UNIT –5

REFRIGERATION
 Refrigeration
Reversed heat engine is one which an engine operating in the reverse way, ie., receiving
heat from a low temperature region, discharging heat to a high temperature region and
receiving a net inflow of work. Under such a condition the cycle is called a heat pump
cycle or a refrigeration cycle.

Refrigeration: It is a process of removing the heat from the cold body and rejecting the
same to hot body at the expense of the net inflow of work.
Refrigeration
It is defined as a method of reducing the temperature of a system below that of the
surroundings and maintain it at the lower temperature by continuously absorbing heat
from it.

Principle of Refrigeration
In refrigeration, the heat is to be removed continuously from a system at a lower
temperature and transfer it to the surroundings at a higher temperature. This operation
according to the second law of Thermodynamics can be performed by aid of the external
work. Therefore in a refrigerator, power is to be supplied to remove the heat
continuously from the refrigerator cabinet to keep it cool at a temperature less than the
atmospheric temperature.

Work

HOT HT COLD HOT HR HA COLD

R
BODY BODY BODY BODY

Cup of hot Surrounding Surrounding ICE

coffee air air HR → Heat Rejected
HA → Heat Absorbed
HT → Heat Transfer
R → Refrigerator
 Difference between Refrigerator and Heat Pump
The performance of refrigerators and heat pump is expressed in terms of the Coefficient of
performance (COP )
COPHP = COPRef + 1
Refrigerator Heat Pump (Room in winter)
Hot Body Surrounding Hot Body System

→ Desired output

→ Desired output Surrounding

System
Cold Body (Room in summer) Cold Body
Refrigerator: It is device in which heat is removed from the cold body (system) and rejected to the
hot body (surrounding) to maintain the temperature of the system well below the surrounding
temperature . The amount of heat removed from the cold body is desired output of the refrigerator.
Heat Pump: It is device in which heat is removed from the cold body (system) and supplied to the
hot body (system) to maintain the temperature of the system above the surrounding temperature.
The amount of heat supplied to hot body is desired output of the heat pump.
Refrigerant:
It is working fluid in a heat pump or a refrigerator which absorbs heat from cold body
and transfer it hot body with or without change of its phase.

Capacity of a Refrigeration System:

The cooling capacity of a refrigeration system is the rate of heat removal from the
refrigerated space and it is often expressed in terms of tons of refrigeration
Ton of Refrigeration:
One tone of refrigeration is defined as the amount of heat that should be removed from
1 ton (1000 kg) of liquid water at 0 °C to freeze it into ice at 0°C in 24 h. One ton of
refrigeration is equivalent to 211 kJ /min (3.5 kW).
1 ton of refrigeration = (1000 x 335) / (24 x 3600) ≈ 3.5 kW
Where Latent heat of fusion for ice is 335 kJ /kg K and mass of water is 1000 kg

Different Types of Refrigeration Systems

1) Carnot Refrigeration Cycle/Reversed Carnot Cycle.
2) Air Refrigeration Cycle/ Gas Refrigeration/Bell-Coleman / Reversed J oule or Brayton Cycle.
3) Vapour Compression refrigeration System
4) Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System
 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle/Reversed Carnot Cycle
A refrigerator or heat pump that operates on the 1-2 Isothermal heat absorption process
reversed Carnot cycle is called a Carnot refrigerator or a 2-3 Isentropic compression process
Carnot heat pump 3-4 Isothermal heat rejection process
4-1 Isentropic expansion process

QRe Tmax Qrej

T4 = T3
Tmax T=C
S=C S=C
T=C T1 = T2 Tmin T=C
Qabs
WE WC
S=C S=C
T=C

Tmin
Tmin
Qabs
 Air Refrigeration Cycle/Gas Bell-Coleman / Reversed J oule or Brayton Cycle
A Bell-Coleman air refrigerating machine was developed by Bell-
Coleman and Light Foot by reversing the Joule's air cycle
Qrej
P4 = P1 P = C

1 4
WCom
S=C S=C
WExp
S3 = S4
S1 = S2
2 3
P=C
P2 = P3

Heat Absorbed by refrigerant = RE = Qabs = Q2-3 = Cp(T3 – T2)

Qabs
Heat Rejected by refrigerant = Qrej = Q4-1 = Cp(T4 – T1)

Qnet = Qrej - Qabs = Wnet = Wcom - WExp Wnet = Qnet = QR - QA = Q4-1 - Q2-3 = Cp(T4 – T1)- Cp(T3 – T2)

Eqn. 2

Eqn. 1
Eqn. 2
 If the compression and expansion processes take place according to the law Pvn = C

4 4s
Qrej 4-1
1
P4 = P1 P = C P vn= C P vn= C

Qabs 1-2 1 Qrej 3-4

4
WCom
P vn= C P vn= C 2s 2
WExp
S3 = S4

2 3
P=C
P2 = P3 According to First Law of TD applied to a Cycle → ∑Q = ∑W
Qabs 2-3 Qnet = Qrej 4-1 + Qrej 3-4 - Qabs 2-3 - Qabs 1-2 = Wnet = Wcom - WExp
 If one of the compression and expansion processes take place according to the law Pvn = C

4s
Qrej 4-1
1
P4 = P1 P = C
P vn= C P vn= C
Qabs 1-2 1 Qrej 3-4 = 0
4
WCom
P vn= C S= C
WExp 2s 2 3-4 →Compression is isentropic
S3 = S4 1-2 → Expansion is Polytropic
2 3
P=C
P2 = P3 According to First Law of TD applied to a Cycle → ∑Q = ∑W

