UNIT-1

1. Describe different sources of air pollution.

Ans:
Types of Sources
There are four main types of air pollution sources:
• mobile sources – such as cars, buses, planes, trucks, and trains
• stationary sources – such as power plants, oil refineries, industrial facilities,
and factories
• area sources – such as agricultural areas, cities, and wood burning fireplaces
• natural sources – such as wind-blown dust, wildfires, and volcanoes
Mobile sources account for more than half of all the air pollution in the United
States and the primary mobile source of air pollution is the automobile,
according to the Environmental Protection Agency. Stationary sources, like
power plants, emit large amounts of pollution from a single location, these are
also known as point sources of pollution. Area sources are made up of lots of
smaller pollution sources that aren't a big deal by themselves but when
considered as a group can be. Natural sources can sometimes be significant
but do not usually create ongoing air pollution problems like the other source
types can.

2. Discuss the effects of air pollutants on human health in detail.

Ans:
Even healthy people can experience health impacts from polluted air including
respiratory irritation or breathing difficulties during exercise or outdoor
activities. Your actual risk of adverse effects depends on your current health
status, the pollutant type and concentration, and the length of your exposure
to the polluted air.
High air pollution levels can cause immediate health problems including:
• Aggravated cardiovascular and respiratory illness
• Added stress to heart and lungs, which must work harder to supply the
body with oxygen
• Damaged cells in the respiratory system
Long-term exposure to polluted air can have permanent health effects such
as:
• Accelerated aging of the lungs
• Loss of lung capacity and decreased lung function
• Development of diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and
possibly cancer
• Shortened life span
Those most susceptible to severe health problems from air pollution are:
• Individuals with heart disease, coronary artery disease or congestive heart
failure
• Individuals with lung diseases such as asthma, emphysema or chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
• Pregnant women
• Outdoor workers
• Older adults and the elderly
• Children under age 14
• Athletes who exercise vigorously outdoors
People in these groups may experience health impacts at lower air pollution
exposure levels, or their health effects may be of greater intensity.
3. Define the term Air Pollution and discuss one air pollution episodes in
India.
Ans:
Air Pollution:
“Air Pollution is the release of pollutants such as gases, particles, biological
molecules, etc. into the air that is harmful to human health and the
environment.”
Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is
the contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects
plants, animals and humans drastically.
There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase
or decrease in the composition of these gases is harmful to survival. This
imbalance in the gaseous composition has resulted in an increase in earth’s
temperature, which is known as global warming.
Air pollution in India is a serious health issue. Of the 30 most polluted cities in
the world, 21 were in India in 2019. As per a study based on 2016 data, at least
140 million people in India breathe air that is 10 times or more over
the WHO safe limit and 13 of the world's 20 cities with the highest annual
levels of air pollution are in India. 51% of the pollution is caused by industrial
pollution, 27 % by vehicles, 17% by crop burning and 5% by other sources. Air
pollution contributes to the premature deaths of 2 million Indians every year.
Emissions come from vehicles and industry, whereas in rural areas, much of
the pollution stems from biomass burning for cooking and keeping warm. In
autumn and spring months, large scale crop residue burning in agriculture
fields – a cheaper alternative to mechanical tilling – is a major source of smoke,
smog and particulate pollution. India has a low per capita emissions
of greenhouse gases but the country as a whole is the third largest greenhouse
gas producer after China and the United States. A 2013 study on non-smokers
has found that Indians have 30% weaker lung function than Europeans.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was passed in 1981 to
regulate air pollution but has failed to reduce pollution because of poor
enforcement of the rules.

4. Discuss the significance and need for air pollution studies.

Ans:
Significance and need for air pollution studies:
Decades of research have shown that air pollutants such as ozone and
particulate matter (PM) increase the amount and seriousness of lung and heart
disease and other health problems. More investigation is needed to further
understand the role poor air quality plays in causing detrimental effects to
health and increased disease, especially in vulnerable populations. Children,
the elderly, and people living in areas with high levels of air pollution are
especially susceptible.
Results from these investigations are used to support the nation's air quality
standards under the Clean Air Act and contribute to improvements in public
health.
The research by EPA scientists and others inform the required reviews of the
primary National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), which is done with
the development of Integrated Science Assessments (ISAs). These ISAs are
mandated by Congress every five years to assess the current state of the
science on criteria air pollutants and determine if the standards provide
adequate protection to public health.
Research is focused on addressing four areas:
• Identifying and characterizing whether there are key reproductive factors
and critical stages of development that are impacted by air pollution
exposures;
• Determining the role of acute and chronic sociodemographic factors in air
pollution health disparities;
• Understanding how diet modifies responses to air pollution;
• Evaluating long-term lifestyle and chronic disease effects on air pollution-
induced respiratory and cardiovascular responses
A multi-disciplinary team of investigators is coordinating epidemiological,
human observational, and basic toxicological research to assess the effects of
air pollution in at-risk populations and develop strategies to protect these
populations, particularly those with pre-existing disease. The results from
these products will improve risk assessments by clarifying the role of modifying
factors such as psychosocial stress (e.g. noise) and diet, and determining the
impact of individual susceptibility on the relationship between air pollutant
exposures and health.

5. Write about Green House Gases and Heat Islands.

Ans:
Green House Gases:
Earth’s greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere and warm the planet.
The main gases responsible for the greenhouse effect include carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, and water vapor (which all occur naturally), and
fluorinated gases (which are synthetic). Greenhouse gases have different
chemical properties and are removed from the atmosphere, over time, by
different processes. Carbon dioxide, for example, is absorbed by so-
called carbon sinks such as plants, soil, and the ocean. Fluorinated gases are
destroyed only by sunlight in the far upper atmosphere.
Heat Island:
Heat islands are urbanized areas that experience higher temperatures than
outlying areas. Structures such as buildings, roads, and other infrastructure
absorb and re-emit the sun’s heat more than natural landscapes such as
forests and water bodies. Urban areas, where these structures are highly
concentrated and greenery is limited, become “islands” of higher
temperatures relative to outlying areas. Daytime temperatures in urban areas
are about 1–7°F higher than temperatures in outlying areas and nighttime
temperatures are about 2-5°F higher.
Heat Island Impacts
Elevated temperatures from heat islands can affect a community’s
environment and quality of life in multiple ways.
Causes of Heat Islands
Heat islands form as a result of several factors:
• Reduced Natural Landscapes in Urban Areas. Trees, vegetation, and water
bodies tend to cool the air by providing shade, transpiring water from plant
leaves, and evaporating surface water, respectively. Hard, dry surfaces in
urban areas – such as roofs, sidewalks, roads, buildings, and parking lots –
provide less shade and moisture than natural landscapes and therefore
contribute to higher temperatures.
• Urban Material Properties. Conventional human-made materials used in
urban environments such as pavements or roofing tend to reflect less solar
energy, and absorb and emit more of the sun’s heat compared to trees,
vegetation, and other natural surfaces. Often, heat islands build throughout
the day and become more pronounced after sunset due to the slow release
of heat from urban materials.
• Urban Geometry. The dimensions and spacing of buildings within a city
influence wind flow and urban materials’ ability to absorb and release solar
energy. In heavily developed areas, surfaces and structures obstructed by
neighbouring buildings become large thermal masses that cannot release
their heat readily. Cities with many narrow streets and tall buildings
become urban canyons, which can block natural wind flow that would bring
cooling effects.
• Heat Generated from Human Activities. Vehicles, air-conditioning units,
buildings, and industrial facilities all emit heat into the urban environment.
These sources of human-generated, or anthropogenic, waste heat can
contribute to heat island effects.
• Weather and Geography. Calm and clear weather conditions result in more
severe heat islands by maximizing the amount of solar energy reaching
urban surfaces and minimizing the amount of heat that can be carried
away. Conversely, strong winds and cloud cover suppress heat island
formation. Geographic features can also impact the heat island effect. For
example, nearby mountains can block wind from reaching a city, or create
wind patterns that pass through a city.
6 What do you mean by pollution? Distinguish between primary
pollutants and secondary pollutants?
Ans:
Pollution:
Pollution is the introduction of harmful materials into the environment.
Landfills collect garbage and other land pollution in a central location. Many
places are running out of space for landfills.
Primary pollutants:
A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted from a source directly into the
atmosphere. The source can be either a natural process such as sandstorms
and volcanic eruptions or anthropogenic (influenced by humans) such as
industrial and vehicle emissions.
• Examples of primary pollutants are sulfure dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide
(CO), nitrogen oxides (NOX), and particulate matter (PM).
Secondary pollutants:
A secondary pollutant is an air pollutant formed in the atmosphere as a result
of the chemical or the physical interactions between the primary pollutants
themselves or between the primary pollutants and other atmospheric
components.
• Major examples of secondary pollutants are photochemical oxidants and
secondary particulate matter.

