DR FC Professional Experiment Instructions en 1104

Experiment Instructions
for the

hydro-Genius Professional
experimentation models
heliocentris Energiesysteme GmbH

Rudower Chaussee 29
12489 Berlin
Germany
Experiment Instructions for hydro-Genius Professional, May 2000 model and later.
1st edition
1 September 2000
© heliocentris Energiesysteme GmbH, Rudower Chaussee 29, D-12489 Berlin, Germany
All rights reserved. These operating instructions and each separate part thereof are
protected by copyright. All exploitation, duplication or photocopying is prohibited except in cases
permitted by law.
Contents
P s1 Dark and Light IV Characteristic Curve of the Solar Module 1
P s2 Photocurrent as a Function of Distance and Angle of Incidence

of the Light Source. 9
P e1 Characteristic Curve of the Electrolyser 16
P e2 Faraday's Laws 20
P e3 Faraday Efficiency and Energy Efficiency of the Electrolyser 27
P b1 Characteristic Curves of the Fuel Cell connected in parallel and in series 31
P b2 Faraday Efficiency and Energy Efficiency of the Fuel Cell 39
P b3 Faradays 1st Law using a Fuel Cell 45
P g1 Water = 2 Parts of Hydrogen + 1 Part of Oxygen 51

P s1 Dark and Light IV
Characteristic Curve
of the Solar Module
Materials required:
Solar module Additional components:

Load module Black cardboard (part 1)
Demonstration Ammeter/Voltmeter DC power supply (part 1)
5 hook-up cables Lamp 100-150 watts (part 2)
Instructions:
Please follow the operating instructions!

Part 1: Dark IV Curve Fig. s1a
Voltmeter/Ammeter
+ -
V
+ -
A
DC Power supply
+ -
0 - 3,0 V Solar module
1. Place the solar module on a solid base and cover it completely with a piece of black cardboard.
2. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. s1a and connect the solar module to the DC power supply in "forward
direction", i.e. the positive terminal of the DC power supply to the positive terminal of the solar module and
the negative terminal of the DC power supply to the negative terminal of the solar module.
3. Adjust the DC power supply to different voltages (in 0.5 volt steps between 0 and 1.5 volts, and in 0.2 volt
steps between 1.5 and 2.5 volts) and measure the dark current and voltage.
The voltage across the DC power supply must not exceed 3.0 volts!
© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -1- Experiment s1

Table of measurements:
Voltage / V Current / mA
Evaluation:
1. Draw the IV diagram (dark IV characteristic curve of the solar
module).
2. Interpret this characteristic curve.

Interpretation/Notes:
The dark IV curve of a solar module corresponds to the IV curve of a
semiconductor diode:
Dark IV curve of the solar module
2000
1500
Current / mA
1000
500
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Voltage / V
If the solar module is connected in forward direction, electrons are driven

into the barrier layer. This makes it conductive again, so that a current
can flow through the diode.
If the polarity is reversed, this is termed the reverse direction.
You can verify this with a small experiment. Swap over the polarity at the
DC power supply according to Fig. s1a and gradually increase the
voltage. What happens to the current? (This measurement should only
be made within a range of 0 to 3 volts, otherwise the solar module will be
destroyed.)

Part 2: Light IV Curve Fig. s1b
Voltmeter/Ammeter Load module
+ - M
V
+ -
A
R
Solar module
Lamp
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. s1b.

2. Illuminate the solar module well with a lamp (the distance between the lamp and the solar module
should be about 30 cm, the short-circuit current should be approx. 700 mA).
3. Wait for approx. 5 minutes until the module has warmed up and the characteristic curve can be
recorded at a relatively constant temperature.
4. Start by measuring the short-circuit current (by shorting out the resistances). Then measure the
voltage and current at different resistances (0.3, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 ). The final
measurement is taken in the "OPEN" position.

Resistance / Voltage / V Current / mA
Evaluation:
1. Draw the IV diagram (light IV curve of the solar module).
2. Interpret the characteristic curve.
3. Determine the maximum power point (MPP) by drawing a graph

plotting the power (P = V x I) against the voltage.

Results:
Light IV curve of the solar module
1000
Short-circuit current
Current / mA
500
Open-circuit
voltage
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Voltage / V
The following data are of importance when looking at a characteristic

curve:
the open-circuit voltage (rotary switch "OPEN"),
the short-circuit current and
the maximum power point.
When there is no current drain, the solar module has an open-circuit

voltage of approx. 2.15 volts (R = ). An individual silicon solar cell
typically has an open-circuit voltage of 0.5 - 0.6 volts.
If we short-circuit the solar module (R = 0 ), the maximum current

(short-circuit current) flows. In our example of a characteristic curve, the
short-circuit current amounts to about 680 mA.