Qabs 2-3 Qnet = Qrej 4-1 + Qrej 3-4 - Qabs 2-3 - Qabs 1-2 = Wnet = Wcom - WExp
Problem-1
The atmospheric air at pressure 1 bar and temperature – 5 °C is drawn in the cylinder of the compressor
of a Bell-Coleman refrigeration machine. It is compressed isentropically to a pressure of 5 bar. In the
cooler, the compressed air is cooled to 15° C, pressure remaining the same. It is then expanded to pressure
of 1 bar in an expansion cylinder, from where it is passed to the cold chamber. Find, 1) the work done per
kg of air; and 2) the COP. of the plant. For air, assume law for expansion pvl.2 =constant, law for
compression pv1.4 = constant and specific heat of air at constant pressure = 1 kJ//kg K.
Given: P3 = P2 = 1 bar, T3 = -5°C = 268 K, P4 = P1 = 5bar; T1 = 15°C = 288K, n = 1.2, γ = 1.4 , Cp= 1 kJ/kg K

1-2 → Expansion is Polytropic

4s
3-4 →Compression is isentropic
Qrej 4-1 1 S=C
P vn= C The expansion process 1-2
P4 = P1 P = C n −1 1.2 − 1
Qrej 3-4 = 0 T1  P1  n  5  1.2
Qabs 1-2 1 =  = 
4 T2  P2  1
WCom
P vn= C S= C 2s 2
WExp = 50.167 = 1.31
T2 = 288 / 1.31 = 220 K = −53 °C
S3 = S4
2 3
P=C
P2 = P3
The Isentropic Compression Process 3-4 → PV1.4 = C
Qabs 2-3 γ −1 1.4 − 1
T4  P4  γ  5  1.4
=  ⇒ T4 = 268 ×   = 424.8 K = 151.8 °C
T3  P3  1

T4 = 424.8 K = 151. 8 °C
 T1 = 15 °C = 288K

Qrej 4-1 T2 = 220 K = - 53 °C

P4 = P1 P = C T3 = -5 °C = 268 K
Qrej 3-4 = 0
Qabs 1-2
1 4 T4 = 424.8 K = 151. 8 °C
WCom
P vn= C S= C Work done by the expander during process 1-2 per kg
WExp n−1
S3 = S4 W E = W1− 2 = ( P1V1 − P2V2 ) = n − 1 R(T1 − T2 )
n n
2 3 1.2 − 1
P=C = × 0.29 × (288 − 200 )
1.2
P2 = P3
WE = W1-2 = 118.3 kJ/kg
Qabs 2-3 Compressor work during Isentropic process 3-4 per kg
γ −1
WC = W 3 − 4 = ( P4V4 − P3V3 ) = γ − 1 R(T4 − T3 )
γ γ
∴ Net work done per kg of air
1.4 − 1
= × 0.29 × (424.8 − 268 )
Wnet = WC - WE = 159 -118.3 = 40.7 kJ/kg 1.4
WC = W3-4 = 159 kJ/kg
Heat absorbed during Isobaric process 2-3 per kg (RE)
Qabs = Cp (T3 – T2 ) = 1× (268 - 220) = 48 kJ/kg COP of the plant
Qabs 48
Qabs = 48 kJ/kg COP = = = 1.18 COP = 1.18
Wnet 40.7
In Problem-1, if mass flow rate of air is 2 kg/s, calculate the mass of ice produced at - 4 °C in one day. The initial
temperature of water supplied is 20 °C. Also calculate COP and tonnage capacity of the unit. Take Latent heat of
fusion for ice is 335 kJ/ kg, CP of water = 4.18 kJ/kg K, CP of ice = 2 kJ/kg K, CP of air = 1 k//kg K.
Solution: Refrigeration Effect per kg of refrigerant = qabs = Cp (T3 - T2 ) = 1[-5 -(-53)]= 48 kJ/kg
Total Refrigeration Effect = Qabs = mref Cp (T3 - T2 )
Qrej 4-1 TRE = Qabs = 2x 1[-5-(-53)]= 96 kW
Cooler TRE = Qabs = Heat absorbed by refrigerant = Heat lost by water
P4 = P1 P = C
TRE = Heat lost by water
Qabs 1-2 1 Qrej 3-4 = 0
4 TRE = Sensible heat of water + LHF + Sensible heat of ice
WCom
P vn= C S= C T
WExp Twater in (20 °C)
Twater in
S3 = S4 Tfreezing
S1 = S2
P2 = P3 3
2 ( 0 °C )
mref = 2 kg/s P=C
Tfreezing
T2 = - 53°C T3 = 15°C

Qabs 2-3 (- 4 C )
mice = ?
Tice
Tice Enthalpy
Tice = Twater, final = - 4 °C

LHFice
Sensible heat of ice Sensible heat of water
Twater, inital = 20 °C
Cold Chamber Cp,ice (Tfreezing - Tice ) Cp,water (Twater in - Tfreezing )

TRE = mw [Cp,water (Twater in - Tfreezing ) + LHFice + Cp,ice(Tfreezing - Tice )]