7 What are the Primary air pollutants and secondary air pollutants?
Explain the formation of secondary air pollutants.
Ans:
Primary pollutants:
A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted from a source directly into the
atmosphere. The source can be either a natural process such as sandstorms
and volcanic eruptions or anthropogenic (influenced by humans) such as
industrial and vehicle emissions.
• Examples of primary pollutants are sulfure dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide
(CO), nitrogen oxides (NOX), and particulate matter (PM).
Secondary pollutants:
A secondary pollutant is an air pollutant formed in the atmosphere as a result
of the chemical or the physical interactions between the primary pollutants
themselves or between the primary pollutants and other atmospheric
components.
• Major examples of secondary pollutants are photochemical oxidants and
secondary particulate matter.
Formation of secondary air pollutants:
These pollutants are not emitted directly from a source (like vehicles or power
plants). Instead, they form as a result of the pollutants emitted from these
sources reacting with molecules in the atmosphere to form a new pollutant.
Pollutants that are emitted into the environment from a source are called
primary pollutants.
Secondary pollutants are concerning as they can be formed from many
different compounds. The phenomena of photochemical smog (seen in high
density cities) is a result of the interactions of primary pollutants with other
molecules in the air such as molecular oxygen, water, and hydrocarbons. These
combine to form yellow clouds that are harmful to humans. Photochemical
smog is made up of various secondary pollutants like ozone, peroxyacyl
nitrates (PANs), and nitric acid
Different types of secondary pollutants include:
Ozone (O3)
Sulfuric acid and nitric acid (component of acid rain)
Particulate matter
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Peroxyacyl nitrates (PANs)
8 What do you mean by Ozone hole? What are the substances
responsible for that? Explain the remedial measures for mitigation.
Ans:
Ozone hole:
The ozone hole is not technically a “hole” where no ozone is present, but is
actually a region of exceptionally depleted ozone in the stratosphere over the
Antarctic that happens at the beginning of Southern Hemisphere spring
(August–October). Satellite instruments provide us with daily images of ozone
over the Antarctic region. The ozone hole image below shows the very low
values (blue and purple colored area) centered over Antarctica on 4 October
2004. From the historical record we know that total column ozone values of
less than 220 Dobson Units were not observed prior to 1979. From an aircraft
field mission over Antarctica we also know that a total column ozone level of
less than 220 Dobson Units is a result of catalyzed ozone loss from chlorine and
bromine compounds. For these reasons, we use 220 Dobson Units as the
boundary of the region representing ozone loss. Using the daily snapshots of
total column ozone, we can calculate the area on the Earth that is enclosed by
a line with values of 220 Dobson Units

Measures for mitigation:

To halt the depletion of the ozone layer, countries around the world agreed to
stop using ozone-depleting substances. This agreement was formalised in
the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer in 1985 and
the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer in 1987. In
2009, the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol became the first
treaties in the history of the United Nations to achieve universal ratification.
Substances covered by the protocol are referred to as 'controlled substances'.
The main substances include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl
chloroform and methyl bromide. The damage to the ozone layer caused by
each of these substances is expressed as their ozone depletion potential
(ODP).
In 2007, governments made an additional commitment, agreeing to freeze
production of HCFCs in developing countries by 2013 and to bring forward the
final phase-out date of these chemicals to 2030.
These international agreements helped to greatly reduce the worldwide use of
ozone-depleting substances in Europe and around the World. Scientific
monitoring shows signs that the ozone layer is starting to recover. Full recovery
is not expected to occur before the middle of the 21st century.

9 Discuss Primary and Secondary air Pollutants, Point, Line, and Area
sources of air pollutants.
Ans:
Primary pollutants:
A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted from a source directly into the
atmosphere. The source can be either a natural process such as sandstorms
and volcanic eruptions or anthropogenic (influenced by humans) such as
industrial and vehicle emissions.
• Examples of primary pollutants are sulfure dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide
(CO), nitrogen oxides (NOX), and particulate matter (PM).
Secondary pollutants:
A secondary pollutant is an air pollutant formed in the atmosphere as a result
of the chemical or the physical interactions between the primary pollutants
themselves or between the primary pollutants and other atmospheric
components.
• Major examples of secondary pollutants are photochemical oxidants and
secondary particulate matter.
Line source of Air pollution:
An air pollution line source is an idealized geometric emitter, which can be
represented by an emission source consisting simply of a straight line, which
may be of finite or infinite length. The utility of this model is the ability to serve
as a proxy for roadway, railway or aircraft air pollution sources. Since
widespread use of this type of model began in the USA in the early 1970s,
world-wide application is presently being used by transportation engineers and
urban planners for the purpose of highway corridor alignments, highway
design and analysis of aircraft take-off patterns.
Point source of Air pollution:
A point source of pollution is a single identifiable source
of air, water, thermal, noise or light pollution. A point source has negligible
extent, distinguishing it from other pollution source geometries (such
as nonpoint source or area source). The sources are called point
sources because in mathematical modeling, they can be approximated as a
mathematical point to simplify analysis. Pollution point sources are identical to
other physics, engineering, optics, and chemistry point sources and include:
• Air pollution from an industrial source (rather than an airport or a road,
considered a line source, or a forest fire, which is considered an area
source, or volume source)
• Water pollution from factories, power plants, municipal sewage
treatment plants and some farms (see concentrated animal feeding
operation). The U.S. Clean Water Act also defines municipal separate storm
sewer systems and industrial stormwater discharges (such as construction
sites) as point sources.
• Noise pollution from a jet engine
• Disruptive seismic vibration from a localized seismic study
• Light pollution from an intrusive street light
• Radio emissions from an interference-producing electrical device
Area source of Air pollution:
Area sources are sources of pollution which emit a substance or radiation from
a specified area.
For example, area sources of air pollution are air pollutant emission sources
which operate within a certain locale. The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency has categorized 70 different categories of air pollution area source.
Locomotives operating on certain linear tracks are examples of a line source,
whereas locomotives operating within a railyard are an example of an area
source of pollution. Other area sources of air pollution are:
• Multiple flue gas stacks within a single industrial plant
• Open burning and forest fires
• Evaporation losses from large spills of volatile liquids
10 Define and explain the term sampling? Explain the sampling methods
of air pollutants.
Ans:
Air sampling is a process used to determine what airborne contaminants are
present in an environment. It uses special instruments to detect contaminants
such as gases, vapours, dusts and fibers in the air.
The significance of air sampling is that these substances can cause respiratory
impairments if inhaled. So air sampling helps companies measure air quality
and determine what safety precautions they need to take.
Air sampling is vital in any industry that sees high levels of airborne
contaminants. Firefighting operations, chemical manufacturing plants,
construction sites, coal mining companies and research laboratories often use
air sampling to gain insight into the quality of their work environments and
keep employees safe.
Types of Air Sampling:
Air sampling may take a couple of different forms:
• Static air sampling: Static air sampling take samples of air from the ambient
environment. Ambient air sampling devices are generally larger and have
high flow rates, so they can sample a large volume of air in a short time.
They are particularly useful for locating contaminant sources.
• Personal air sampling: This air sampling procedure samples the air one
person interacts with. In personal air sampling, a worker often puts on
wearable sampling equipment, usually over the area several inches from
the face, and goes about a typical workday. The equipment captures a
representative sample of particles the person comes into contact with.
 UNIT-2
1. What is Photochemical smog? How it forms? Explain.
Ans:
Photochemical smog:
Photochemical smog, also known as summer smog, is a type of smog that is
produced when UV light originating from the sun interacts with the oxides of
nitrogen present in the atmosphere. This type of smog usually manifests as a
brown haze and is most commonly seen in highly populated cities that are
placed in relatively warm climates. Furthermore, photochemical smog is most
prominently visible during the mornings and afternoons.
Photochemical Smog Formation:
Photochemical form is formed by a complex series of chemical reactions
involving sunlight, oxides of nitrogen, and volatile organic compounds that are
present in the atmosphere as a result of air pollution. These reactions often
result in the formation of ground level ozone and certain airborne particles.
The formation of photochemical smog is closely related to the concentration of
primary pollutants in the atmosphere. It is also related to the concentration of
secondary pollutants (in some cases).
Common examples of primary pollutants that contribute towards
photochemical smog include oxides of nitrogen such as nitric oxide, nitrogen
dioxide, and nitrous oxide and most VOCs (volatile organic compounds).
Common examples of secondary pollutants that contribute towards the
formation of photochemical smog include aldehydes, tropospheric ozone, and
peroxyl acyl nitrates (often abbreviated to PAN).
During peak-traffic hours in the morning, large amounts of nitrogen oxides and
volatile hydrocarbons are released into the atmosphere. These pollutants can
be traced to automobile emissions and industrial discharge. Some of these
hydrocarbon pollutants rapidly undergo oxidation by the hydroxyl groups in
the atmosphere, resulting in the formation of peroxy radicals. These peroxy
radicals go on to convert nitric oxide into nitrogen dioxide.
Effects of Photochemical Smog:
Photochemical smog has a number of negative effects on the environment and
human beings. The chemicals contained within it, when combined with
hydrocarbons, form molecules which cause eye irritation. The atmospheric
radicals interfere with the nitrogen cycle by stopping ground level ozone from
being eliminated. Ground level ozone can prove to be extremely toxic to
human beings. Other negative symptoms associated with photochemical smog
include decreased vision and shortness of breath.