The maximum power point "MPP" refers to the point at which the solar
module can output its maximum power at a specific level of irradiation.
This point is at the "knee" of the IV characteristic curve and can be
determined by two different methods:
1. By drawing the rectangle with the largest possible area within the
IV characteristic curve (P = V x I).
2. By drawing a PV diagram and reading the value of maximum

power.
Power curve of the solar module
2000
1500 MPP
Power / mW
1000
500
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Voltage / V
In our example measurement, the MPP is at about 1100 mW.
Adapting a solar module to the power of the respective load plays a

crucial role in practical applications. Wherever possible, the power of the
load should always be close to the MPP.

Experiment variations:
You can determine the influence of light intensity on the power of the
solar module. To do this, record two further characteristic curves,
changing the distance between the lamp and the solar module (e.g. to 20
cm and 40 cm).
At a distance of 20 cm the solar module must only be illuminated

for the duration of the experiment.
Draw graphs plotting P against V and compare them with the diagram at
a lamp distance of 30 cm.
2000
Distance 20 cm
Distance 30 cm
1500
Distance 40 cm
Power / mW
1000
500
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Voltage / V

Photocurrent as a Function
P s2 of Distance and
Angle of Incidence of the
Light Source
Materials required:
Solar module Additional Components:

Demonstration Ammeter/Voltmeter 1-2 lamps 100-150 watts
2 hook-up cables Protractor
Instructions:

Fig. s2
Voltmeter/Ammeter
+ -
V
+ -
A
Solar module
Lamp

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. s2.
2. Position the solar module using a protractor at position 0° (perpendicular to the light source) and
illuminate it well with the lamp (at a current of approx. 400 mA). The distance between the lamp
and the solar module is normally about 50 cm in this case. If the lamp cannot guarantee an even
illumination, you should use two lamps for this experiment.
3. The incident angle of the light can be adjusted by tilting the solar module and measuring the
angle of incidence with the protractor.
Be careful when touching the solar module, because it gets very hot!
Measure the photocurrent (short-circuit current) at different angles of incidence (in 10° steps
between 0° and 90°). Turn the solar module both to the left and to the right. Take measurements
for both directions and calculate the average. This will compensate for fluctuations in the beam
path.
4. In a second experiment adjust the distance d between the lamp and the solar module and
measure the photocurrent at different distances (in 10 cm steps between 50 and 150 cm).

[1] Dependence on angle [2] Dependence on distance
/° Current Current Current d / cm Current/

/mA (left) /mA (right) /mA (aver.) mA
Evaluation:
1. Draw the I- and I-cos diagram.
2
2. Draw the I-d and I-1/d diagram.
3. What are the functional relations and what effects do they have on
practical applications?

Results:
The power output of solar modules is directly determined by the
respective irradiation conditions. A solar module cannot compensate
fluctuations in the supply of radiation.
The photocurrent is highest when the light strikes the solar module
perpendicularly.
1000
900
800
700
Curernt / mA
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Angle / °

The photocurrent of the solar module is proportional to the cosine of the
angle of incidence ( I cos ):
1000
900
800
700
Current / mA
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
cos
Note: deviations from the ideal cosine law are caused by fluctuations in
the cone of light

The photocurrent of the solar module decreases in proportion to the
increasing distance of the light source.
1000
900
800
700
Current / mA
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Distance d / cm
1000
900
800
700
Current / mA
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003
1/d2 / cm-2
Th
e photocurrent of the solar module is inversely proportional tothe square of the distanceof the light source ( I ~ 1/d2).

The photocurrent of the solar module is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance of the light source ( I 1 / d 2 ).
The dependence of the photocurrent on the angle of incidence, e.g. the

sun's angle of altitude, is important when solar modules are installed.
For example, the sun's maximum angle of altitude (at 12 o'clock sun
time) in the south of Germany (latitude 48° north) varies between
65.5° on June 21st and
18.5° on December 21st.
When large-scale solar plants are installed, therefore, they are aligned to
the course of the sun's angle of altitude.
Pointing the solar modules towards the south (e.g. on the roof of a
building) proves to be favorable, since this makes it possible to tap the
radiation both in the morning and in the afternoon.

P e1 Characteristic Curve of the
Electrolyser
Materials required:
Solar module 5 hook-up cables

Electrolyser Additional components:
Demonstration Ammeter/Voltmeter Distilled water
Lamp 100-150 watts
Instructions:

Wear protective goggles and keep ignition sources at a distance when experimenting!!!
Fig. e1
Voltmeter/Ammeter
+ -
V
+ -
A
Electrolyser
O2 H2
0 ml ml 0
+ -
20 20
40 40
60 60
Solar module
Lamp
© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -16- Experiment e1

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. e1. As an alternative to the solar module, you can also use
a DC power supply to make it possible to measure higher currents. NB: only apply voltages
above 1.8 volts for a short time. Never apply voltages above 2 volts. Check the polarity!
The positive terminal of the solar module (DC power supply) must be connected to the positive
terminal of the electrolyser, and the negative terminal of the solar module (DC power supply) to
the negative terminal of the electrolyser.
2. Vary the light intensity to adjust the current of the solar module, i.e. by turning the solar module at
different angles to the incident light (see Experiment s2). Set different current values, starting at
small currents of approx. 30 mA and going up to approx. 800 mA (depending on the type of lamp
used; with DC power supply up to about 3 amps). Also record the electrolysers voltage. Take at
least 8 pairs of measurements of electrolysis current and voltage and enter the values in the table
of measurements.