Tonnage capacity of the unit = TRE/3.5 96 = mw [4.18 (20 - 0) + 335 + 2 {0 – (-4) }] → mw = mice =0.227 kg/s
Tonnage capacity of the unit = 96/3.5
Mw = Mice = mw x time = 0.227x 24 x 3600 = 19612 kg/day
Tonnage capacity of the unit = 27.4 Tons
 Vapour Compression Refrigeration
The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the most widely used cycle for refrigerators, air-conditioning
systems, and heat pumps. It consists of four processes.
T
P3 = P2
P
Qrej P= C
Qrej S= C Qrej
P3 = P2 P= C
S1 = S2 Wc
Qabs
h= C
h= C Wc
WC P= C
S= C
P4 = P1 Qabs
h3 = h4
h3 = h4
P= C S h
P4 = P1 1-2 →Isentropic compression in a compressor
Qabs 2-3 →Constant-pressure heat rejection in a condenser
3-4 →Throttling in an expansion device (Constant enthalpy Process)
4-1 →Constant-pressure heat absorption in an evaporator

But h4 = h3
(Throttling Process)
 Various conditions of refrigerant at compressor inlet and outlet
1) Dry refrigerant at compressor inlet (Standard Condition)
2) Wet refrigerant at compressor inlet and superheated at outlet
3) Wet refrigerant at compressor inlet & dry vapour at outlet
P3 = P2
Qrej
P= C
P3 = P2 P= C
Qrej 2ˡ S= C Qrej
S1 = S2 2ˡˡ 2ˡ
2ˡˡ
Wc
h= C Qrej
Wc h= C
S= C
1ˡˡ 1ˡ
Wc
P= C
h3 = h4
P4 = P1 1ˡˡ 1ˡ

P= C h3 = h4
P4 = P1
1) Dry refrigerant at compressor inlet (Standard Condition)
Qabs

2) Wet refrigerant at compressor inlet & superheated vapour at compressor outlet

Where hˡ1 = hf1 + x1 hfg1
For Refrigerants hˡ2 = hg2 + cp (T ˡ2 – T g2 )(or from R Table)
Tables To find x1 → sˡ 1 = s ˡ 2 Where sˡ 1 = sf1 + xˡ1 sfg1 & sˡ2 = sg2 + cp ln (T ˡ2 / T g2)
Thermodynamics 3) Wet refrigerant at compressor inlet & dry vapour at compressor outlet
data hand book
by Where hˡˡ1 = hf1 + xˡˡ1 hfg1
Nijaguna & Samaga To find x1 → sˡˡ1 = sˡˡ2 Where sˡˡ1 = sf1 + xˡˡ1 sfg1 & sˡˡ2 = sg2
 Problem-2
A vapour compression refrigerator plant uses R-12 as refrigerant. The evaporator and condenser
temperatures are -15 °C and 10 °C respectively. If there is no under-cooling and plant capacity is 20 ton.
Find 1) condenser and evaporator pressures, 2) mass flow rate of refrigerant, 3) COP of the plant 4)
temperature of refrigerant entering condenser 5) compressor work 6) Volume flow rate at evaporator
outlet.
Solution: TEvp = Tsat 1 = Tsat 4 =T4 = T1 = -15 ° C = 258 K, TCon = T3 = Tsat 2 = Tsat 3 = 10 ° C = 283 K, PEvp = P4 = P1 = ?,
PCon = P3 = P2 = ?, TRE = 20 ton = 20 x 3.5 = 70 kW, mref = ?, COP = ?, T2 = ?, Wc = ?, and V1= ?

T From saturated refrigerant R-12 Table A.2.1 at TCon = Tsat, 3 = Tsat, 2 = 10 ° C