2. Describe three types of combustion units used in-at-source control of air

pollution.
Ans: NOT SURE ABOUT THIS ANSWER
There are 3 main classes of technologies used to combust MSW: mass burn,
refuse-derived fuel (RDF), and modular combustors.
A. Mass Burn Combustors:
With mass burn units, the MSW is combusted without any pre-processing
other than removal of items too large to go through the feed system. In a
typical mass burn combustor, refuse is placed on a grate that moves through
the combustor. Combustion air in excess of stoichiometric amounts is supplied
both below (under fire air) and above (overfire air) the grate.
• Mass burn combustors are usually erected at the site (as opposed to being
prefabricated at another location), and range in size from 46 to 900 Mg/day
(50 to 1,000 tpd) of MSW throughput per unit.
• The mass burn combustor category can be divided into mass burn
waterwall (MB/WW), mass burn rotary waterwall combustor (MB/RC), and
mass burn refractory wall (MB/REF) designs.
• Mass burn waterwall designs have water-filled tubes in the furnace walls
that are used to recover heat for production of steam and/or electricity.
• Mass burn rotary waterwall combustors use a rotary combustion chamber
constructed of water-filled tubes followed by a waterwall furnace.
• Mass burn refractory designs are older and typically do not include any heat
recovery.

B. Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF) Combustors:

Refuse-derived fuel combustors burn processed waste that varies from
shredded waste to finely divided fuel suitable for co-firing with pulverized coal.
Combustor sizes range from 290 to 1,300 Mg/day (320 to 1,400 tpd). Waste
processing usually consists of removing non-combustible and shredding, which
generally raises the heating value and provides a more uniform fuel. The type
of RDF used depends on the boiler design. Most boilers designed to burn RDF
use spreader stokers and fire fluff RDF in a semi-suspension mode. A subset of
the RDF technology is fluidized bed combustors (FBC).
C. Modular Combustors:
Modular combustors are similar to mass burn combustors in that they burn
waste that has not been pre-processed, but they are typically shop fabricated
and generally range in size from 4 to 130 Mg/day (5 to 140 tpd) of MSW
throughput. One of the most common types of modular combustors is the
starved air or controlled air type, which incorporates two combustion
chambers. A process diagram of a typical modular starved-air (MOD/SA)
combustor is presented in Figure 2.1-5. Air is supplied to the primary chamber
at sub-stoichiometric levels. The incomplete combustion products (CO and
organic compounds) pass into the secondary combustion chamber where
additional air is added and combustion is completed. Another type of modular
combustor design is the modular excess air (MOD/EA) combustor which
consists of 2 chambers as with MOD/SA units, but is functionally similar to
mass burn units in that it uses excess air in the primary chamber.

3. Write about the pollutants from mobile sources.

Ans:
Pollutants From Mobile Sources:
Mobile source air pollution includes any air pollution emitted by motor
vehicles, airplanes, locomotives, and other engines and equipment that can be
moved from one location to another. Many of these pollutants contribute
to environmental degradation and have negative effects on human health. To
prevent unnecessary damage to human health and the environment,
environmental regulatory agencies such as the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency have established policies to minimize air pollution from mobile
sources. Similar agencies exist at the state level. Due to the large number of
mobile sources of air pollution, and their ability to move from one location to
another, mobile sources are regulated differently from stationary sources, such
as power plants. Instead of monitoring individual emitters, such as an
individual vehicle, mobile sources are often regulated more broadly through
design and fuel standards. Examples of this include corporate average fuel
economy standards and laws that ban leaded gasoline in the United States.
The increase in the number of motor vehicles driven in the U.S. has made
efforts to limit mobile source pollution challenging. As a result, there have
been a number of different regulatory instruments implemented to reach the
desired emissions goals.

4. Discuss the ways and means to reduce the Exhaust Emissions from an
automobile.
Ans:
Some of the Ways to Reduce the Exhaust Emissions from an automobile.
A. Drive Less:
Fewer miles driven means fewer emissions.
Follow these tips to reduce the time you spend driving:
1. Walk or bike when you can.
2. Use the bike-share programs if your city or town has them.
3. Take public Transport when possible.
4. Carpool with friends instead of driving alone.
5. Use ride-sharing services.
6. Plan ahead to make the most of your trips and “trip chain.” If your grocery
store is near other places you need to visit, do it all at once.
7. Work from home periodically if your job allows it.
B. Drive Wise:
The way we drive can reduce emissions from our vehicles.
Follow these tips to effectively reduce emissions, drive more safely, and save
money on fuel costs all at the same time:
1. Drive efficiently – go easy on the gas pedal and brakes.
2. Maintain your car – get regular tune-ups, follow the manufacturer’s
maintenance schedule, and use the recommended motor oil.
C. Choose Fuel Efficient Vehicles:
When shopping for a new car, look for fuel efficient vehicles with low
greenhouse gas emissions. These cars can help the environment while
potentially saving you money on fuel costs at the pump. Follow these tips:
1. Use EPA's Green Vehicle Guide to learn about vehicles that are more
efficient and less polluting, including:
• Electric vehicles;
• Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles;
• Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles; and
• Cleaner burning gasoline vehicles.
2. Use the EPA's Fuel Economy and Environment Label to compare different
vehicle models and find the most fuel efficient and environmentally friendly
vehicle that meets your needs. This information is also available on the joint
DOE and EPA website
D. Don’t let the engine being on , when not driving:
Switch off the engine when the traffic light is Red
Vehicles with their engines on at a traffic light are essentially wasting fuel. So,
if there are more than 30 seconds left for the traffic light to turn green, you
should turn off the engine right away.

5. Explain various methods for control of NO2 emissions.

Ans:
ii) Control of NO2 emissions:
NO2 Control Techniques:
Nitrogen Oxides Control Technology:
The EPA Base Case v.4.10 includes two categories of NOx reduction
technologies: combustion and post-combustion controls. Combustion controls
reduce NOx emissions during the combustion process by regulating flame
characteristics such as temperature and fuel-air mixing. Post combustion
controls operate downstream of the combustion process and remove NOx
emissions from the flue gas. All the specific combustion and post-combustion
technologies included in EPA Base Case v.4.10 are commercially available and
currently in use in numerous power plants.

