CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Background to the Study

English as a language plays a number of roles in the socio-economic, political and cultural
development of Nigeria society. The continued slide in the performance of students in the
English language in external examinations is a course for great concern not only for the
teachers but also for all stake holders in the business of education. This is more worrisome
when one considers the fact that English doubles as a medium of instruction in Nigerian
schools as well as our lingua franca. The central role of English cannot, therefore, be wished
away.

The pattern of failure has, however, shown that the incidence appears to be higher in some
schools than it is in other schools. A number of factors have been linked to the courses but
more relevant is the issue of qualification of the teachers. This is more important because in
the business of teaching and learning, teachers offer only what they have; they cannot give
what they don’t have.

The qualification of teachers involved in teaching and learning has great roles in the
performance of students and it is to find out these effects that this study is set out to
accomplish.

Chomsky (2012) states that “one cannot really teach a language but can only present the
conditions in which it will develop spontaneously in the mind in its own ways”

Language is something, which is internalized in the mind of the individual. The question of
who should teach English effectively in a second language situation needs special
consideration.

The mastery of a subject is determined by the performance of the students in such a subject at
a prescribed examination. Any interactive activity between a teacher and the students is
expected to produce learning outcomes in the learners. When such an activity failed to
produce a change in behavior (learning) in the learners, then, there is a problem. The
performance of students in English Language generally is a major concern to Language
educators. Aghyeneku in Sakiyo and Sofeme (2008) noted that students’ performance in
English Language is low in both national and state examinations. A number of reasons can be
identified to be accountable for the poor performance of students in English Language. These
include the English Language curricula, teachers’ methods of teaching, parents, government

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and others (Ahiakwo, 2003). Survey from schools (Ajayi, 2007) revealed that inadequacy of
good instructional materials in the schools also affect negatively the effective learning of
English Language in the schools.

According to Ango (2012), students’ poor performance in English Language globally is

basically due to lack of involving the students in the teaching learning activities right from
the beginning of any new concept to be taught, lack of qualified teachers as well as
experiences in teaching and unavailability and/or insufficiency of instructional materials. The
impact of the teachers in the performance of the students is germane. The teachers are the
facilitators who are to impact into the students the concepts expected to be learnt. However,
Olarewaju (2006) and Nwagbo (2017) were of the opinion that ignorance of the teachers or
neglect of activity- oriented methods by the teachers grossly contribute to students’ low
performance in English Language.

1.2 Statement of the Problems

It is assumed that only those who have professional training in English teaching should teach
English language. The English teacher should be the one whose competence and proficiency
in all the language skills are in a good measure. But especially in written and conversation,
English is not deficient. The English teacher should have a good knowledge of current usage
and the theoretical aspects of English.

In Nigeria today, most students in secondary schools and infact even in universities lack the
ability to communicate efficiently in English, both oral and written.

Adekunle (1969) “maintains that it is in putting down their ideas on paper in grammatical
English that most secondary school and university students have greatest difficulty”. This
situation has not changed over the years. This is still the major problem faced by English
students today. It is therefore important to find out if the qualification of the English teachers
has any effect on the performance of the students in written and spoken English.

1.3 Research Questions

The following research questions have been raised to guide the study;

i. Is there any relationship between teachers’ qualification/experience and students’

performance in English language?
ii. Is there any relationship between learning facilities and the effective teaching and
learning of English Language?

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 iii. Is there a relationship between teacher’s method of teaching English language and
students’ performance?
iv. Is there any relationship between teachers’ gender in teaching English Language?

1.4 Research Hypotheses

i. There is no significant relationship between teachers’ qualification/experience and
students’ performance in English Language.
ii. There is no significant relationship between learning facilities and the effective
teaching and learning of English Language.
iii. There is no significant relationship between teachers’ teaching method and students’
performance in English Language.
iv. There is no significant relationship between teachers’ gender in the teaching of English
Language and students’ performance.

1.5 Objectives of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to study the effects of the qualification of English
Language teachers on the performance of secondary school students in external
examinations.

