned wih CamScannerus pt ype eavanometes a battery or accumula : : A 0 gs), one resistance box (range 0 to 200 cing volts, one resistance box (run a ,000 etc. 5), {Wo one-way keys, connecting, end Baer : ie r v0? fe ing formula + worl (a) ¥e" «ing half deflection method, the resistane (o using the resistance of galvanometer is given by = RS. here, R is the resistance in series with galvanometer and 5 is the shunt resistance, ‘The figure of merit : -(ea)le) the emf of cell. i where, Qs the deflection produced in a galvanometer of resistance G when a resistance Ris used in series with the circuit. (qi The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer : 1, = Nok where, N, is the total number of divisions on the galvanometer scale on either side of zero. 46 and 4.7 ( Circuit diagram Ky gp (Range 10 kA) R.B (Oto 200.0) Fig 46. Ciruit for determination of resistance of Fig. 4:7. Determination of figure of galvanometer by half deflection method. merit of the galvanometer. Procedure (a) G by Half Deflection Method 1. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 4.6, in your auxiliary notebook. 2, Procure the necessary apparatus, arrange it properly on the table, clean the insulation of wires by sand paper and make all connections as shown in the circuit diagram neatly and tightly. 3. Introduce a high resistance R (about 10,000 ohms) in the resistance box R and then insert the plug in the key K,. Adjust the value of Rto get almost full scale deflection (30 div.) in the galvanometer. Record these values of R and deflection 0. 4, Now close the key K, also and adjust the shunt resistance S to get a deflection which is exactly half of 6, i-e., (0/2). Note this deflection and the value of S. CONVERSION OF A GALVANOMETER INTO AN ANMETER AND VOLTHETER wy ‘Scanned with CamScannerS Take four mone sets of observations exmetly inthe same Way by chy rs the value of & suitably so that Q is even number of divisions and recon the observations as detailed in Table 4, 0) Determination of the Biguee of Merit 6. Measure the potential drop (8) at the ends of the battery using an ACCUIg Voltmeter connecting it in parallel with it, Let it be E volts, Use the eing, Of Nand Qin Table 1 to calculate fin the following way: Let 0 divisions be the deflection in the galvanometer when a resistance & ofms is intrvauced in series with the galvanometer of resistance G (tefey t© Fig. 4.6) when Ky is not closed, Then the current J, through the circuit jg given by S Tie See 4 ampere ‘Therefore, the current required for the deflection of | division in the galvanometer, he. the figure of merit & is given as ote ke telik ea 7 Repeat the calculations of & for the observations 2, 3, 4 and 5 and enter them in Table 4.2, Calculate the mean value of &: Full Seale Deflection Current 4 through the galvanometer), (Maximum current which can be passed Let No be the total number of divisions on either side of the galvanometer scale, ‘The current “J required for full scale deflection in the galvanometer, Igek.N 8. Calculate the value of Ig. 9, Record your observations as detailed below : Observations (a) Resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method Table 4.1 Defiection in the Required Galvanometer | | No. of omer galvanometer | shunt ee resistance | Observation 8 s ‘ "RS | (ohm) divisions (ohm | divisions Soaes | @ (a2) coum | ohm) - ‘Mean value of galvanometer resistance, G = ‘LABORATORY MANUAL PHYSICS-Xit, ‘Scanned with ComScanneryor : FT pesiotance of the galvanometer (6) by ha deflect 3, EME. of the cell or battery eliminator, oar ta at ohm. Table 4.2 Resistance in R.B, Deflection in the Figure of merit R galvanometer (0) | k= piste sce (ohm) (No. of scale divisions) (REGS (a) (A/ div. or ampere/division) Mean value of k = ampere per division 43, Total number of divisions on either side of the zero of the galvanometer scale, N= .. (usually 30) Alternatively graph of the values of 1/0 as ordinate against the comesponding values of the figure of merit k and G can be determined from the slope and intercept fier. (Fig. 4.5 by graphical method Page 86] By plotting along x-axis, as explained car ‘4. The current required to produce full scale deflection No divisions, Ig = No XK = snes ampere Result (@) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method, G ohm. () Figure of merit, k Aldivision (©) Current J, for full scale deflection ampere. Precautions 1. All the connections should be neat and tight, All the plugs in resistance boxes should also be tight. 