6. Enumerate the procedure for computation and control of products for

combustion.
Ans:
Fuel combustion in engines, power plants, boilers, furnaces and other
equipment provides energy for transportation, heating, electricity and goods
manufacturing. Optimizing efficiency while lowering pollutant emissions is the
main goal of industrial combustion, and reaching those goals, coupled with
climate-change issues, have triggered a great deal of research in this field. One
approach to improving the efficiency and emissions performance of a
combustor is to apply advanced control techniques for both new and existing
installations. This article presents several methods of advanced control for
combustion, ranging from new diagnostic techniques to enhanced control
schemes. Key benefits are cost savings through higher efficiency,
environmental benefits through lower levels of pollutants, and increased
safety.
Combustion proccesses account for 85% of global primary energy production,
from electricity and heat generation to propulsion in terrestrial, marine and
aerial transportation. Measures to increase efficiency encompass the
combustion process itself, as well as fuel transportation and storage, and the
use of its outcome (for instance, in cogeneration, waste heat is being utilized).
Concerning pollutants, measures to limit or reduce their impact can be taken
pre-combustion, during combustion and post-combustion. Prominent
examples of these strategies include sulfur-free diesel fuel, air or fuel staging
and selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of NOx.
Energy-efficiency and emissions strategies depend on the ability to control
combustion processes. Classic combustion controls are based on temperature
(for example, adjustment of the air-to-fuel ratio by peak exhaust gas
temperature), flame emissions (such as the detection of misfiring in stationary
engines by ultraviolet light detection), measurement of in-cylinder pressure in
engines and measurement of CO, CO2 or O2 in the exhaust gases.
Advanced combustion-control strategies generally represent extensions and
improvements to classical control methods. An advanced control system has a
closed feedback loop (open-loop control systems do not have feedback). In
combustion control, a sensor delivers data to a decision maker, which sends a
signal to an actuator for reaction. Closed-loop control can steer a process
better than one using an open-loop system . This article focuses on advanced
sensors and decision-maker algorithms, because these control-system
elements have seen explosive development in the past two decades, whereas
valves and actuators have changed comparatively little over that time.
7. Discuss the ways and means to reduce the Exhaust Emissions from an
automobile.
Ans:
Some of the Ways to Reduce the Exhaust Emissions from an automobile.
D. Drive Less:
Fewer miles driven means fewer emissions.
Follow these tips to reduce the time you spend driving:
8. Walk or bike when you can.
9. Use the bike-share programs if your city or town has them.
10.Take public Transport when possible.
11.Carpool with friends instead of driving alone.
12.Use ride-sharing services.
13.Plan ahead to make the most of your trips and “trip chain.” If your grocery
store is near other places you need to visit, do it all at once.
14.Work from home periodically if your job allows it.
E. Drive Wise:
The way we drive can reduce emissions from our vehicles.
Follow these tips to effectively reduce emissions, drive more safely, and save
money on fuel costs all at the same time:
3. Drive efficiently – go easy on the gas pedal and brakes.
4. Maintain your car – get regular tune-ups, follow the manufacturer’s
maintenance schedule, and use the recommended motor oil.
F. Choose Fuel Efficient Vehicles:
When shopping for a new car, look for fuel efficient vehicles with low
greenhouse gas emissions. These cars can help the environment while
potentially saving you money on fuel costs at the pump. Follow these tips:
1. Use EPA's Green Vehicle Guide to learn about vehicles that are more
efficient and less polluting, including:
• Electric vehicles;
• Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles;
• Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles; and
• Cleaner burning gasoline vehicles.
2. Use the EPA's Fuel Economy and Environment Label to compare different
vehicle models and find the most fuel efficient and environmentally friendly
vehicle that meets your needs. This information is also available on the joint
DOE and EPA website
D. Don’t let the engine being on , when not driving:
Switch off the engine when the traffic light is Red
Vehicles with their engines on at a traffic light are essentially wasting fuel. So,
if there are more than 30 seconds left for the traffic light to turn green, you
should turn off the engine right away.

8. Explain the basic mechanism of kinetics of air pollution.

Ans:
9. What are the different control technologies adopted for reducing oxides
of Sulphur?
Ans:
Control of SOx emissions:
SOx Control Techniques:

Sulfur Oxide Control Technologies :

Processes using fluidized-bed combustion (FBC) reduce air emissions of sulfur
oxides. A lime or dolomite bed in the combustion chamber absorbs the sulfur
oxides that are generated.
The two major emissions control methods are sorbent injection and flue gas
desulfurization:
• Sorbent injection involves adding an alkali compound to the coal combustion
gases for reaction with the sulfur dioxide. Typical calcium sorbents include lime
and variants of lime. Sodium-based compounds are also used. Sorbent
injection processes remove 30–60% of sulfur oxide emissions.
• Flue gas desulfurization may be carried out using either of two basic FGD
systems: regenerable and throwaway. Both methods may include wet or dry
processes. Currently, more than 90% of utility FGD systems use a wet
throwaway system process.
In wet FGD processes, flue gases are scrubbed in a liquid or liquid/solid slurry
of lime or limestone. Wet processes are highly efficient and can achieve SOx
removal of 90% or more. With dry scrubbing, solid sorbents capture the sulfur
oxides. Dry systems have 70–90% sulfur oxide removal efficiencies and often
have lower capital and operating costs, lower energy and water requirements,
and lower maintenance requirements, in addition to which there is no need to
handle sludge. However, the economics of the wet and dry (including
“semidry” spray absorber) FGD processes vary considerably from site to site.
Wet processes are available for producing gypsum as a by-product.
Table 1 compares the removal efficiencies and capital costs of systems for
controlling SOx emissions.