However, the specific purpose of this study is stated as follows:

i. To investigate the relationship between teachers’ qualification/experience and

students’ performance in English Language.
ii. To find out the relationship between learning facilities and the effective teaching and
learning of English language.
iii. To ascertain the relationship between teacher’s style of teaching English Language
and students’ performance.
iv. To identify the relationship between teachers’ gender in teaching English Language
and students’ performance in the subject.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study will serve as a pointer to the Ministry of Education to verify whether or not the
qualification of teachers has any effect on the student performance in Senior Secondary
School Certificate Examination (SSCE). The result of this research will also be beneficial to
the following; students, teachers, educational administrators, curriculum planners and future
researchers.

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The outcome of this study will enable the students to understand the influence of teachers’
qualification, experience, techniques, and method of teaching and equipment for teaching and
learning of English Language.

However, English Language teachers will be armed with the requisite information about the
various factors that influence students’ academic performance and foster ways to enhance
students’ interest in the teaching and learning process. Also to improvise adequate teaching
and learning equipment for the effective teaching and learning of English Language.

Again, findings from this study maybe of uttermost importance to educational and curriculum
planners because it would act as a feedback or evaluation to the curriculum implemented, to
ascertain if the required experience, expertise, qualification stated for entry into secondary
teaching, meets the educational needs of the learners, to make further prescription or better
analyze the effects of teachers’ attitudes on students’ academic performance.

Lastly, it will be of great importance to future researchers who would seek reference on
recent literature review and to give an up-to-date analysis on the English Language teacher’s
qualification and equipment for teaching and learning of English Language.

1.7 Scope and Limitation

This research work investigates the effects of qualification of English Language teachers
on the performance of secondary school students in external examinations in Ilesa West
educational zone. Information gathered will be limited to those accesses and made available
by the respondents and also those gathered from past related works.

1.8 Definition of Basic Terms

The terms and concept commonly used in this study are hereby defined operationally;

a. Effect: The result or outcome of a cause.

b. Teachers’ qualification: This is the certification, experience, formal education,

professional development, and years of training and licensing of a teacher before they
can teach.

c. Academic performance: The level of attainment of a student in his subject of study.

The grade or score in their respective subject of study.

d. Instructional materials: The things that are needed for a particular purpose of activity.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Academic performance

Academic performance basically connotes a student’s attainment in a learning situation.

Everyone wants to excel in one way or the other and this could be directed towards academic,
occupation and social achievement. The academic performance of a student may be high,
average, good, poor or low.

According to Akpojivi (2008), academic performance means the level of degree of statement;
a student may perform poorly or excellently according to his ability, potential and interest.
Academic performance is the outcome of education, the extent to which a student, teacher, or
institution has achieved their educational goals.

Castellanos (2000) considered academic performance as the situation in which the

subject/student does or does not attain the expected achievement according to his or her
ability resulting in an altered personality which affect all other aspect of life.

In view of Santrock (2006), academic achievement refers to what the student has learned or
what skills the student has learned and is usually measured through assessments like
standardized tests, performance assessments and portfolio assessments.

The term academic performance has been described as the scholastic standing of a student at
a given moment. It refers to how a student is able to demonstrate his/her intellectual abilities.
This scholastic standing could be explained as the grades obtained in a subject or groups of
subjects taken (Daniels & Schouten, 2001).

Simkins (2003) commented on the scholastic standing of students and argued that
performance is a measure of output and that the main outputs in education are expressed in
terms of learning, that is, changes in knowledge, skills and attitudes of individuals as a result
of their experiences within the school’s system. Thus, in determining academic performance,
Daniels & Schouten, (2001) emphasized the use of grades in examinations and reported that
grades could serve as prediction measures and as criterion measures.

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Academic performance therefore is largely identified by a range of statistical indictors. Stan
(2004), supported this argument and reported that performance is the level of attainment of a
person in an examination, that is, how an individual is able to demonstrate his/her abilities in
an examination. Performance has been regarded as a measure of educational output
(Adeyemi, 2006).

This fact buttress Obemeata’s (2004) argument that the performance of students in public
examinations in many Nigerian schools has been poor as a result of shortage of teachers,
inadequate funding of schools and broad secondary school curriculum.