10 KQ from the resistance box R should be introduced 2. A high resistance R = K, should be closed to avoid any damage 10 the first and then the battery key galvanometer. ' Deffection in the galvanometer shoul number of divisions. ' Value of R must be very large as compared t0 the value of G, otherwise the result Will not be satisfactory. * Em. of the battery or eliminator u: it should be freshly charged. 1d be as large as possible and should be an even sed should be constant. If the battery is used CONVERSION OF A GALVANONETER INTO AN AMMETER AND VOLTNETER ae ‘Scanned wih ComScanner6. Before closing the key K, should be tightly fitted and cl increased till the deflection Sources of Error : 1, The resistance of the coils in the as marked. 2, The plugs in the resistance observations. i ion, all the plugs in termining half deflection, @ Y ae se ermyetance from the resistance DOX S is graduayy falls to 0/2. resistance box used may not exactly be the same box may be loose which will produce large error in the 3. The emf of the battery may not be constant. ‘Scanned wih CamScannerCANE GIE) Aim To find the frequency of an alternating current (a.c.) mains by sonometer and an eleciromagnet. Apparatus A sonometer with soft iron wire stretched over it, an electromagnet or a horse-shoe magner, a step-down transformer, slotted half kilogram weights, a hanger, a physical balance and 2 weight box. Theory : (a) Working Formula Let a wire of length | and mass per unit length m be stretched by applying a force T called the tension in the string. If it is set into transverse vibrations in fundamental mode, then the frequency v of the note emitted by it is given by as (b) Diagram : Fig. 5.2 v Step-down transformer 20gc Pulley Peg Weight, Mg Fig: 5.2. Set up for finding the frequency of a.c. mains using an electromagnet and a sonometen Procedure 1. Place the sonometer on a working table in a conver c nient position such that the pulley Projects beyond the edge of the table. Stretch the sono, i i y placing a load of 1 kg on the hanger, si Selick a 2 Svea ae ceetiaenet in a stand.and connect the electromagnet to the secondary at te k BD ee 6H Her own Nanalemes) Adjust the position of the electromagnet : : : Aone Poles lies close to the middle of the sonometer wif 3. Switch on the ac. su j wit C. supply, adjust the k ‘ibrati i y fore ss ; © length of the vibrating portion of the wire bY until the wire begins to vil Vibrating wire segment is maximum, mets 8 ain 8 TO Leceony MANUAL PHYSICS-y1 i ‘Scanned wih CamScannerae: 5” essre te Fenth of the vibrating wire Ae et ‘i jue of the tension (load) T = Mg, ie, oe ae ‘mnife edges P and Q and the vet PQ isthe resonant length "of hanger + slotted weights on it). 5. Mesiding one ofthe wedges such thay jitude in each case. In this way, take me ae Our sets of observations in all, using «oh off the a.c. supply. Take about 1 gwiteh of “st bout 100 cm of the sonometer wi termi se sie nd neil eri +, pecord your observations as detailed below ; servations oy of he wire (L) = ss ofthis ength Om as per unit Fength (rm) = (2 ) kg yas of banger = salve of (acceleration due to gravity) g .- mis? Observation Table 5.1. For resonant length with varying tensions Load (M) Resonant | Mean| Wave- Goeuding mass | TES | tenet Gem) || eng E of hanger) ne 2 1 | 2 | Mem] im | =a m ks) Hem) | am) | (m) a) 2: 3. 4 L Mean value of v = Calculations For each set of observations, calculate the value of v . Find their mean. ‘mean value of V ‘The frequency of a.c. supply, (f) = z Result . cycles/s or Hz. Frequency of a.c, mains (f) as determined by sonometer, / Standard value of a.c. mains in India, (fq) = ~~~ eycles/s. Percentage error = Y= f0) 190 = %. Precautions 1. The sonometer wire should be of magnetic material, free from kinks and stretched horizontally, erequency oF ac. QT” ‘Scanned with CamScanner2. The pole of the electromagnet should be held quite close to the middle of the vibran, segment. 3. The position of maximum amplitude should be judged at least twice for each Iggy 4, While finding resonant length, start with a small distance between the wedg 5. The weight of the hanger should also be counted while calculating the stretching force (ie., the tension T = Mg in the string). 