Voltage / V Current / mA
Evaluation:
1. Draw the IV characteristic curve of the electrolyser.
2. Interpret the IV characteristic curve.

Results:
Characteristic curve of the electrolyser
3000
2000
Current / mA
1000
0
1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
Voltage / V
The current-voltage curve shows that a noticeable current only starts to

flow at a certain voltage (decomposition voltage) and that it then rises
continuously. How high is this voltage?
A small voltage (e.g. 1.2 volts) does not set off an electrolysis current
that would lead to the release of hydrogen at the cathode and oxygen at
the anode.
An increase in the external voltage above the decomposition voltage

leads to continuous gas development and a steep rise in the electrolysis-
current.

P e2 Faraday's Laws
Materials required:

Electrolyser Short tube
Demonstration Ammeter/Voltmeter Tube clip
Lamp 100-150 watts Stop watch
Additional components:
Distilled water
Instructions:

Fig. e2a
Voltmeter/Ammeter
+ -
V
+ -
A
Electrolyser
O2 H2
0 ml ml 0
+
20
40
20
40
60
-
60
Solar module
Lamp

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. e2a.
Check the polarity! The positive terminal of the solar module must be connected to the positive
terminal of the electrolyser, and the negative terminal of the solar module to the negative terminal
of the electrolyser.
2. Make sure that both of the electrolyser's gas storage cylinders are filled with distilled water up to
the 0 ml mark. To take the measurement, seal the hydrogen storage cylinder with a tube clip (see
Fig. e2b). The hydrogen generated will then be collected in the storage cylinder.
Fig. e2b
Electrolyser
O2 H2
0 ml ml 0
+
20
40
60
20
40
60
-
Tube clip
3. Adjust the solar module to provide a constant current (e.g. 850 mA) and measure the volume of
hydrogen generated over different periods (60 to 210 s in 30 s steps) [Table of Measurement 1].
4. Prescribe a constant time (t = 180 s). Set different currents by lining up the solar module at
different angles (in 200 mA steps between 200 mA and 800 mA). Measure the volume of
hydrogen generated at these currents. [Table of Measurement 2]
The measurement value of 800 mA requires a correspondingly strong lamp. The solar
module may only be illuminated at this level of intensity for the duration of the
measurement.

Table of Measurements:
[1] Dependence on time [2] Dependence on current
I= mA = constant t= s = constant
Time / s Volume H2 / ml Current / mA Volume H2 / ml
Evaluation:
1. Plot two graphs based on the readings from tables [1] and [2]
(volume versus time and volume versus current).
2. Examine the relation between the volume of released hydrogen

and the transported charge (Faraday's 1st law).
3. Deduce Faraday's 2nd law.

Dependence of hydrogen generation on time
25
20 Current = 850 mA
Volume V / ml
15
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Measurement time t / s
Dependence of hydrogen generation on current

25
20
t = 180
Volume V / ml
15
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Current I / mA

Faraday's 1st law
Graph 1 shows that the volume of hydrogen released (at a constant

current) is proportional to time.
V t
Graph 2 shows the proportionality between the volume of hydrogen

released and the current (at constant time).
V I
If V t and V I , then:
V I t.
Since I t Q (electrical charge), it follows that
V Q
Finally, the relation between V and molar volume Vm
V n Vm
leads to Faraday's 1st law:
The amount of material electrolytically released, n,

is proportional to time t and current I,
i.e. to the transported electrical charge Q ( n Q ).

Deduction of Faraday's 2nd Law
Using the results from a measuring point from Experiment e2
I 850 mA 0.85 A and t 180 s
and the volume of hydrogen released
V 19 ml ,
the charge Q that flows can be calculated and set in relation to the
amount of material released:
Q I t
Q 0.85 A 180 s 153 As 153 C
19 ml of hydrogen is released by an electrical charge of 153 C.
The molar charge Qm is needed to release 1 mol of hydrogen:
Q V
Qm n
n Vm
Q Vm
Qm Vm 24 l mol 1
(20 C , normal pressure)
V
1
153 C 24 l mol 1
Qm 193,300 C mol
0.019 l
The figure 193,300 C is the experimentally determined amount of charge

that flows when 1 mol of hydrogen gas is released.