Ukponu (2007) cited Bellow (1986) outline many factors that cause poor academic
performance. This includes difficulty of the task, student’s ability, student’s home
background/environment, teacher’s quality, teaching method and relevance of the subject to
the future aspiration of the students. Academic performance is a process essential to the
achievement of personal goals and individual aspirations.

2.2 Academic Qualification

Merriam - Webster Dictionary defines ‘qualification’ as a specialized skill or type of

experience or knowledge that makes someone suitable to do a particular job or activity.
Therefore, teachers’ academic qualification is a particular skill or type of experience or
knowledge someone possesses to make him or her suitable to teach. Teachers’ qualifications
could, therefore, mean all the skills a teacher is required to teach effectively. Such skills
include formal education, experience, subject matter knowledge, pedagogy studies, duration
of training, certificate/licensing and professional development (Zuzovsky, 2009).

Someone might have a teaching certificate at hand but without adequate knowledge of
subject matter, this individual has no teaching qualifications yet. Similarly, someone without
proper knowledge of pedagogy or someone who spent few years in training (Darling-
Hammond et al, 2001) without completing the required years does not possess teacher
qualifications.
Professional development and experience also count for teacher’s qualifications because
several studies have revealed this (Helk, 2007). Qualification is one of the critical factors that
drive students’ academic performance. Zuzovsky, (2009) also observed that one of the most
important factors in the teaching process is a qualification of the teacher. The perspective of
the teachers’ qualifications can go a long way to bring about students’ higher academic
achievement.

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Teachers’ profession relates to competence in instruction and management of students and
materials in the classroom. Teachers’ qualifications, therefore, might not only be the
certificate someone is holding as erroneously conceived by some people. Teachers’
qualifications are more than just holding a certificate of any institution. Zuzovsky, (2009) in
her study on ‘Teachers’ qualifications and their impact on students’ achievement’ findings
from TIMMS-2003 data in Israel ‘ties teachers’ qualifications to seven indicators that are;

a. Teachers’ formal education

b. Teachers’ education in the subject matter of teaching (in-field preparation)
c. Teacher education in pedagogical studies
d. Duration of the preparation period
e. Certification and licensing status
f. Years of experience
g. Preparation in professional development activities

A qualified teacher should focus on learning which strengthens the capacities of children to
act progressively on their own behalf through the acquisitions of relevant knowledge, useful
skills and appropriate attitudes; and which creates for children, and helps them create for
themselves and others, places of safety, security and healthy interaction (Bernard, 2009).
With this regard, early childhood teachers should be highly qualified and have relevant
trainings for them to offer good and strong foundation to young children.
According to Agyeman (2003), a teacher who does not have both academic and professional
qualification would have a negative influence on teaching and learning of his/her subject
which subsequently affects the performance of students. In this study, academic qualification
referred to the level of education achieved whereas; professional training was related to
whether a teacher is specialized in early childhood education or not. These two components
are interrelated and both of them determine the quality of service a teacher can deliver to
his/her students.

Reuda (2002) believes that qualified teacher should be able to upgrade students’ capability
effectively, enhance their knowledge and skills, and improve their behavior and attitudes and
then make contributions to the organizational goal. Qualified teachers recognize the teaching
approach that appreciates the fact that children have unique interests that needs to be
considered for any meaningful achievement. Gichuba et. al. (2009) asserts that such situation
begs the question of how the quality of teaching looks like in Rwandan nursery schools

7
where most caregivers are volunteers who have completed only three years of secondary
education (MINEDUC, 2010).

2.3 Instructional Materials

Instructional materials can be considered as a consciously planned programme for the

improvement and consolidation of instruction and for effective teaching and learning.

Ughamadu (2002) defined instructional materials as the resources that the teacher and
students uses to influence and increase the effectiveness of teaching and learning process. It
is this creative use of the materials by the students which will make them learn and improve
their performance of skills that they intend to develop.