PCon = P3 = P2

2
P=C
Qrej S=C
Tsat, 3 3
Tsat, 2 Wc
h=C
PCon = P3 = P2 = 0.4233 Mpa, vf3 = 0.733 cm3/g = 0.733 x 10-3 m3/kg, vg3 = 0.04091m3/kg
Tsat, 4 P=C hf3= 45.337kJ/kg, hfg3 = 146.25 kJ/kg, hg3 = 191.602 kJ/kg,
1
Tsat, 1
P4 = P1 4 Qabs PEvp
For Refrigerants
sf3= 0.175 kJ/kg K, sg3 = 0.6916 kJ/kg K Tables
s
From saturated refrigerant R-12 Table A.2.1 at TEvp = Tsat, 4 = Tsat, 1 = -15° C Thermodynamics
data hand book
by
Nijaguna
&
Samaga
PEvp = P4 = P1 = 0.1826 Mpa, vf4 = 0.693 cm3/g = 0.693 x 10-3 m3/kg, vg4 = 0.091018 m3/kg
hf4= 22.312 kJ/kg, hfg4 = 158.534 kJ/kg, hg4 = 180.846 kJ/kg, sf4= 0.0906 kJ/kg K, sg4 = 0.7046 kJ/kg K
Condenser Pressure = PCon = P3 = P2 = 0.4233 Mpa. Evaporator Pressure = PEvp = P4 = P1 = 0.1826 Mpa
TEvp = Tsat 1 = Tsat 4 =T4 = T1 = -15 ° C = 258 K, TCon = T3 = Tsat 2 = Tsat 3 = 10 ° C = 283 K, PEvp = P4 = P1 = ?,
PCon = P3 = P2 = ?, TRE = 20 ton = 20 x 3.5 = 70 kW, mref = ?, COP = ?, T2 = ?, Wc = ?, and V1= ?
Pcon = P3 = P2 = 0.4233 Mpa, vf3 = 0.733 cm3/g = 0.733 x 10-3 m3/kg, vg3 = 0.04091m3/kg
hf3= 45.337kJ/kg, hfg3 = 146.25 kJ/kg, hg3 = 191.602 kJ/kg, sf3= 0.175 kJ/kg K, sg3 = 0.6916 kJ/kg K
Pevp = P4 = P1 = 0.1826 Mpa, vf1 = 0.693 cm3/g = 0.693 x 10-3 m3/kg, vg1 = 0.091018 m3/kg
hf1= 22.312 kJ/kg, hfg1 = 158.534 kJ/kg, hg1 = 180.846 kJ/kg, sf1= 0.0906 kJ/kg K, sg1 = 0.7046 kJ/kg K
b
2 Note: For s = c process 1-2 →s1 = s2 But s1 = sg1, ∴ s1 = s2 = sg1 = 0.7046 kJ/kg K
P3 = P2
To find T2 and h2 from superheated refrigerant R-12 Table A.2.2 at Pcon = 0.4233 Mpa &
Qrej a S=C s2 = ssup, 2 = 0.7046 kJ/kg K
3
Wc To find RE
h=C
RE = (h1 – h4) = (h1 – hf3) kJ/kg
P=C h1 = hg1 = 180.846 kJ/kg
1
P4 = P1
4 Qabs h4 = hf3 = 45.337 kJ/kg
RE = (180.846 – 45.337 )
To find T2 by interpolation RE = 1356.509 kJ/kg
At point a → Ta = Tsat 2 = 10 ° C and sa = sg2 = 0.6916 kJ/kg K Mass flow rate (mref) wkt → TRE = mref ×RE
At point b → Tb =Tsup b =20 ° C and sb = ssup b = 0.719 kJ/kg K
∴ mref = TRE/RE= 70/135.509
∴ point 2 → Tsup 2 = Ta + {[ (Tb – Ta )/ (sb – sa )] x (s2 – sa ) }
T2 = Tsup 2 = 10 + {[(20 – 10) / (0.719 – 0.6916 )] x (0.719– 0.7046 ) } Mass flow rate (mref) = 0.516 kg/s
T2 = 15. 25 ° C Volume flow rate at 1 = V1 = mr v1 = mr vg1
∴ T Condenser inlet = T Compressor outlet = T 2 = 15. 25 ° C
To find h2 by interpolation V1 = 0.516 x 0.091018 = 0.04696 m3/s
At point a → ha = hg2 = 191.602 kJ/kg and sa = sg2 = 0.6916 kJ/kg K
Wc = mref (h2 – h1) = 0.516(195.36 – 180.846)
At point b → hb = hsup b = 198.762 kJ/kg and sb = ssup b = 0.7199 kJ/kg K
∴ point 2 → hsup 2 = ha + {[ (hb – ha )/ (sb – sa )] x (s2 – sa ) } Wc = 7.49 kW
h2 = 191.602 + {[(198.762 – 191.602) / (0.719 – 0.6916 )] x (0.719– 0.7046 ) } COP = TRE/ Wc = 70/7.49 = 9.3
h2 = 195.36 kJ/kg
In Problem-2, calculate the mass of ice produced at - 4 °C in one day. The initial temperature of water supplied is
20 °C. Also calculate relative COP of the unit. Take Latent heat of fusion for ice is 335 kJ/ kg, CP of water = 4.18
kJ/kg K, CP of ice = 2 kJ/kg K
TRE = 20 ton = 20 x 3.5 = 70 kW
Solution:
TRE = Qabs = Heat absorbed by refrigerant = Heat lost by water
TRE = Heat lost by water
Qrej 4-1
TRE = Sensible heat of water + LHF + Sensible heat of ice
P4 = P1 P = C Cooler

Qrej 3-4 = 0 T
Qabs 1-2 1 Twater in (20 °C)
4 Twater in
WCom Tfreezing
P vn= C S= C
( 0 °C )
WExp
S3 = S4 Tfreezing
S1 = S2
P2 = P3 3
2 (- 4 C )
mref = 2 kg/s P=C
Tice
T2 = - 53°C T3 = 15°C Tice Enthalpy

mice = ? Qabs 2-3

LHFice
Sensible heat of ice Sensible heat of water
Tice = Twater, final = - 4 °C Cp,ice (Tfreezing - Tice ) Cp,water (Twater in - Tfreezing )
TRE = mw [Cp,water (Twater in - Tfreezing ) + LHFice + Cp,ice(Tfreezing - Tice )]
Twater, inital = 20 °C
Cold Chamber 70 = mw [4.18 (20 - 0) + 335 + 2 {0 – (-4) }] → mw = mice =0.164 kg/s
Mw = Mice = mw x time = 0.164 x 24 x 3600 = 14,177.2 kg/day
Relative COP
TEve (− 15 + 273) COPrel =
COPact
=
9.3
= 0.901
COPCarnot = = = 10.32
TCond − TEve (10 + 273 ) − (− 15 + 273 ) COPCarnot 10.32
 Effect of Sub Cooling and Superheating on COP of Vapour Compression Refrigeration
Effect of Sub Cooling/Under Cooling on Effect of Superheating after Compression
COP of VCR on COP of VCR
T P
Sub
cooling
P3 = P2
2i Qrej
3 2
P= C 3I 2I
Sub
-cooling Qrej S= C
3 2
4I 4 1 1I Super
3I Qabs heating

h= C
ΔREsh
4 P= C Super heating
1I
4I 1 ΔREsc RE Wc h
ΔRE RE
REsh Wc-sh

s Without Super heating Cooling

Without Sub Cooling

With Super heating Cooling

With Sub Cooling

But Wc > Wc-sh, & (Wc-sh - Wc-sh) > ΔREsh

But Qsc < ΔRE, hence COP VCR-SC > COP VCR hence COP VCR-SH < COP VCR
Sub cooling/Under cooling increase COP of VCR Superheating decreases COP of VCR
 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Cycle