More exact investigations have shown that 1 mol of univalent ions
transport a charge of 96,484 C. The material-related charge
Qm = 96,484 C mol-1 is termed the Faraday constant F.
Qm z F,
where z is the number of electrons that are exchanged in order to

release one particle at the electrode. In the case of the release of
hydrogen, z = 2. The theoretical value of Qm can be derived from this:
Qm ( H 2 ) 2 F 192,968 C mol 1 .
A comparison between this theoretical value and the experimentally

determined molar charge for hydrogen reveals a (very) small deviation.
Faraday's 2nd law applies to the relation between charge Q

and arbitrary amounts of material:
Q n z F or I t n z F

Faraday Efficiency and
P e3 Energy Efficiency of the
Electrolyser
Materials required:

Electrolyser Short tube
Demonstration Ammeter/Voltmeter Tube clip
Lamp 100-150 watts Stop watch
Additional components:
Distilled water
Instructions:

Fig. e3a
Voltmeter/Ammeter
+ -
V
+ -
A
Electrolyser
O2 H2
0 ml ml 0
+
20
40
20
40
60
-
60
Solar module
Lamp

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. e3a.
Check the polarity! The positive terminal of the solar module must be connected to the positive
terminal of the electrolyser, and the negative terminal of the solar module to the negative terminal
of the electrolyser.
the 0 ml mark. To take the measurement, seal the hydrogen storage cylinder with a tube clip (see
Fig. e3b). The hydrogen generated will then be collected in the storage cylinder.
Fig. e3b
Electrolyser
O2 H2
0 ml ml 0
+
20
40
60
20
40
60
-
Tube clip
3. Adjust the illuminated solar module to provide a constant electrolysis current (e.g. 800 mA) and
measure the volume of hydrogen released over a given period of time. Take three measurements
over the same time period (e.g. t = 240 sec.) and use the average value of the stored hydrogen for
your calculations.
Time = s V1 = ml Vaverage = ml
Voltage = V V2 = ml
Current = mA V3 = ml
Evaluation:
1. Determine the Faraday efficiency of the electrolyser.
2. Determine the energy efficiency of the electrolyser.

Calculation of the Faraday efficiency of the electrolyser:
The Faraday efficiency F is the ratio between the experimentally
determined volume of hydrogen and the volume of hydrogen to be
expected theoretically:
V H 2 exp erimental
F
V H 2 theoretical
The Faraday efficiency of the electrolyser should be close to 1 (100 %).

Faraday's 2nd Law makes it possible to calculate the volume of hydrogen
to be expected theoretically (assumption: electrolysis current 800 mA for
240 s).
V
I t n z F n
Vm
I t Vm
V H 2 theoretical z F
1
0.8 A 240 s 24 l mol
0.02388 l 23.88 ml
V H 2 theoretical 2 96,484 C mol 1
Measurement results:
Time = 240 s V1 = 23 ml Vaverage = 23.5 ml
Voltage = 1.587 V V2 = 24 ml
Current = 800 mA V3 = 23.5 ml
This gives a Faraday efficiency of:
V H 2 exp erimental 23.5 ml

F 0.98
23.88 ml
V H 2 theoretical
The Faraday efficiency expresses how much of the current that has
flowed is converted into the desired reaction. If it was much smaller than
one (100 %), this would mean that secondary reactions were taking
place in the system (e.g. corrosion). This would shorten the service life of
the electrolyser and necessitate a higher energy input.

Calculation of the energy efficiency of the electrolyser:
The energy efficiency E of the electrolyser is the ratio between the
energy content of the hydrogen generated and the amount of electrical
energy required.
Energy content of hydrogen

E
electrical energy
H 0 H 2 VH 2 exp erimental
E
U I t
The calorific value H is the amount of heat released during the combus-
tion of a specific volume (e.g. 1 m3) of gas. The gross calorific value HO
is quoted if the water left behind after combustion is in liquid form. The
gross calorific value of hydrogen HOH2 at a temperature of 20°C is
-3
11,920 kJ/m .
In our example, the energy efficiency amounts to:
11,920 kJ m 3 23.5 ml
E 0.92
1.587V 0.8 A 240 s
Units: 1VAs 1 m3
1J 106 ml
The energy efficiency of an electrolyser varies with voltage. This is

important for technical applications, since, as the voltage is increased,
more hydrogen is produced, but the energy efficiency declines. In
practice, therefore, the optimum operating point must be found. The
energy efficiency should be as high as possible, since electrical energy
is expensive.
Commercial systems reach an energy efficiency of 90 %, i.e. they work

at low overpotentials (see Experiment e1).