Nnoli (2008) stated that instructional materials are the resources that the teacher and students
uses to influence the effectiveness of teaching and learning process. It is the creative use of
the students’ mental ability which will make them learn and improve their performance of the
skills that they intend to develop. Furthermore, instructional materials or teaching aids means
materials which aid teaching of a particular subject. This does not do the whole teaching on
its own only, but by the methods. It is being administered by the model and controlled by the
model which is the teacher who directs and controls the process. It is an intrinsic part of
teaching and learning process. The achievement of the aims and objectives of education
depends primarily on instructional materials. Kay (2001) further opined that instructional
materials are the things which are intended to help the teacher to teach more effectively, or
better still which enables the students to learn more readily.

Egwu (2008) defined instructional materials as audio visual materials or as innovations that
aid easy understanding in the teaching and learning process. This involves the use of human
efforts, appropriate choice design and utilization of objects to ensure effectiveness. Equally, it
is defined as anything (human effort, hardware, software, improve materials) used to satisfy
and meet educational needs of the learners. It is an instructional device or technique or an
expert brought into the teaching and learning interaction process to facilitate sharing of
experience, knowledge, skills, attitudes and values.

Akpan (2000) stated that instructional materials are however, alternative channels of
communication used by adult educators to concretized teaching of subjects, problem concepts

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and educational objectives to ensure better understanding. Again, the use of instructional
materials helps to increase the interest and satisfaction of the student.

Oshibodu (2004) sees instructional materials as materials used to facilitate teaching and
learning by way of saving the instructor’s time and effort by providing a way of capturing
learner’s interest, promoting effective retention of subject matter learned, a way of keeping
students focused, active and of stimulating imagination.

Kofar (1999) defined teaching using instructional materials as veritable channels of passing
knowledge in the classroom. Instructions given in the form of practical work improve the
learner’s level of understanding. These are the resources that the teacher uses in presenting
his lesson so that the students can easily understand and grasp what is being taught. It is a
means of making the teaching and learning process more meaningful, effective, productive
and understandable. The end result is the attainment of educational goals.

Eya (2004) believed that instructional materials stimulate the teacher’s interest, and helps
both the teacher and the learners to overcome the physical limitations of the teaching and
learning process. As a system, it cannot be separated from classroom teaching otherwise, it
could paralyze the entire system or process when neglected. The use of instructional materials
is often bogged down by teaching problems such as inadequate materials, economic recession
and relatedness of the educational resources; the student population explosion and
accessibility of local materials network.

Okorie (2010) stated that improvisation is the sourcing, selection and deployment of relevant
instructional elements of the teaching and learning process in the absence or shortage of
standard teaching and learning resources for meaningful realization of specified educational
goals and objectives. It is an act of using materials obtainable from the local environment or
designed by the teacher or with the help of local personnel to enhance instruction. Most of the
teachers still do not teach with instructional materials on the excuse that they are not readily
available.

Emezie (2010) stated that instructional materials include those materials and services used in
learning situations to supplement the written or spoken word in the transmission of
knowledge, attitude and ideas. It is a material that facilitates teaching and learning activities
and consequently the attainment of the lesson objectives. It helps in making teaching and
learning real and meaningful.

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2.4 Effect of teachers’ qualification/experience on English Language students’
performance

Education is a key component of human quality essential for generating high incomes and
sustainable socio-economic development. It is characterized as an essential ingredient in
poverty eradication as described by Ogawa (2010). According to UNESCO (2007), education
was formally recognized as a human right since the adoption of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights in 1948. The Dakar Framework for Action (2000) declared that access to
quality education was the right of every child. It affirmed that quality was at the heart of
education.