6. After completing the experiment, weights should be removed from the hanger. Never leave the wire in a stretched conditi Sources of Error Soalete 1. The relation v = HE has been derived under the condition that the wire is perfectly Ie Sonnctar fiexible, Hence an error may creep in due Solenoid to rigidity of the wire. 2. The wire may not be of uniform area of Wedges cross-section. Its composition may not be ‘some uniform. i {ron Wire Under Some friction might be present at the To A.C. Mains Tension pulley and hence the tension is less than _— that actually applied. Note. To eliminate the friction at the pulley, a vertical type of sonometer should be used as Hanger shown in Fig. 5.3. However, this type of sonometer ma Slotted weights is seldom used in any laboratory. Fig. 5.3. Vertical - 5.3. Vertical sonometer. 5.2, FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR PLACED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD A current-carrying conductor when placed in a magnetic field experiences a force. The magpitide Of the force is maximum when the direction of the current in the conductor ic is given by the relation F = BLU. Hi te index finger and the middle finger of your left cae and (as shown in Fig. 5.4) in such a wa that f* they are mutuall Lea han “ es i ¥ Perpendicular to each other. If hand se thy NGE* finger points in the direction of the field, Se mide fee in the direction of the current, nw = ie thumb points in i See acting on the its i the dtetion ofthe force eto Fig. a & 5-4. Fleming's Left Hand Rule. ‘Scanned wih CemScanneror i E y ae ne aced fn SOT-mapot tension a iform magn . ‘ 35 aad inthe horizontal plane, Let gn tet fe hich Mt 8 thy 0 prough this wire. There will be an interaction yore c7=M Of frees PePeMcar 8 eat cary iNE conductor both of which tic matey frequen, ‘Ween the ay ey f eyclels be : Which are at righ lied ma b merction, a force acts onthe wire and podace © each ober 4st na ih other. AS a res wwe is alternating in cl aractet, SO for half the cycle the ui © curtentpassng through gest half cyele it moves downwards. So in one second ine een UPA, ad for ani as many times down depending upon the frequency of ac, ie moves as many times fat into forced vibrations with the same frequency as that of aa er Fi the wire : ac, ye distance between the two bridges is so adjusted thatthe maul spaon ofthe wire segment equals the frequency of the ac. then hee yee” of je would vibrate with a i thea thes resonance aad the ee very large amplitude In this situation the frequency of beac. supply, ir fever stere symbols 7, | and m have their usual meanings. So if 1, T and m are determined cqperimentally, f can also be determined by using the above formula. To find the frequency of the a.c. mains with a sonometer and a horse-shoe magnet. Apparatus 8), a step Asoometer, a horse-shoe magnet (or two bar magnets of equal pole strengths), 4 Nem ‘ovn transformer (220V - 6V), a wire of non-magnetic materiel tas Daan Sof sloted weights (in steps of 50 gram weights) physical balance clamp stand, Theory : ©) Working Formula The frequency of the a.c. supply is given by * Lie vel lr Vim Where, v = frequency of a.c. = mass per unit length 1 = resonant length T = Tension | | : eequency OF AC eas ‘Scanned wih CamScannerBe eee (b) Diagram : Fig. 5.5 220V (ac) daptow LSSe— transformer (TTT), ev (ac) Horse-snoe magnet Pulley Weight mg Fig. 5.5. Frequency of a.c,, using a sonometer and @ horse-shoe magnet. Procedure oe 1. Swretch a brass wire (wire of non-magnetic material) over a sonometer in place of a usual steel wire a suspend a hanger (of known weight of 50 g) from the free end of the wire passing over the pulley as shown in Fig. 5.5. 2. Apply a suitable tension to the wire, say of 150 g. Connect the sonometer wire to the secondary of the transformer (which steps down 220 V a.c. to 6 V) as shown in Fig. 5.5. 3. Mount a horse-shoe magnet* vertically at the middle of the sonometer wire PQ ia such a way that the wire is free to move in between the pole pieces N-S of the ‘magnet and the line joining the poles of the magnet is perpendicular to the length of the wire. 4. Switch on the a.c. supply. As the current passes through the wire, it begins to vibrate. Adjust the distance between the two bridges WW starting with very small and sliding one of them away from the other such that the amplitude of the vibration becomes maximum. At this stage, measure the length of the wire between the two bridges. This length is the resonant length. Repeat this observation by decreasing the lensth starting from a large WW gap. Take the mean of the two values of the resonant lengths. Record the