Characteristic Curves
P b1 of the Fuel Cell

connected in parallel
and in series
Materials required:
Electrolyser 2 long tubes
Fuel cell 2 short tubes
Load module 2 tube clips
Demonstration Ammeter/Voltmeter Additional components:
Lamp 100-150 watts Distilled water
Instructions:

Wear protective goggles and keep ignition sources at a distance when experimenting!!!!
Part 1: Fuel cells connected in parallel Fig. b1a (Purging):
Fuel cell Voltmeter/Ammeter Load module
+ - M
1 V
+ O2 H2 -
2 + -
A
R
Electrolyser
O2 H2
0 ml ml 0
+
20
40
60
20
40
60
-
Solar module
Lamp
© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -31- Experiment b1

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. b1a. As an alternative to the solar module, you can also
use a DC power supply if you want the electrolyser to fill up more quickly.
NB: the voltage across the DC power supply must not exceed 1.8 volts, the current must
not exceed 3 amps. Check the polarity!
2. Check that the gas tubes between the electrolyser and the fuel cell are correctly connected.
Adjust the rotary switch on the load module to "OPEN".
the 0 ml mark. Use the illuminated solar module to set a constant current to the electrolyser
(between 700 and 900 mA). The solar module must be aligned toward the light source in such a
way that gas production can be clearly observed (see Experiment e1).
4. Purge the entire system (i.e. electrolyser, fuel cell and tubes) for 5 minutes with the gases
generated. Then set the rotary switch on the load module to 2 for 3 minutes. The ammeter
should now show a current of about 400 mA and the voltmeter a voltage of about 0.75 volts. Now
turn the rotary switch on the load module back to "OPEN".
Fig. b1b (Storing):
Fuel cell
1
+ O2 H2 -
2
Oxygen from Hydrogen from

Electrolyser Tube clips Electrolyser
5. Use the tube clips to close the two short tubes at the gas outlets of the fuel cell (see Fig. b1b).
6. Interrupt the connection between the solar module and the electrolyser when the 60 ml mark is
reached on the hydrogen side of the electrolyser.
7. Now measure the characteristic curve of the fuel cell by varying the measurement resistance
(rotary switch on the load module). Start at position "OPEN" (open-circuit voltage), then decrease
the resistance step by step by turning the rotary switch to the right. Record the current and
voltage at each switch position. Wait for 30 seconds each time before taking the measurements.
Enter the figures in the table of measurements. Also measure the figures when the lamp at the
load module is in operation.
8. After recording the characteristic curve, reset the rotary switch on the load module to "OPEN" and
remove the clips at the fuel cell.

Part 2: Fuel cells connected in series Fig. b1c (storing/measuring):
+ - M
1 V
+ O2 H2 -
2 + -
A
R
Tube clips
Electrolyser
O2 H2
0 ml ml 0
+
20
40
20
40 -
60 60
Solar module
Lamp
Repeat the measurements with the fuel cells connected in series as illustrated in Fig. b1c.

Evaluation:
1. Draw the VI characteristic curve of the fuel cells connected in
parallel.
2. Interpret the characteristic curve.
3. Enter the voltage and current of the lamp into the VI characteristic
curve.
4. Draw a diagram of the characteristic curves for the fuel cells

connected in series and parallel and compare the two curves.
5. Draw the PI diagrams for the fuel cells connected in series and
parallel. Calculate the power consumption of the lamp and enter
the values into the PI diagrams.
Experiment variations:
6. In a further experiment, you can remove the tube from the oxygen
inlet nozzle of the fuel cell and in this way operate the fuel cell with
oxygen from the ambient air. Hydrogen will continued to be taken
from the electrolysers storage cylinder.
7. During part 2 (connection in series) also measure the voltages

across the two individual cells and enter these into the diagram
(Fig. 2).
8. Draw some of the measurement resistances in the voltage/current

diagram as Ohmic straight-line characteristics (Fig. 4). How large
would a resistance connected to the fuel cells connected in parallel
have to be in order to allow the same power consumption as the
1 resistance connected to the fuel cells connected in series?

Resistance/ Voltage / V Current / mA Power / mW

In the first part of the experiment the two individual cells of the double
fuel cell are connected in parallel. They behave in exactly the same way
as a cell with a double membrane surface.
In order to understand the characteristic curve of the fuel cell, recall the
characteristic curve of the electrolyser (Experiment e1). The processes
in the fuel cell are the reverse of those that take place in electrolysis. In
the electrolysis of water, at least 1.23 volts must be applied before the
water begins to split; as a rule the voltage is higher (overpotential).
In the case of a fuel cell (a galvanic cell), less voltage is generated for
the same reasons. Here, too, the characteristic curve is affected by the
materials used for the electrodes (catalysis), the internal resistance, the
temperature and the volume of hydrogen and oxygen being supplied.
At very small or zero current drain, the voltage across the fuel cell is
approx. 0.9 volts. This voltage is called the open-circuit voltage (by
analogy to a battery). In the case of the fuel cell, it is very dependent on
the pressure and purity of the input gases. The more current is drawn
from the fuel cell, the smaller the voltage becomes (Fig. 1).
The power P of the cell can be calculated by multiplying the current by
the voltage (integration). Fig. 3 shows the PI diagram.
If the operating point of the lamp is entered into the PI diagram, it can be
seen that the lamp is not operating at the optimum point, i.e. hydrogen is
being lost in this case. In other words, much more power could be drawn
from the fuel cell.
In practice, efforts are made to draw as much current as possible from
the fuel cell (i.e. maximum output). However, the efficiency of the fuel
cell declines at high currents (see Experiment b2), so that the task here
is to find an optimum operating point (maximum efficiency at as high an
output as possible).
A higher voltage is reached when the fuel cells are connected in series,
but the basic shape of the characteristic curves does not change (Fig. 2).
A higher output is reached in this experiment when the cells are
connected in series, because the load resistances of the load module
allow a greater power consumption as a result of the higher voltage.