Energy Balance

QE + QG + Wp = QC + QA
But Wp << QG
Hence pump work is neglected
QE + QG = QC + QA ….Eqn-1
 The absorption refrigeration system is a heat operated unit which uses a refrigerant that is
alternately absorbed and liberated from the absorbent.
 In the basic absorption system, the compressor in the vapour compression cycle is replaced by an
absorber-generator assembly involving less mechanical work.
 The figure gives the basic absorption refrigeration cycle, in which ammonia is the refrigerant and
water is the absorbent. This is known as the aqua-ammonia absorption system.
 Working of Vapour Absorption Refrigeration
The low pressure and low temperature dry ammonia vapour from evaporator enters the
absorber and gets dissolved in a cold water contained in it, which produces a strong
ammonia solution.
A circulation pump, draws the strong ammonia solution from the absorber, pressurizes
and pumps it into the heat exchanger, where it is warmed by the warm weak ammonia
solution which is flowing back from the heater-separator. The warm high pressure strong
ammonia from heat exchanger is passed to the heater-cum separator called generator
which is provided with a heating coils. The heating coils in the heater-separator
(generator) heats the strong ammonia solution. Heating of the high pressure strong
ammonia solution will separate the ammonia vapour from the solution and hence
solution in the heater-separator (generator) becomes weaker. The separated high
pressure ammonia vapour leaves heater-separator (generator) and passes through the
condenser, where it condenses and enters the expansion device. The high pressure
ammonia liquid expands to a low pressure and low temperature in the expansion device.
The low temperature ammonia liquid then passes onto the evaporator coils and absorbs
its latent heat and evaporates. The low pressure ammonia vapour then passes again to
absorber. The low temperature weak solution returning from heat exchanger enters
absorber again and absorbs the low pressure ammonia vapour and converts it into a
strong ammonia solution and it is re-circulated to repeat the cycle.
 COP of Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Cycle
Energy Balance RE QE Q  W P << QG
COP = = ≈ E
E in QG + W QG pump work is neglected
In VAR system heat (QG) is supplied to generator
from source T1 , and provides refrigeration effect by
absorbs heat (QE ) from a region at TR and rejects
heat from absorber (QA) and Condenser (QC) to
surrounding (Sink/atmosphere) T2 as shown in the
figure. Applying first law of thermodynamics:
Energy entering system = Energy leaving system
QE + QG = QC + QA ….Eqn-1
By 2nd Law of Thermodynamics→ (ΔS)univer se ≥ 0 F or reversible cycle → (ΔS)univer se = 0
(ΔS)Gen + (ΔS)Evp + (ΔS)Cond + (ΔS)Absor = 0
(ΔS)univer se = (ΔS)system + (ΔS)sur rounding = 0 →
(ΔS)system (ΔS)sur rounding

(∆S )Gen = −(∆S )Sou = − QG (∆S )Evp = −(∆S )Reg = − Q E (∆S )Sur = (∆S )Sin = QC +
QA QC + QA
T1 TR T2 T2

QG Q E QC Q A QC + Q A QG Q E Q E + QG
(∆S )uni =−
T1
−
TR
+
T2
+
T2
=0 ⇒ − QTG − QT E +
T2
=0 from Eqn-1 → −
T1
−
TR
+
T2
=0
1 R
 1 1   1 1   T − T2   T − T2 
QG QG Q E Q E
− + − =0 ⇒ QG  −  + Q E  −  = 0 ⇒ QG  1  + Q E  R  = 0
T2 T1 T2 TR  T2 T1   T2 TR   1 2 
T T  2 R 
T T

    Q E  TR  T1 − T2 
Dividing by QG ⇒  T1 − T2  + Q E  TR − T2  = 0 ⇒ COP = =   = COPref × η HE
 T1T2  Q R  T2TR  Q R  T2 − TR  T1 
 COP of Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Cycle
Energy Balance RE QE Q
COP = = ≈ E
E in QG + W QG
 W P << QG pump work is neglected
Q E  TR  T1 − T2 
COP = =   = COPREF × η HE
Q R  T2 − TR  T1 

Carnot
Carnot Refrigerator
Heat Engine SOURCE REGION
T1 TR

Input = QG QE = Output
COPSystem = COPREF × η HE
WE = WR
E R
Q E W E  TR   T1 − T2 
COPSystem = × = × 
W R QG  T2 − TR   T1 

Q E  TR   T1 − T2  SINK
COPSystem = =   ×   Surrounding SINK
QG  T2 − TR   T1  T2 air T2

W E  T1 − T2  Q E  TR 
η HE = =  COPREF = = 
QG  T1  W R  T2 − TR 
 Refrigerants Commonly Used In Practice
Refrigerant
The medium or a working substance
of a refrigerator is called refrigerant