10.Discuss about odour pollution control methods

Ans:
Cleaning and scrubbing:
Water-based detergent cleaning can remove water-soluble malodours and, to
some extent, non-water-soluble malodours.
All surfaces, though, should be able to tolerate water-based cleaning.
Airing out the contents:
Sometimes simply airing out the contents, especially in sunlight, can dissipate
some odours. The major treatments are thermal oxidation (incineration),
adsorption, absorption with chemical oxidation and biological oxidation
Oxidation:
Common inorganic agents, such as sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide,
potassium permanganate and ozone can readily oxidize most of the usual
odour compounds.
In general, the cheapest of these is sodium hypochlorite. Industrially hydrogen
peroxide has been used for years to deodorize, disinfect and neutralize
hazardous pollutants.
Ozone is a very powerful oxidizing agent it is produced in-situ. Ozone in water
decomposes to oxygen and hydroxyl radicals, each of which has a higher
oxidation potential than either ozone or chlorine.
Sanitization:
While sterilization kills all microorganisms, more practical sanitation is
obtained through the use of chemicals labelled as sanitizers or germicides.
Adsorption:
Most odour causing compounds are organic in nature, and granulated
activated carbon (GAC) is very effective on organic odours.
One drawback is the fouling of carbon with solid or liquid particles. However, a
large number of other materials can be used as well.
The odorous molecule removal by soil is attributed to physical and chemical
interactions between these molecules and the soil itself.
Microorganisms:
Microorganisms occurring naturally in many soils can destroy odours. Some of
these bacteria and fungi (bugs) have been commercially isolated and
selectively adapted for destruction of urine-based odours.
The disadvantage is that the substrate has to be kept moist and warm for the
bacterium to be effective on odour and that, unfortunately, is the right
condition for mold growth.
Odour neutralizers:
These are proprietary formulations of essential oils. The essential oils form a
thin charged film around each droplet.
Odorous molecules, attracted to the film, attach to the droplets where they
are captured and neutralized by the essential oils.
Encapsulation:
Cyclodextrins are carbohydrate derived-materials derived obtained by starch
fermentation.
Cyclodextrins can reduce malodours on textile surfaces like carpet and
upholstery. They trap or encapsulate the odour molecules in the fibres,
thereby neutralizing the odour.
 UNIT-3
1. Discuss various properties of atmosphere.
Ans:
Physical Properties of the Atmosphere:
Pressure and Thickness:
The normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is characterized by the
International Standard Atmosphere as 101325 pascals, 760.00 Torr, 14.6959
psi, 760.00 mmHg. This is once in a while alludes to as a unit of standard
atmospheres (atm). Absolute atmospheric mass is 5.1480×1018 kg
(1.135×1019 lb). This is about 2.5% not exactly would be induced from the
normal ocean level weight and Earth’s zone of 51007. 2 mega hectares, this
part being uprooted by Earth’s bumpy territory. Environmental weight is the
complete load of the air above the unit region where we the calculate weight.
Accordingly, gaseous tension shifts with area and climate.
Temperature and Speed of Sound:
Temperature diminishes with elevation beginning adrift level. However,
varieties in this pattern start over 11 km, where the temperature settles
through an enormous vertical separation. It is through the remainder of the
lower atmosphere. In the stratosphere, beginning above around 20 km, the
temperature increments with stature. This is because of warming inside the
ozone layer brought about the catch of huge bright radiation. It is from the Sun
by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this area. Still another district of expanding
temperature with height happens at high elevations, in the suitably named
thermosphere over 90 km.
Density and Mass:
The density of air at sea level is about 1.2kg/m3 (1.2 g/L, 0.0012g/cm3).
Density isn’t estimated legitimately yet is determined from estimations of
temperature, weight and stickiness. Utilizing the condition of state for air (a
type of the ideal gas law). Environmental thickness diminishes as the height
increments.
The normal mass of the atmosphere is around 5 quadrillions (5× 1015) tons or
1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth.
2. Explain the importance of meteorology in air pollution control.
Ans:
importance of meteorology in air pollution control:
Although emissions have a direct impact on air pollution, meteorological
processes may influence in mission concentration, with the only way to control
air pollution being through the rates emitted. This paper presents the close
relationship between air pollution and meteorology following the scales of
atmospheric motion. In macroscale, this review focuses on the synoptic
pattern, since certain weather types are related to pollution episodes, with the
determination of these weather types being the key point of these studies. The
contrasting contribution of cold fronts is also presented, whilst mathematical
models are seen to increase the analysis possibilities of pollution transport. In
mesoscale, land–sea and mountain–valley breezes may reinforce certain
pollution episodes, and recirculation processes are sometimes favoured by
orographic features. The urban heat island is also considered since the
formation of mesovortices determines the entry of pollutants into the city. At
the microscale, the influence of the boundary layer height and its evolution are
evaluated; in particular, the contribution of the low-level jet to pollutant
transport and dispersion. Local meteorological variables have a major
influence on calculations with the Gaussian plume model, whilst some eddies
are features exclusive to urban environments. Finally, the impact of air
pollution on meteorology is briefly commented on.

3. Explain the Estimation of Plume rise by using various formulae?

Ans:
4. Write a note on ambient air quality standards.
Ans:
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS):
The ambient air quality objectives/standards are pre-requisite for developing
programme for effective management of ambient air quality and to reduce the
damaging effects of air pollution. The objectives of air quality standards are:
• To indicate the levels of air quality necessary with an adequate margin of
safety to Protect the public health, vegetation and property;
• To assist in establishing priorities for abatement and control of pollutant
level;
• To provide uniform yardstick for assessing air quality at national level; and
• To indicate the need and extent of monitoring programme.

5. What is meant by Plume Dispersion? Discuss the factors that influence

Plume Dispersion.
Ans:

The dispersion of plume which is emitted from a chimney is governed by

many of factors: wind speed, wind direction, local terrain, turbulence
intensity of atmosphere, temperature, etc. In this study, we numerically
investigate the plume dispersions for various altitudinal temperature
variations. The normal atmosphere has a temperature decrease of
−0.6°C/100 m, however, the real atmosphere has various altitudinal
temperature profiles (−1.5 ∼ 1.0°C/100 m) according to meteorological
factors. Air can occasionally make very strong upward/downward wind
current or flow fluctuation due to buoyancy force. In this study, the results of
the plume dispersion are introduced along the altitudinal temperature
variation. The developing processes of the plume after being discharged from
a stack and the ground level concentrations at various positions, are
compared under various altitudinal temperature conditions.
 UNIT-4
1. Write a detailed essay on the National Ambient Air quality Monitoring
program in India.
Ans:
National Ambient Air quality Monitoring program in India:
Central Pollution Control Board is executing a nation-wide programme of
ambient air quality monitoring known as National Air Quality Monitoring
Programme (NAMP). The network consists of 804 operating stations covering
344 cities/towns in 28 states and 6 Union Territories of the country.

The objectives of the N.A.M.P. are to determine status and trends of ambient
air quality; to ascertain whether the prescribed ambient air quality standards
are violated; to Identify Non-attainment Cities; to obtain the knowledge and
understanding necessary for developing preventive and corrective measures
and to understand the natural cleansing process undergoing in the
environment through pollution dilution, dispersion, wind based movement, dry
deposition, precipitation and chemical transformation of pollutants generated.
Under N.A.M.P., four air pollutants viz ., Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Oxides of
Nitrogen as NO2, Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM / PM10) and
Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) have been identified for regular monitoring at
all the locations. The monitoring of meteorological parameters such as wind
speed and wind direction, relative humidity (RH) and temperature were also
integrated with the monitoring of air quality.
The monitoring of pollutants is carried out for 24 hours (4-hourly sampling for
gaseous pollutants and 8-hourly sampling for particulate matter) with a
frequency of twice a week, to have one hundred and four (104) observations in
a year. The monitoring is being carried out with the help of Central Pollution
Control Board; State Pollution Control Boards; Pollution Control Committees;
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur. CPCB
co-ordinates with these agencies to ensure the uniformity, consistency of air
quality data and provides technical and financial support to them for operating
the monitoring stations. N.A.M.P. is being operated through various
monitoring agencies. Large number of personnel and equipment are involved
in the sampling, chemical analyses, data reporting etc. It increases the
probability of variation and personnel biases reflecting in the data, hence it is
pertinent to mention that these data be treated as indicative rather than
absolute.

2. Write a note on ambient air quality standards.

Ans:
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS):
The ambient air quality objectives/standards are pre-requisite for developing
programme for effective management of ambient air quality and to reduce the
damaging effects of air pollution. The objectives of air quality standards are:
• To indicate the levels of air quality necessary with an adequate margin of
safety to Protect the public health, vegetation and property;
• To assist in establishing priorities for abatement and control of pollutant
level;
• To provide uniform yardstick for assessing air quality at national level; and
• To indicate the need and extent of monitoring programme.

3. Write Notes on: i) Emission Standards ii) Control of NOx and SO2
emissions
Ans:
i) Emission Standards:
Emission standards are the legal requirements governing air pollutants released
into the atmosphere. Emission standards set quantitative limits on the
permissible amount of specific air pollutants that may be released from specific
sources over specific timeframes.
ii) Control of NOx and SO2 emissions:
The reductions in SO2 and NOx emissions intensity have been particularly
significant, influenced by emission abatement techniques such as flue gas
desulphurisation and low-NOX burners.

NOx and SO2 Control Techniques:

Sulfur Dioxide Control Technologies :
Two commercially available Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) technology
options for removing the SO2 produced by coal-fired power plants are offered
in EPA Base Case v.4.10: Limestone Forced Oxidation (LSFO) — a wet FGD
technology — and Lime Spray Dryer (LSD) — a semi-dry FGD technology
which employs a spray dryer absorber (SDA). In wet FGD systems, the polluted
gas stream is brought into contact with a liquid alkaline sorbent (typically
limestone) by forcing it through a pool of the liquid slurry or by spraying it with
the liquid. In dry FGD systems the polluted gas stream is brought into contact
with the alkaline sorbent in a semi-dry state through use of a spray dryer. The
removal efficiency for SDA drops steadily for coals whose SO2 content exceeds
3lb SO2/MMBtu, so this technology is provided only to plants which have the
option to burn coals with sulphur content no greater than 3 lbs SO2/MMBtu. In
EPA Base Casev.4.10 when a unit retrofits with an LSD SO2 scrubber, it loses
the option of burning BG, BH, and LG coals due to their high sulphur content.