Fig. 1: Two fuel cells connected in parallel
1
0.9
Lamp
0.8
0.7
Voltage / V
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Current / mA
Fig. 2: Two fuel cells connected in parallel/series

2
Connected in series
1.8
Connected in parallel
1.6
1.4
Voltage / V
1.2
Lamp
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Current / mA

Fig. 3: Power curves of two fuel cells
2.5
Connected in series
2 Connected in parallel
Power / W
1.5
0.5
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Current / mA
Fig. 4: VI characteristic curves of fuel cells and resistances

2
Connected in series
1.8
Connected in parallel
1.6
1 Ohm
1.4
Voltage / V
1.2
0.5 Ohm
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Current / mA

Faraday Efficiency and
P b2 Energy Efficiency
of the Fuel Cell
Materials required:
Instructions:

Fig. b2a (Purging):
+ - M
1 V
+ O2 H2 -
2 + -
A
R
Electrolyser
O2 H2
0 ml ml 0
+ -
20 20
40 40
60 60
Solar module
Lamp

not exceed 3 amps. Check the polarity of the electrolyser!
the 0 ml mark. Use the illuminated solar module to set a constant current (between 700 and 900
mA). The solar module must be aligned toward the light source in such a way that gas production
can be clearly observed (see Experiment e1).
4. Purge the entire system for 5 minutes with the gases produced. Then set the rotary switch on the
load module to 2 for 3 minutes. The ammeter should now show a current of about 400 mA and
the voltmeter a voltage of about 0.75 volts. Now turn the rotary switch on the load module back to
"OPEN".
Fig. b2b (Storing):
Fuel cell
1
+ O2 H2 -
2

5. Use the clips to close the two short tubes at the gas outlets of the fuel cell (see Fig. b2b).
7. Since the system always has a certain leakage rate because of its tubes and seals, an idle
measurement must be made first. Record the loss of hydrogen from the hydrogen storage cylinder
without load (position "OPEN") over a period of 3 minutes and determine the leakage rate in ml of
hydrogen per minute.
8. Reconnect the electrolyser to the solar module and refill the hydrogen storage cylinder up to the
60 ml mark. Then interrupt the power supply to the electrolyser again.
9. Adjust the resistance to 0.3 . Record the volume of hydrogen consumed by the fuel cell in 180
seconds. Also measure and note the voltage and current at the fuel cell. Switch back to "OPEN"
after 180 seconds.
10. Repeat steps 8 and 9 twice and calculate the average values for the amount of hydrogen
consumed by the fuel cell. After making the measurements, switch to "OPEN" and remove the
clips from the tubes of the fuel cell.

Evaluation:
1. Calculate the respective volumes of hydrogen.
2. Determine the Faraday efficiency of the fuel cell.
3. Determine the energy efficiency of the fuel cell.
Experiment Variations:
Determine the energy efficiency as a function of the current flowing
through the fuel cell.
Set currents between 400 and 2000 mA by varying the resistance in the
load module. If necessary, adjust the measurement time to ensure that
you can carry out a measurement with a single filling of the storage
cylinders.
See our course books for ideas on interpretation.
Fuel cell without load determination of the leakage rate:
t = 3 min Volume loss of hydrogen from storage ml
Leakage rate of system ml/min
R= 0.3 time = s V1 = ml Vaverage= ml
voltage = V V2 = ml Vcorr = ml
current = A V3 = ml

Results (example measurement):
t = 3 min Volume loss of hydrogen from storage 3 ml
Leakage rate of system 1 ml/min
Measured values:
R= 0.3 time = 180 s V1 = 45 ml Vaverage = 47 ml
voltage = 6.675 V V2 = 48 ml Vcorr = 44 ml
current = 1.94 A V3 = 48 ml
The fuel cell consumes 44 ml of hydrogen to supply a current of 1.94

amps for 3 minutes.