Ammonia

Carbon dioxide

Sulphur dioxide
 Refrigerants Commonly Used In Practice

Methyl Chloride
It was used earlier in domestic and small scale industrial refrigerators.
It is flammable at some conditions
Slightly toxic
Generally not used
Freon-group
It is universally used refrigerants for domestic refrigerators
It is colorless, almost odourless
Non toxic
Non-inflammable
Non –explosive
It destroy the ozon layer
 Properties of a Good Refrigerant
The desirable properties of an refrigerant are classified into the following four main groups

Properties of a
Good Refrigerant
Properties of a Good Refrigerant
Properties of a Good Refrigerant
 UNIT –3
RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSORS
An air compressor is a machine to compress the air and to raise its pressure. The air
compressor sucks air from the atmosphere, compresses it and then delivers the same
under a high pressure to a storage vessel. F rom the storage vessel, it may be conveyed
by the pipeline to a place where the supply of compressed air is required.
The compressed air is used for many purposes such as for operating pneumatic drills,
riveters, road drills, paint spraying, in starting and supercharging of internal
combustion engines, in gas turbine plants, jet engines and air motors, etc.

Classification of Air Compressors

The air compressors may be classified in many ways, but the following are important from
the subject point of view:
I. According to working
(a) Reciprocating Compressors, and (b) Rotary compressors.
2. According to action
(a) Single acting compressors, and (b) Double acting compressors.
3. According to number of stages
(a) Single stage compressors, and (b) Multi-stage compressors
Working of Single Stage Reciprocating Air Compressor
Swept volume: is the volume of air
sucked by the compressor during its
suction stroke. Mathematically, the swept
volume or displacement of a single
Where:
D.V. = Delivery Valve acting air compressor is given by:
I.V. = Inlet Valve π
vs = × D2 × L
4
Where:
D = Diameter of cylinder bore.
L = Length of piston stroke.
(a) Suction stroke (b) Delivery stroke vs = Swept volume

F ree air delivery: It is the actual volume delivered by a compressor when reduced to the
normal temperature and pressure condition. The capacity of a compressor is generally
given in terms of free air delivery.
Compression Ratio or Pressure Ratio: It is the ratio of discharge pressure to the inlet
pressure. Since the discharge pressure is always more than the inlet pressure, therefore
the value of compression ratio is more than unity.
 Working of Single Stage Reciprocating Air Compressor
D.V.C I.V. O D.V.O I.V. C
TDC
Cylinder D.V → Delivery Valve
Piston I.V. → Inlet Valve
BDC D.V.O → Delivery Valve Open
Connecting I.V. O → Inlet Valve Open
Rod
D.V.C → Delivery Valve Close
Crank I.V. C → Inlet Valve Close
T.D.C→ Top Dead Center
Crank B.D.C→ Bottom Dead Center
Shaft

(a) Suction stroke (b) Delivery stroke

Suction Stroke: A single stage reciprocating air compressor consists of a cylinder, piston, inlet valve
(IV) and discharge valve (DV) as shown in figure. When piston downwards (Moves from TDC to
BDC) during suction stroke, the pressure inside the cylinder falls below the atmospheric pressure.
Due to this pressure difference, the inlet valve gets opened (IVO) and air is sucked into the cylinder
and piston moves to BDC.
Delivery Stroke: When piston starts moving upward (BTD to TDC) during delivery stroke, the
pressure inside the cylinder goes on increasing, the inlet valve closes (IVC). When pressure inside the
cylinder reaches delivery pressure then discharge valve opens (DVO) and air is delivered to the
container. At the end of delivery stroke, the piston moves to TDC, a small quality of air, at high
pressure is left in the clearance space. As the piston starts its suction stroke the air contained in the
clearance space expands till its pressure falls below the atmospheric pressure. At this stage, the inlet
valve gets opened and fresh air is sucked in, and the cycle is repeated.
 Reciprocating Air Compressor With Clearance Volume & Without Clearance Volume
Compressor With Clearance Volume Compressor Without Clearance Volume
Connecting rod Connecting rod
Cylinder Cylinder
Piston Piston
Crank

vc vc= 0

P Crank shaft P Crank shaft

3 2 2
P2 P2 3
P vn= C P vn= C

P1 4 1 P1 4 1
v2 v2
vc vs v v1 v
v1
At the end of delivery stroke, the piston moves to TDC, a small quality of air, at high pressure is left in
the clearance space. As the piston starts its suction stroke the air contained in the clearance space
expands till its pressure falls below the atmospheric pressure. At this stage, the inlet valve gets opened
and fresh air is sucked in, and the cycle is repeated.
 Work done by a Single Stage Reciprocating Air Compressor without Clearance Volume
P
D C1 C C2 T
C2 p2
P2 Isothermal
v2 Polytropic
C
Isentropic
v2 Isentropic
Polytropic
p1
v2 T1 = T2
C1
P1 A B B
Isothermal

E FH G I v S
v1
Work done during
1) Isothermal compression, 2) Polytropic compression and 3) Isentropic compression
1) Work Done During Isothermal Compression
W = Area A B C1 D (Flow Work) W = Area D-C1-F-E + Area C1- B-I-F - Area A-B-I-E
v 
W = p2 v 2 + p2 v 2 In  1  − p1 v1 But P 1v1 = P 2v2
 v2 
v  v  v 
W = p2 v 2 + p2 v 2 In  1  − p1 v1 = p2 v 2 In  1  = p2 v 2 In  1 
 v2   v2   v2 
v  p  p
W = p2 v 2 In  1  = p1 v1 In  2  = p1 v1 In (r p ) But Pressure ratio → r p = 2
 v2   p1  p1