Nitrogen Oxides Control Technology:

The EPA Base Case v.4.10 includes two categories of NOx reduction
technologies: combustion and post-combustion controls. Combustion
controls reduce NOx emissions during the combustion process by regulating
flame characteristics such as temperature and fuel-air mixing. Post combustion
controls operate downstream of the combustion process and remove NOx
emissions from the flue gas. All the specific combustion and post-combustion
technologies included in EPA Base Case v.4.10 are commercially available and
currently in use in numerous power plants.
4. Discuss various options in detail to control Particulate emissions.
Ans:
There are three types of fabric filters. Each type differs in the method used to
clean the filter material. As dust builds up on the filter surface, the pressure drop
across the filter increases. In order to avoid excessively high pressure drops, the
filter material is cleaned periodically. The most common methods of cleaning
are shaking, reverse air, and reverse pulse or pulse jet.
A. Shaker fabric filter:

Shaker fabric filter collectors clean the bags by gently shaking them. The shaker
collector has a tube sheet between the vertical casing and the hopper. The open
bottoms of cylindrical bags are attached to holes in the tube sheet, and the
closed tops of the bags are attached to the shaking mechanism in the top of the
casing. The contaminated gas stream enters the hopper, flows through the holes
in the tube sheet and into the inside of the vertical bags. Since the bags are
closed at the top, the gas stream flows through the bags, leaving a dust cake on
the inside. Periodically, the gas flow through the collector or compartment is
stopped and the bags are shaken to clean them. The dislodged dust cake falls
into the hopper and is removed from the collector.
B. Reverse air fabric filter:
Reverse air fabric filter collectors are similar to shaker collectors. The reverse
air collector has a tube sheet between the casing and the hopper. The bottoms of
the bags are attached to holes in the tube sheet; however, the closed tops of the
bags are attached to a support structure in the top of the casing that holds the
bags under tension. The contaminated gas stream enters the hopper, flows into
and through the bags, again leaving the dust cake on the inside. To clean the
bags, the gas flow through the compartment is stopped and another gas flow is
introduced that flows in the reverse direction. This gas flow is usually taken
from the cleaned gas stream being discharged from the operating compartments.
To keep the bags from fully collapsing during the reverse airflow, rigid rings are
sewn into the bags at intervals along their length. The dust cake dislodged by
the reverse airflow falls into the hopper and is removed from the collector.
C. Reverse pulse or pulse jet:
Reverse pulse or pulse jet collectors clean the bags using short duration pulses
of compressed air. The collector has a tube sheet that is located near the top of
the vertical casing, and the bags hang from the holes in the tube sheet. A wire-
mesh cage is located inside the bags to keep them from collapsing. The
contaminated gas stream enters through the side or through the hopper of the
collector and flows into the bags and up through the tube sheet, leaving the dust
cake on the outside of the bags. Cleaning is accomplished by directing the
compressed air pulse to one or a few rows of bags, while the other bags
continue to provide filtration. The collector is usually not shut down or isolated
from flow while cleaning. The dust cake dislodged by the compressed air pulse
falls into the hopper and is removed from the collector.

5. Write about noise monitoring.

Ans:
Noise Monitoring:
Noise or sound level monitoring or measurement is a process to measure the
magnitude of Noise in industries and residential area. Data collected from Noise
level monitoring & Testing helps us to understand trends and action can be
taken to reduce noise pollution. Noise pollution is Low or High-frequency
sound that can cause/harm the activity of human life. It can be caused by
various industrial Machines, Motor Vehicles and Craft etc. Noise Pollution
Monitoring process is a part of Environmental Monitoring & Testing as noise
pollution is also increasing exponentially in recent years.
• Noise pollution is unwanted and unpleasant sound which can deteriorate
human health and other living organisms present in the Environment.
• Sound/Noise level meter equipment measures noise pollution. It consists of
several parts, mainly Microphone, Pre-amplifier, frequency weighting,
Processor, Display System, communication System and Power Supply.
dB(A) Leq denotes the time-weighted average of the level of sound in
decibel on scale A which is relatable to human hearing.
• A “decibel” is a unit in noise measurement. “A”, in dB (A) Leq, denotes the
frequency weighting in the measurement of noise and corresponds to
frequency response characteristics of the human ear.
Leq: It is an energy mean of the noise level over a specified period.
6. Discuss the Air Pollution dispersion modelling for predicting ambient
air pollutant concentrations.
Ans:

7. Discuss the emission standards for air quality management.

Ans:

8. Describe the laboratory analysis of Sulphur-di-oxide, Nitrogen oxide

and carbon monoxide
Ans:

9. Discuss the field procedure to carry out ambient air quality monitoring
of SPM and RSPM.
Ans:

10.Discuss Gaussian Plume model and also state its limitations.

Ans:
 UNIT-5
1. What is a Fabric filter? Draw the sketch of Bag House and describe its
function.
Ans:
Fabric filter:
A fabric filter, sometimes referred to as a baghouse, utilizes fabric filtration to
remove particles from the contaminated gas stream by depositing the particles
on fabric material. The filter's ability to collect small micrometre and sub-
micrometre particles is due to the accumulated dust cake and not the fabric
itself. The filter is usually in the form of cylindrical fabric bags, hence the
names "fabric filter" or "bag house", but it may be in the form of cartridges that
are constructed of fabric, sintered metal or porous ceramic. In general, fabric
filters are capable of collection efficiencies greater than 99 percent.
• There are three types of fabric filters. Each type differs in the method used to
clean the filter material. As dust builds up on the filter surface, the pressure
drop across the filter increases. In order to avoid excessively high pressure
drops, the filter material is cleaned periodically. The most common
methods of cleaning are shaking, reverse air, and reverse pulse or pulse
jet.
Working of bag house filter:

• A baghouse filter is an air pollution control device that removes particulates

out of air or gas released from commercial processes or combustion for
electricity generation.
• Most baghouses use long, cylindrical bags or tubes made of woven or felted
fabric as a filter medium.
• For applications where there is relatively low dust loading and gas
temperatures are 250 °F or less, pleated, nonwoven cartridges are sometimes
used as filtering media instead of bags.
• Dust-laden gas or air enters the baghouse through hoppers that is large
funnel-shaped containers used for storing and dispensing particulate and is
directed into the baghouse compartment.
• The gas is drawn through the bags, either on the inside or the outside
depending on cleaning method, and a layer of dust accumulates on the filter
media surface until air can no longer move through it.
• When sufficient pressure drop (delta P) occurs, the cleaning process begins.
Cleaning can take place while the baghouse is online filtering or is offline in
isolation.
• When the compartment is clean, normal filtering resumes. Baghouses are
very efficient particulate collectors because of the dust cake formed on the
surface of the bags.
• The fabric provides a surface on which dust collects through the following
four mechanisms:
• Inertial collection - Dust particles strike the fibers placed perpendicular to
the gas-flow direction instead of changing direction with the gas stream.
• Interception - Particles that do not cross the fluid streamlines come in contact
with fibers because of the fibre size.
• Brownian movement - Sub micrometre particles are diffused, increasing the
probability of contact between the particles and collecting surfaces.
• Electrostatic forces - The presence of an electrostatic charge on the particles
and the filter can increase dust capture.
• A combination of these mechanisms results in formation of the dust cake on
the filter, which eventually increases the resistance to gas flow. The filter
must be cleaned periodically.

2. Describe the process changes method of air pollutants.

Ans:
3. Write about general methods for control of NO2 and SO2 emissions.
Ans:
Control of NOx and SO2 emissions:
The reductions in SO2 and NOx emissions intensity have been particularly
significant, influenced by emission abatement techniques such as flue gas
desulphurisation and low-NOX burners.