Determination of the Faraday efficiency of the fuel cell
The Faraday efficiency F is the ratio between the theoretical volume of
hydrogen consumed at a certain current flow from the fuel cell and the
experimentally determined consumption of hydrogen.
V H 2 exp erimental
F
V H2 theoretical
The Faraday efficiency should, if possible, be 1 (100 %). Faraday's 2nd

Law enables us to calculate the volume of hydrogen to be expected
theoretically (Vm is the molar volume of the gas)
V
I t n z F n
Vm
I t Vm
V H 2 theoretical z F
1
1.94 A 180 s 24 l mol
43.4 ml
V H 2 theoretical 2 96,484 C mol 1
Faraday efficiency:
V H 2 theoretical 43.4 ml
F 0.98
44 ml
V H 2 exp erimental
The Faraday efficiency of the fuel cell can be less than one for the
following reasons:
Leaks in the system
Chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen at the catalysts

(catalytic oxidation/combustion), and
Electrochemical parallel reactions (further, undesired reactions that

take place in the cell).

Determination of the energy efficiency of the fuel cell
The energy efficiency E of the fuel cell is the ratio between the
electricity generated and the theoretical energy content of the consumed
hydrogen
electrical energy
E
theoretica l energy contentof hydrogen
U I t
E
H0 H2 VH 2 exp erimenal
The calorific value H is the amount of heat released during the

combustion of a specific volume (e.g. 1 m3) of gas. The gross calorific
value HO is quoted if the water left behind after combustion is in liquid
form. The gross calorific value of hydrogen HOH2 at a temperature of
20° C is 11,920 kJ/m-3.
0.675 V 1.94 A 180 s

E 0.45
11,920 kJ m 3 19 ml
Units: 1VAs 1 m3
1J 106 ml

Faraday’s 1st Law
P b3 using a Fuel Cell
Materials required:
Instructions:

Fig. b3a (Purging):
+ - M
1 V
+ O2 H2 -
2 + -
A
R
Electrolyser
O2 H2
0 ml ml 0
+ -
20 20
40 40
60 60
Solar module
Lamp

load module to 2 for 3 minutes. The ammeter should now show a current of about 400 mA and
the voltmeter a voltage of about 0.75 volts. Now turn the rotary switch on the load module back to
"OPEN".
Fig. b3b (Storing the gases and measuring Faraday’s 1st law with a fuel cell):
+ - M
1 V
+ O2 H2 -
2 + -
A
R
Tube clips
Electrolyser
O2 H2
0 ml ml 0
+ -
20 20
40 40
60 60
Solar module
Lamp

5. Use the clips to close the two short tubes at the gas outlets of the fuel cell (see Fig. b3b).
7. Since the system always has a certain leakage rate because of its tubes and seals, an idle
measurement must be made first. Record the loss of hydrogen from the hydrogen storage cylinder
without load (position "OPEN") over a period of 3 minutes and determine the leakage rate in ml of
hydrogen per minute.
8. Reconnect the electrolyser to the solar module and refill the hydrogen storage cylinder up to the
60 ml mark. Then interrupt the power supply to the electrolyser again.
9. In order to determine the 1st part of Faraday's Law, set a resistance of 0.5 . Record the volume
of hydrogen consumed by the fuel cell over various periods (60 to 240 s in 60 s steps) [Table of
measurements 1]. Also measure the current of the fuel cell and record all values. Then adjust the
rotary switch back to the "OPEN" position.
10. Reconnect the solar module to the electrolyser and refill the hydrogen storage cylinder up to the
60 ml mark. Then interrupt the voltage supply to the electrolyser again.
11. In order to determine the 2nd part of Faraday's Law, successively set different levels of current by
selecting different resistances of 3, (2), 1, (0.5) and 0.3 using the rotary switch on the load
module. The measurement time should be 180 seconds.
12. After completing all the measurements, switch back to "OPEN" and remove the clips from the fuel
cell.
13. Correct the measured values by subtracting the leakage rate.

Tables of measurements:
Determination of leakage rate:
t = 3 min Volume loss of hydrogen from storage ml
Leakage rate of system ml/min
[1] Dependence on time [2] Dependence on current
Current = mA = constant t= s = constant
Time/ s VH2/ ml VH2 Current/mA VH2 / ml VH2

leakage rate leakage rate
Evaluation:
1. Plot the recorded data from measurement tables [1] and [2]
(volume versus time and volume versus current).
2. Investigate the connection between the volume of hydrogen

released and the transported charge (Faradays 1st law).

Dependence of hydrogen consumption on time
50
40 I = 1250 mA
Volume V / ml
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Measurement time t / s
Dependence of hydrogen consumption on current

50
40 t = 180 s
Volume V / ml
30
20
10
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Current I / mA

Faraday's 1st law
Graph 1 shows that the volume of hydrogen (at a constant current) is
proportional to time.
V t
Graph 2 shows the proportionality between the volume of hydrogen and

the current (at constant time).
V I
If V t and V I , then:
V I t.
Since I t Q (electrical charge), it follows that
V Q
Finally, the relation between V and molar volume Vm
V n Vm
leads to Faraday's 1st law:
The amount of material electrolytically released, n,

is proportional to time t and current I,
i.e. to the transported electrical charge Q ( n Q ).