W = p1 v1 In (r p ) = p2 v 2 In (r p ) = m R T1 In ( r p ) = m R T2 In ( r p ) ⸪ P v = mRT
 Work done by a Single Stage Reciprocating Air Compressor without Clearance Volume
P T
C2 p2
D C1 C C2
P2 Isothermal Isentropic
C
v2 Polytropic
Polytropic
v2 Isentropic p1
T1 = T2
C1
v2 B
P1 A B Isothermal
S
E F G H I v 1
v1 −
v1  p1  n
2) Work Done During Polytropic Compression p1v1 = p2 v 2 ⇒
n n
= 
v 2  p2 
W = Area A B C D (Flow Work) → W = Area D-C-G-E + Area C-B-I-G - Area A-B-I-E
 p v − p1 v1  ( n − 1) p2 v 2 + p2 v 2 − p1 v1 − ( n − 1) p1 v1
W = p2 v 2 +  2 2  − p1 v1 ⇒ taking LCM W =
 n−1  n−1
⸪ Pv = mRT
p2 v 2 n − p2 v 2 + p2 v 2 − p1 v1 − p1 v1n + p1 v1 n n
W = = ( p2 v 2 − p1 v1 ) = m R(T2 − T1 )
n−1 n−1 n−1
Multiplying & dividing by P2 v2
 −1 / n 
n p2 v 2 n  p1 v1  n p1  p1 
W = × ( p2 v 2 − p1 v1 ) = × p2 v 2  1 − ×  = × p2 v 2 1 − ×   
n − 1 p2 v 2 n−1  p2 v 2  n − 1  p2  p2  
 
 n− 1   n− 1 
n   p1  n  n  p2  n  n n
W = × p2 v 2 1 −   =
 n−1 × p 2 2 
v  − 1 = ( p2 v 2 − p1 v1 ) = m R(T2 − T1 )
n−1 p2  p1  n−1 n−1
    
   
 Work done by a Single Stage Reciprocating Air Compressor without Clearance Volume
P T
C2 p2
D C1 C C2
P2 Isothermal Isentropic
C
v2 Polytropic
Polytropic
v2 Isentropic p1
T1 = T2
C1
v2 B
P1 A B Isothermal
S
E F G H I v 1
v1 −
γ γ v1  p1  γ
3) Work Done During Isentropic Compression p1v1 = p2 v 2 ⇒ = 
v1  p2 
W = Area A B C2 D (Flow Work) → W = Area D-C2-H-E + Area C2-B-I-H - Area A-B-I-E
 p v − p1 v1  ( γ − 1) p2 v 2 + p2 v 2 − p1 v1 − ( γ − 1) p1 v1
W = p2 v 2 +  2 2  − p1 v1 ⇒ taking LCM W =
 γ −1  γ −1
⸪ Pv = mRT
p2 v 2 γ − p2 v 2 + p2 v 2 − p1 v1 − p1 v1 γ + p1 v1 γ γ
W = = ( p2 v 2 − p1 v1 ) = m R(T2 − T1 )
γ −1 γ −1 γ −1
Multiplying & dividing by P2 v2
 −1 / γ 
γ p2 v 2 γ  p1 v1  γ p1  p1 
W = × ( p2 v 2 − p1 v1 ) = × p2 v 2  1 − ×  = × p2 v 2 1 − ×   
γ − 1 p2 v 2 γ −1  p2 v 2  γ − 1  p2  p2  
 
 γ −1   γ −1 
γ   p1  γ  γ  p2  γ  γ γ
W = × p2 v 2 1 −   =
 γ −1 × p 2 2 
v  − 1 = ( p2 v 2 − p1 v1 ) = m R(T2 − T1 )
γ −1 p2  p1  γ −1 γ −1
    
   
 Minimum Work done in a Single Stage Reciprocating Air Compressor Wihout Clearence Volume
P T
C2 p2
D C1 C C2
P2 Isothermal Isentropic
C
v2 Polytropic
Polytropic
v2 Isentropic p1
T1 = T2
C1
v2 B
P1 A B Isothermal
S
E F G H I v
v1
1) Work Done During Isothermal Compression
v   p 
W Iso = p2 v 2 In  1  = p1 v1 In  2  = m R T1 In ( r p ) = m R T2 In ( r p )
 v2   p1 

2) Work Done During Polytropicc Compression

 n− 1 
n   p2  n  n n
W Poly = × p2 v 2   − 1 = ( p2 v 2 − p1 v1 ) = m R(T2 − T1 )
n−1  p1  n−1 n−1
 
 
3) Work Done During Isentropic Compression
 γ −1 
γ   p2  γ  γ γ
W Ise = × p2 v 2   − 1 = ( p2 v 2 − p1 v1 ) = m R(T2 − T1 )
γ −1  p1  γ −1 γ −1
 
 