NOx and SO2 Control Techniques:

Sulfur Dioxide Control Technologies :

Two commercially available Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) technology
options for removing the SO2 produced by coal-fired power plants are offered
in EPA Base Case v.4.10: Limestone Forced Oxidation (LSFO) — a wet FGD
technology — and Lime Spray Dryer (LSD) — a semi-dry FGD technology
which employs a spray dryer absorber (SDA). In wet FGD systems, the polluted
gas stream is brought into contact with a liquid alkaline sorbent (typically
limestone) by forcing it through a pool of the liquid slurry or by spraying it with
the liquid. In dry FGD systems the polluted gas stream is brought into contact
with the alkaline sorbent in a semi-dry state through use of a spray dryer. The
removal efficiency for SDA drops steadily for coals whose SO2 content exceeds
3lb SO2/MMBtu, so this technology is provided only to plants which have the
option to burn coals with sulphur content no greater than 3 lbs SO2/MMBtu. In
EPA Base Casev.4.10 when a unit retrofits with an LSD SO2 scrubber, it loses
the option of burning BG, BH, and LG coals due to their high sulphur content.
Nitrogen Oxides Control Technology:
The EPA Base Case v.4.10 includes two categories of NOx reduction
technologies: combustion and post-combustion controls. Combustion
controls reduce NOx emissions during the combustion process by regulating
flame characteristics such as temperature and fuel-air mixing. Post combustion
controls operate downstream of the combustion process and remove NOx
emissions from the flue gas. All the specific combustion and post-combustion
technologies included in EPA Base Case v.4.10 are commercially available and
currently in use in numerous power plants.

4. With neat diagram explain the functioning of settling chambers and

Cyclones.

Ans:

5. Describe the source correction method of air pollutants.

Ans:

6. Discuss various options in detail to control Particulate emissions.

Ans:
7. Describe with a neat sketch the principle and working of a centrifugal
separator.
Ans:
8. What are the advantages of “Wet Scrubbers’ over ‘Fabric Filters’?
Ans:
9. With a neat sketch explain the principle of working of an Electrostatic
Precipitator.
Ans:

10.Explain procedure for stack monitoring for flue gases.

Ans:
 UNIT-6
1. Which fuels are most environmentally friendly ?
6. What type of fuels are least harmful to the environment ? explain briefly
Ans:
Most Environmentally Friendly Fuels:
1. Bioethanol
Bioethanol is a popular fuel used to improve air quality by limiting pollution
and increase vehicle performance. This is one of the types of fuel that is made
with a similar process as brewing beer.
This kind of fuel is made from waste materials. Making it this way instead of
using specially grown crops classifies it as an alternative fuel. Alternative fuels
are better for the environment.
2. Biodiesel
Biodiesel is another one of the alternative fuels because it can be made with
edible oils. These oils include grease, but it is not as simple as using straight fry
oil. It can also be made with vegetable oil or animal fats.
This is one of the types of fuel that can be used in boats. Biodiesel is especially
attractive in areas where people may be exposed to diesel exhaust.
Using a chemical reaction of oil and alcohol creates biodiesel. However, there
are more ways of making this as one of the alternative fuel sources.
3. Dimethyl Ether
Dimethyl ether is a clean fuel that can run vehicles. This oil can replace
chlorocarbons. Otherwise known as DME, this fuel can work as a substitute for
propane and butane.
It is often made from methanol, but there are ways to create it with natural
gas. This means this clean fuel can be used for more than it was once intended
for.
4. Natural Gas
Probably one of the most common green fuel types is natural gas. As it can be
used to create other fuels or work on its own.
It is an alternative fuel that anyone can use to burn clean. Natural gas is often
provided for homes and businesses. Vehicles can use natural gas to produce
harmful emissions.
5. Electricity
As we move towards more advanced technology, we have learned just how
valuable electricity can be for the environment. It can act as transportation
alternative fuel for electric vehicles.
These types of vehicles have power in the batteries that can be recharged. A
fuel-celled vehicle will run on electricity by production through a chemical
reaction. This will occur when oxygen and hydrogen are mixed.
A huge positive of electricity as an eco-friendly fuel type is that it is highly
efficient. It also offers an extensive electricity network. Fuel cells can produce
electricity without harming the environment with combustion and pollution.

2. What is NOx emissions ?why is NOx emissions bad?

Ans:
NOx emissions:
Nitrogen Oxides are a family of poisonous, highly reactive gases. These gases
form when fuel is burned at high temperatures. NOx pollution is emitted by
automobiles, trucks and various non-road vehicles (e.g., construction
equipment, boats, etc.) as well as industrial sources such as power plants,
industrial boilers, cement kilns, and turbines. NOx often appears as a brownish
gas. It is a strong oxidizing agent and plays a major role in the atmospheric
reactions with volatile organic compounds (VOC) that produce ozone (smog)
on hot summer days.
Automobiles and other mobile sources contribute about half of the NOx that is
emitted. Electric power plant boilers produce about 40% of the NOx emissions
from stationary sources. 34 Additionally, substantial emissions are also added
by such anthropogenic sources as industrial boilers, incinerators, gas turbines,
reciprocating spark ignition and Diesel engines in stationary sources, iron and
steel mills, cement manufacture, glass manufacture, petroleum refineries, and
nitric acid manufacture. Biogenic or natural sources of nitrogen oxides include
lightning, forest fires, grass fires, trees, bushes, grasses, and yeasts.1 These
various sources produce differing amounts of each oxide. The anthropogenic
sources are approximately shown as:
Mobile Sources Electric Power Plants Everything Else
50% 20% 30%
This shows a graphic portrayal of the emissions of our two greatest sources of
NOx. If we could reduce the NOx emissions from just these two leading
categories, we might be able to live with the rest. However, don’t expect either
of these categories to become zero in the foreseeable future. We cannot
expect the car, truck, bus, and airplane to disappear. The zero-emission car is
still on the drawing board and not on the production line. Also, social customs
will have to change before consumption of electricity can be reduced.
NOx represent a family of seven compounds. Actually, EPA regulates only
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) as a surrogate for this family of compounds because it
is the most prevalent form of NOx in the atmosphere that is generated by
anthropogenic (human) activities. NO2 is not only an important air pollutant by
itself, but also reacts in the atmosphere to form ozone (O3) and acid rain. It is
important to note that the ozone that we want to minimize is tropospheric
ozone; that is, ozone in the ambient air that we breathe. We are not talking
about stratospheric ozone in the upper atmosphere that we cannot breathe.
Stratospheric ozone protects us and the troposphere from ionizing radiation
coming from the sun.
EPA has established National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for NO2
and tropospheric ozone. The NAAQS define levels of air quality that are
necessary, with a reasonable margin of safety, to protect public health
(primary standard) and public welfare (secondary standard) from any known or
anticipated adverse effects of pollution. The primary and secondary standard
for NO2 is 0.053 parts per million (ppm) (100 micrograms per cubic meter),
annual arithmetic mean concentration.