Water = 2 Parts of Hydrogen
P g1 + 1 Part of Oxygen
Materials required:
Lamp 100-150 watts Additional components:
Distilled water
Instructions:

Fig. g1a (Purging):
Fuel cell Load module
M
1
+ O2 H2 -
2
R
Electrolyser
O2 H2
0 ml ml 0
+ -
20 20
40 40
60 60
Solar module
Lamp
© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -51- Experiment g1

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. g1a. As an alternative to the solar module, you can also
load module to 2 . The ammeter should now show a current of about 400 mA and the voltmeter
a voltage of about 0.75 volts. Now turn the rotary switch on the load module back to "OPEN".
Fig. g1b (Measurement):
Fuel cell
1
+ O2 H2 -
2

5. Use the clips to close the two short tubes at the gas outlets of the fuel cell (see Fig. g1b).
reached on the hydrogen side of the electrolyser. Also measure the volume of oxygen generated
during the same period.
7. Adjust the rotary switch on the load module to a resistance of 0.5 . A current flows, and the fuel
cell consumes the stored hydrogen.
8. Interrupt the electrical connection when the 0 ml mark on the hydrogen side is reached by setting
the rotary switch to "OPEN". The fuel cell has now consumed all the stored hydrogen (60 ml).
Measure the volume of consumed oxygen.
9. Remove the clips from the fuel cell.

Decomposition of wa- Consumption by the

ter in the electrolyser: fuel cell:
Volume of hydrogen ml ml
Volume of oxygen ml ml
Evaluation:
1. Measure the respective gas volumes.
2. Determine the ratio of the gas volumes released during

electrolysis.
3. Determine the ratio of the gases consumed by the fuel cell during
operation.
The experiments carried out demonstrate the decomposition of water
into 2 parts of hydrogen and 1 part of oxygen:
2H2O 2H2 + O2
In the fuel cell, the reverse of electrolysis takes place, i.e. the gases
stored during electrolysis are converted back into water.
2H2 + O2 H2O
This proves that this reaction is reversible. The first reaction (electrolysis)
expends electrical energy, whereas the second reaction (fuel cell)
releases electrical energy. Altogether such a cycle involves energy
losses, i.e. the efficiency level is less than 1.

DR FC Professional Experiment Instructions en 1104

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Experiment Instructions

heliocentris Energiesysteme GmbH

© heliocentris Energiesysteme GmbH, Rudower Chaussee 29, D-12489 Berlin, Germany

P s1 Dark and Light IV Characteristic Curve of the Solar Module 1

P s2 Photocurrent as a Function of Distance and Angle of Incidence

P e1 Characteristic Curve of the Electrolyser 16

P e3 Faraday Efficiency and Energy Efficiency of the Electrolyser 27

P b1 Characteristic Curves of the Fuel Cell connected in parallel and in series 31

P b2 Faraday Efficiency and Energy Efficiency of the Fuel Cell 39

P b3 Faradays 1st Law using a Fuel Cell 45

P g1 Water = 2 Parts of Hydrogen + 1 Part of Oxygen 51

Solar module Additional components:

Please follow the operating instructions!

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -1- Experiment s1

2. Interpret this characteristic curve.

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -2- Experiment s1

Dark IV curve of the solar module

If the solar module is connected in forward direction, electrons are driven

If the polarity is reversed, this is termed the reverse direction.

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -3- Experiment s1

Voltmeter/Ammeter Load module

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. s1b.

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -4- Experiment s1

Resistance / Voltage / V Current / mA

2. Interpret the characteristic curve.

3. Determine the maximum power point (MPP) by drawing a graph

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -5- Experiment s1

Light IV curve of the solar module

The following data are of importance when looking at a characteristic

the open-circuit voltage (rotary switch "OPEN"),

the short-circuit current and

the maximum power point.

When there is no current drain, the solar module has an open-circuit

If we short-circuit the solar module (R = 0 ), the maximum current

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -6- Experiment s1

2. By drawing a PV diagram and reading the value of maximum

Power curve of the solar module

In our example measurement, the MPP is at about 1100 mW.

Adapting a solar module to the power of the respective load plays a

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -7- Experiment s1

At a distance of 20 cm the solar module must only be illuminated

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -8- Experiment s1

Solar module Additional Components:

Please follow the operating instructions!

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -9- Experiment s2

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -10- Experiment s2

/° Current Current Current d / cm Current/

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -11- Experiment s2

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -12- Experiment s2

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -13- Experiment s2

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -14- Experiment s2

The dependence of the photocurrent on the angle of incidence, e.g. the

65.5° on June 21st and

18.5° on December 21st.

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -15- Experiment s2

Solar module 5 hook-up cables

Please follow the operating instructions!

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -16- Experiment e1

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -17- Experiment e1

2. Interpret the IV characteristic curve.

© Copyright 2000 heliocentris -18- Experiment e1

Characteristic curve of the electrolyser

The current-voltage curve shows that a noticeable current only starts to

P b3 Faradays 1st Law using a Fuel Cell 45