But γ>n γ>1 & n>1 ∴ WISO < Wpoly < WIse
 Work done by a Single Stage Reciprocating Air Compressor with Clearance Volume
P T In the previous articles, we have assumed
B 3 2 that there is no clearance volume in the
P2 p2 = p3
P vn= C 2 compressor cylinder. But in actual practice,
3
it is not possible to reduce the clearance
p1 = p4
volume to zero, for mechanical reasons.
1 Moreover, it is not desirable to allow the
P1 A 4 1 piston head to come in contact with the
P vn= C 4
v4 cylinder head. In addition to this, clearance
S
v volume is required to accommodate the inlet
v2 and exhaust valves.
vc vs
v1 Work Done During Polytropic Compression
Wpoly = Area 4-1-2-3= Area A-1-2-B - Area A-4-3-B

n

  p2  n
n −1 
 n

  p3  n
n −1 

v4 → Expanded Clearance Volume
W poly =
n−1
p1v1   − 1 −
n−1
p4 v 4   − 1 v3 = vc → Clearance Volume
 1   4 
p p
 
    vs → Sroke/Swept Volume
But P 2 = P 3, P 1 = P 4
 n −1  v1 → Initial Volume of air = vs + vc
n  p  n 
W poly = p1 (v1 − v 4 ) 2  − 1 …Eqn.1
n−1
 1 
p

 
(v1 – v4) is the effective swept volume or actual volume of air drawn into cylinder at P 1 & T1
∴ The mass of air drawn into cylinder is determined by using ideal gas equation P 1 va = mRT1→ P 1(v1 – v4) = mRT1
 n −1 
 p  
If P 1(v1 – v4) =mRT1 then the Polytropic
→ n n
W poly = mRT1  2  − 1 …Eqn.1
work (Eqn-1) can be expressed as n−1 
 1
p

 
 Work done by a Single Stage Reciprocating Air Compressor with Clearance Volume
P T
2 Work Done During Isentropic Compression
B 3 2
P2
P vγ = C
3 P vγ = C v4 → Expanded Clearance Volume
v3 = vc → Clearance Volume
1 vs → Sroke/Swept Volume
P1 A 4 1 P vγ = C v1 → Initial Volume of air = vs + vc
v4
4 S
v2 v
vc vs
v1
WIso = Area 4-1-2-3= Area A-1-2-B - Area A-4-3-B
 γ −1   γ −1 
γ   p2  γ  γ   p3  γ 
W Ise = p1v1   − 1 − p4 v 4   − 1 But P 2 = P 3, P 1 = P 4 &
γ −1 γ −1
 1   4 
p p
 
   
But P 2 = P 3, P 1 = P 4 1
 γ −1  −
v  p  γ
γ  p  γ  p1v1γ = p2 v 2γ ⇒ 1 =  1 
W Ise = p1 (v1 − v 4 ) 2  − 1 …Eqn.1 v1  p2 
γ −1
 1 
p

 
(v1 – v4) is the effective swept volume or actual volume of air drawn into cylinder at P 1 & T1
∴ The mass of air drawn into cylinder is determined by using ideal gas equation P 1 va = mRT1→ P 1(v1 – v4) = mRT1
 γ −1 
γ  p  γ 
If P 1(v1 – v4) = mRT1 then the Isentropic
→ W Ise =
γ −1
mrT1  2 

− 1 …Eqn.1
work (Eqn-1) can be expressed as  1
p

 
 Work done by a Single Stage
T Reciprocating Air Compressor with Clearance Volume
P
T Work Done During Isothermal Compression
B 3 2
P2
T= C 4
v4 → Expanded Clearance Volume
T3 = T4
3
v3 = vc → Clearance Volume
vs → Sroke/Swept Volume
P1 A 4 1 1 T1 = T2 2 v1 → Initial Volume of air = vs + vc
v4 S
v2 v
vc vs
v1
WIso = Area 4-1-2-3= Area A-1-2-B - Area A-4-3-B
 p   p 
W Iso = p1v1 In 2  − p4 v 4 In 3  But P 2 = P 3, P 1 = P 4
 p1   p4 
 p   p 
W Iso = p1v1 In 2  − p1v 4 In 2 
 p1   p2 
 p 
W Iso = p1 ( v1 − v 4 ) In 2  …Eqn.1
 p1 
(v1 – v4) is the effective swept volume or actual volume of air drawn into cylinder at P 1 & T1
∴ The mass of air drawn into cylinder is determined by using ideal gas equation P va = mRT1→ P 1(v1 – v4) = mRT1


If P 1(v1 – v4) = mRT1 then the Isentropic
work (Eqn-1) can be expressed as
→ W Iso = mRT1 In pp2  …Eqn.1
 1 
 Power Required to Drive a Single-stage Reciprocating Air Compressor
The power required to drive the compressor may be obtained from the usual relation
P = work done per cycle × Number of Cycles per second
P = W × Number of Cycles per minute/60
P = W × Nw /60
If N is the speed of the compressor in r.p.m.
Then number of working strokes per minute is Nw
Nw = N (F or single acting Reciprocating Compressor)
Nw = 2N (F or double acting Reciprocating Compressor)
I) Isothermal power = WIso × Nw /60 ….. Watts
II) Polytropic power = Wpoly × Nw /60 ….. Watts
III) Isentropic power = WIse × Nw /60 ….. Watts
With clearance Volume Without clearance Volume
F or Polytropic process
 n −1 
F or Polytropic process
n   p2  n   n− 1 
W poly = mRT1   − 1 n   p2  n 
n−1 = × p2 v 2    − 1
 1 
p W Poly  
 n−1
   1 
p

 
F or Isentropic process F or Isentropic process
 γ −1 
 γ −1 
γ  p2  γ 
W Ise = mRT1   − 1 γ   p2  γ 
γ −1 p  W Ise = × p2 v 2  
 
 − 1
 1   γ −1
 1 
p

   
F or Isothermal
F or Isothermal
p 
W Iso = mRT1 In 2   p 
 p1  W Iso = mR T1 In  2 
 p1 