3. What causes S0x emissions ?

Ans:
Causes S0x emissions:
Sulfur oxide (SOx) emissions are mainly due to the presence of sulfur
compound in the fuel. Smoke containing sulfur oxides emitted by the
combustion of marine fuel will often oxidize further, forming sulfuric acid
which is a major contributor to acid rain. SOx emissions also contribute to the
formation of secondary inorganic aerosol gases – fine particulates that are
harmful to people.
When ships operate within an emission-controlled area such as the North Sea,
the Baltic Sea and portions of the North Atlantic, the sulfur content of any fuel
oil must not exceed 0.1% m/m. (Outside of an emission controlled area [ECA],
the sulfur content must not exceed 3.5% m/m.) To achieve compliance, LNG
fuel or expensive, highly refined diesel oil must be used; the alternative is
employing an expensive exhaust gas cleaning system to reduce total sulfur
emission levels.
The better the grade of fuel the lower the sulfur content will be, since it is
removed through the refining process. LNG is the best choice in this regard
because of its clean-burning characteristics. It is comprised of only carbon and
hydrogen (CH4). Not only are nearly all NOx and SOx emissions eliminated, but
LNG will also reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by between 20% and 40%,
depending on how it’s consumed.
Reducing air pollution from ships via the use of LNG is considered a very cost-
effective solution to the health and environmental costs of “doing nothing.”
4. List various methods of control of air pollutants by process changes ?
10.What are the methods available to control air pollution by process
changes ?
Ans:
5. Explain in-plant control measures and methods of removal and recycling
air pollutants ?
Ans:
Methods of removal and recycling air pollutants:
Adsorption:
Gas adsorption, as contrasted with absorption, is a surface phenomenon. The
gas molecules are absorbed—attracted to and held—on the surface of a solid.
Gas adsorption methods are used for odour control at various types of
chemical-manufacturing and food-processing facilities, in the recovery of a
number of volatile solvents (e.g., benzene), and in the control of VOCs at
industrial facilities.
Activated carbon (heated charcoal) is one of the most common adsorbent
materials. It is very porous and has an extremely high ratio of surface area to
volume. Activated carbon is particularly useful as an adsorbent for cleaning
airstreams that contain VOCs and for solvent recovery and odour control. A
properly designed carbon adsorption unit can remove gas with
an efficiency exceeding 95 percent.
Adsorption systems are configured either as stationary bed units or as moving
bed units. In stationary bed adsorbers, the polluted airstream enters from the
top, passes through a layer, or bed, of activated carbon, and exits at the
bottom. In moving bed adsorbers, the activated carbon moves slowly down
through channels by gravity as the air to be cleaned passes through in a cross-
flow current.
Incineration:
The process called incineration or combustion—chemically, rapid oxidation—
can be used to convert VOCs and other gaseous hydrocarbon pollutants
to carbon dioxide and water. Incineration of VOCs and hydrocarbon fumes
usually is accomplished in a special incinerator called an afterburner. To
achieve complete combustion, the afterburner must provide the proper
amount of turbulence and burning time, and it must maintain a sufficiently
high temperature. Sufficient turbulence, or mixing, is a key factor in
combustion because it reduces the required burning time and temperature. A
process called direct flame incineration can be used when the waste gas is
itself a combustible mixture and does not need the addition of air or fuel.
An afterburner typically is made of a steel shell lined with refractory material
such as firebrick. The refractory lining protects the shell and serves as a
thermal insulator. Given enough time and high enough temperatures, gaseous
organic pollutants can be almost completely oxidized, with incineration
efficiency approaching 100 percent. Certain substances, such as platinum, can
act in a manner that assists the combustion reaction. These substances,
called catalysts, allow complete oxidation of the combustible gases at relatively
low temperatures.
Afterburners are used to control odours, destroy toxic compounds, or reduce
the amount of photochemically reactive substances released into the air. They
are employed at a variety of industrial facilities where VOC vapours are
emitted from combustion processes or solvent evaporation (e.g., petroleum
refineries, paint-drying facilities, and paper mills).
Carbon sequestration:
The best way to reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the air is to use energy
more efficiently and to reduce the combustion of fossil fuels by
using alternative energy sources (e.g., nuclear, wind, tidal, and solar power). In
addition, carbon sequestration can be used to serve the purpose. Carbon
sequestration involves the long-term storage of carbon dioxide underground,
as well as on the surface of Earth in forests and oceans. Carbon sequestration
in forests and oceans relies on natural processes such as forest growth.
However, the clearing of forests for agricultural and other purposes (and also
the pollution of oceans) diminishes natural carbon sequestration. Storing
carbon dioxide underground—a technology under development that is also
called Geo sequestration or carbon capture and storage—would involve
pumping the gas directly into underground geologic “reservoir” layers. This
would require the separation of carbon dioxide from power plant flue gases (or
some other source)—a costly process.

7. What technologies are available to decrease NOx emissions ?

8. How will you control Sox emissions from industries ?
Ans:
Control of NOx and SOx emissions:
i) NOx Control Techniques:
Nitrogen Oxides Control Technology:
The EPA Base Case v.4.10 includes two categories of NOx reduction
technologies: combustion and post-combustion controls. Combustion
controls reduce NOx emissions during the combustion process by regulating
flame characteristics such as temperature and fuel-air mixing. Post combustion
controls operate downstream of the combustion process and remove NOx
emissions from the flue gas. All the specific combustion and post-combustion
technologies included in EPA Base Case v.4.10 are commercially available and
currently in use in numerous power plants
ii) Control of SOx emissions:
SOx Control Techniques:

Sulfur Oxide Control Technologies :

Processes using fluidized-bed combustion (FBC) reduce air emissions of sulfur
oxides. A lime or dolomite bed in the combustion chamber absorbs the sulfur
oxides that are generated.
The two major emissions control methods are sorbent injection and flue gas
desulfurization:
• Sorbent injection involves adding an alkali compound to the coal combustion
gases for reaction with the sulfur dioxide. Typical calcium sorbents include lime
and variants of lime. Sodium-based compounds are also used. Sorbent
injection processes remove 30–60% of sulfur oxide emissions.
• Flue gas desulfurization may be carried out using either of two basic FGD
systems: regenerable and throwaway. Both methods may include wet or dry
processes. Currently, more than 90% of utility FGD systems use a wet
throwaway system process.
In wet FGD processes, flue gases are scrubbed in a liquid or liquid/solid slurry
of lime or limestone. Wet processes are highly efficient and can achieve SOx
removal of 90% or more. With dry scrubbing, solid sorbents capture the sulfur
oxides. Dry systems have 70–90% sulfur oxide removal efficiencies and often
have lower capital and operating costs, lower energy and water requirements,
and lower maintenance requirements, in addition to which there is no need to
handle sludge. However, the economics of the wet and dry (including
“semidry” spray absorber) FGD processes vary considerably from site to site.
Wet processes are available for producing gypsum as a by-product.
Table 1 compares the removal efficiencies and capital costs of systems for
controlling SOx emissions.

9. Explain briefly about environment criteria for setting industries and green
belts ?
Ans:
Environmental protection has been considered as an important domain for
industrial and other developmental activities in India. Ministry of Environment
& Forests (MoEF) has taken several policy initiatives and promoted integration
of environmental concerns in developmental projects. One such initiative is the
notification on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of developmental
projects issued in 1994 and further revised notification in year 2006 under the
provisions of Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 EIA Guidance Manual for
building, construction, townships, and area development projects proactively
talks about the importance of greenbelts in such projects. Greenbelt in India
refers to a buffer zone created beyond which industrial activity may not be
carried on. This concept has developed through a long line of cases and today,
greenbelts are present not only for the purpose of protecting sensitive areas to
maintain ecological balance but are also be found in urban areas so as to act as
a sink for the harmful gases released by vehicles and industries operating in
the city area. In this regard, comprehensive Guidelines for Developing
Greenbelts have been compiled by the Central Pollution Control Board [Refer
Probes/75/1999-2000]. As per the stipulations of MoEF, greenbelt is to be
provided all along the boundary by planting tall, evergreen trees and the total
green area including landscaping area will be 1/3rd (about 33%) of the plant
area. This will include Lay down area which will be later on converted into
Green area. Depending on the size, activity and environmental impacts of the
industry; extent of land available, agro- climatic conditions, at least 5 m wide
greenbelt of two rows of tall and evergreen plants shall be grown at the rate of
600 per Ac (1500 per Ha). About 1 Ha (12%) of the total land is going to be
used for road network. The estimated road length is about 8km. At a distance
of about 10m from tree to tree, about 100 avenue trees can be grown per km
on each side. Thus, a total of 1600 Avenue Trees can be grown along the 8 km
long road network theoretically or mathematically. However, it is possible to
use not more than 80% of the total as there will be road junctions, pipelines,
electrical lines, entrances and exits etc. Thus, it is feasible to grow about 1400
avenue trees at a distance of 10 m from plant to plant in one row on either of
the roads. Profusely branching trees with canopy, such as Peepal, Banyan,
Kadamb, Neem, Conocarpus lancefolius etc will be grown as avenue trees. As
stated earlier, it envisaged to develop greenbelt of 5 to 10m width on all sides
of the industry in an area of 5.17 Ha out of 8.81Ha. At present around 4000
plants are existing in the facility.