value of the tension applied, 5: Increase the tension by placing another slotted weight of 50 g on the hanger and take the next observation for / as explained in step 4. In this way, increase the tension it Stages of 50 g weight and take several sets of observations 6. Now measure the length L (about 100 its mass m' in a sensitive balance and express it in kg m-!, cm) of the sonometer wire, cut it and tin! and determine m the mass of 1 metre of the Wit Tf a horse-shoe magnet is not available, then ‘non-magnetic supports kept on the sonometer in the same horizontal plane as that of the wi Opposite poles of the two bar magnets face ‘req {No bar magnets and keep them an some aioe {uch a way that their axes ane coltinear at ® ire and are perpendic uh ie te ro each be lar t0 the wire, Take care that ED voornony MANUAL PHYSiCs-x1, ‘Scanned wih CamScanner1. Record the OPSENBKONS as deste betgy peervations | 1 Ge of the wire (L) sus per unit length (rm) = (¢) «Count of metre scale = em rolage aross the secondary of transformer sanded value of frequency of ac. mains = 50 fry observation Table 5.2. Measurement of the valueg 1 fe A tae of I foy t volts, | 1 t ' ' EAE different values of T (including mass of hanger) Resonant length 1 u TOM) | : Cc) (newton) | (em) oS | Calculation ‘The tension 7 is given by T = Mg, where g, the acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m Substitute the values of 7, / and m in the formula 1 fr vei lr 2m and calculate the value of v for each set of observations. () The frequency of the a.c. mains, f = Mean value of v (i Standard value of ff .. eyelels or Hz (i) Percentage error, Cx 100 %. Result The frequency of the a.c. mains as determined by using an electromagnet and a sonometer = sume €yele/s or Ha with % error of Precautions 1. The material of the sonometer wire should be non-magnetic : 2. The wire should be of uniform area of cross-section and free from kinks. 3. The wed; ddges to get distinct nodes. iges used should have sharp edges 10 8: Bases 4. The horse-shoe magnet should be placed vertically near the middle ofthe wire with its face perpendicular to the length of the wire. va 5: The wire should be free to move between the poles of the mas ee 5. Every observation for J should be repeated for each stretching load as shown in the observation table. FREQUENCY OF AC. ae ‘Scanned with CemScanner7, After the experiment, the weights should be removed from the wire, othe wire may develop elastic fatigue. 8, Rest of the precautions are the same as in experiment No. 8 (a). Sources of Error Same as in Exp. 8 (a). Discussion 1, Finding the frequency of alternating current (a.c, mains) by using @ sonomeg requires a clear understanding and application of the phenomenon of resonance g strings under tension. Frequency of vibration of a string under tension, v 3 e rm It depends on the tension 7, linear mass density m and length 1 of the wire betweey the two wedges. The most convenient way to change v is to change /, the distance between the sharp edges of the bridges, keeping the tension and mass per unit lengi, constant. As the value of v is continuously varied, at a certain length /y v matches with vo, frequency of the a.c. This length fy is the resonant length. Using this value of Jy, the frequency v so determined is a measure of Vo of a.c. Percentage maximum error in the measurement of v is given by ay. Al Lar 1am 3M yi ais = AM will be 10 g, say 2 kB = sip5 = 05% Variation in Variation in 4”, Am = 0.001 g, m = 28 | 0.0018 2.000 1.05% So, ane 15 cm whereas in 44, a1 = 0.1 om, om 1 2 08% TSem ~ 150 Al T Therefore, major contribution to error i.e., 0.8%, i.e, from the measurement of |, which, is though difficult, should be measured carefully. 2, In determination of frequency of ac. mains : (i by electromagnet, the sonometer wire required should be of soft iron and (i by using horse-shoe magnet, the sonometer wire should be of non-magneti¢ materi Why this disparity? In part (), the sonometer wire will experience a force by electromagnet only if | wire is of magnetic material. Soft iron satisfies this requirement. In part (i), the permanent magnet will pull the wire either way if it is of mazné material. Moreover, itis the electric current through the conductor placed in a unifom™ magnetic field which produces a force. A non-magnetic, electrically conduct tater satisfies the requirement, Briss is quite economical as far as cost fie E concerned. ‘Scanned wih CamScanner oO