According to Samoff (2007), as cited in Ogawa (2010) the mastery of curriculum is measured
by national examination and the best indicator of high quality education is a high score on the
national examination.
According to France and Utting (2003), good quality early education is essential for
educational efficiency. Children acquire the basic skills, concepts and attitudes required for
successful learning and development prior to entering formal education system thus reducing
the chances of failure and lay a foundation of life-long learning. The Australia education
policy framework (2013) states that children must enjoy best possible conditions in their
early educational and developmental years and that includes qualified educators will help
support early childhood education system. To reap the most form these early years of
development, the early childhood development education centers should ensure quality
standards of education. Quality of education as defined by Myers (2006) in an article ‘Quality
in Program of Early Childhood Care and Education’, states that; although there is no single
definition of quality, there are two principles that characterize most attempts to define quality
in education; first is the learner’s cognitive development as the major explicit objective of all
educational systems, the success with which systems achieve this is their quality; the second
emphasis is on educational role in promoting values and attitudes of responsible citizenship
and in nurturing creative and emotional development. The achievement of these objectives is
difficult to assess and compare across countries.
Teacher qualification may affect students’ academic achievement, according to a study
conducted by Abe (2014) in Sky Journal of Education highlighted three ways in which
teacher’s qualification can be quantified, that is;

a. Level of education;
b. Years of experience in preparation of subject matter and pedagogy and;

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 c. Certification in their expertise area and their on-going professional development.

In South Africa, a study carried out by Buddin and May (2009) on the teacher licensure test
scores and other teacher attributes effect on elementary student achievement showed large
differences in teacher quality across school district. Teacher license test scores were unrelated
to teacher success in the classroom; student achievement was not related to the teachers’
advanced degrees, student achievement increases with teacher experience but the correlation
is weak.

In America, Dan and Dominic (2010) reporting on evaluating the effect of teacher Degree
Level on educational performance in America released by the National Commission on
Teaching and America’s Future offers a general indictment of the teaching profession. The
report states that many newly hired teachers are unqualified for the job. In particular, the
commission reports that one fourth of high school teachers lack college training in their
primary classroom subject and that teacher recruiting and hiring practices nationwide are
‘distressingly haddock’.

Teacher qualification may influence students’ achievement in urban secondary schools. In

South Africa, Buddin and May (2009) studied teacher qualifications and student achievement
in urban elementary schools. The study examined the teacher licensure test scores and other
teacher attributes effect on elementary student achievement. They used longitudinal
approach. The results showed large differences in teacher quality across school district.
Teacher license test scores are unrelated to teacher success in the classroom; student
achievement is not related to the teachers’ advanced degrees, student achievement increases
with teacher experience but the correlation is weak. In Florida Journal of Educational Policy,
Dan and Dominic (2010) examined the number of qualified teachers and the relationship to
students' academic performance in public secondary schools in a sample of Local
Government Areas in Nigeria. This descriptive study used a post-hoc dataset. An instrument
titled “Quantity and Quality of Teachers and Students' Academic Performance” was used for
the study. Findings of the study showed teachers’ qualifications, experience and class size
were significantly related to students’ academic performance. These finding were used to
guide planners about the need for qualified teachers to facilitate effective teaching and
learning in secondary schools in Nigeria.

In Nigeria, Owolabi (2012) examined the effect of teacher’s qualification on performance of

senior secondary school physics students in physics. The purpose was to determine whether

11
the status of the teacher has any impact on the performance of students in physics. The study
used descriptive survey design. Data was collected using questionnaires and document
analysis and was analyzed using inferential statistics. The study found that students taught by
teacher with higher qualifications performed better than those taught by teacher with low
qualifications. The results also revealed that students taught by professional teachers
performed better, however teachers’ experience in teaching the subject was of significant
advantage in physics. Based on the results it was recommended that students in the year of
examination should be taught by experienced teachers.
Abe (2014) in a study on effect of teacher qualifications on students’ performance in
Mathematics in secondary schools; the study examined the effect of teacher’s qualifications
on student performance in mathematics. Three hundred students were randomly selected from
ten schools which were purposefully selected. The results showed that a significant difference
existed between students taught by professional teachers and non-trained teacher. It was
recommended that only trained qualified teachers should teach mathematics in secondary
schools. Training of un-trained teachers helps them to improve their teaching methods and in
turn help to improve performance of students in mathematics.

A study in Kenya by Musau and Abere (2014) examined performance of teachers on subject
such as Mathematics, Technology and science in secondary schools of Kitui. The study
looked into the extent to which teacher qualification influenced students’ academic
performance in Science, Mathematics and Technology subjects. The study applied ex-post-
facto survey research design. Data was collected using questionnaire and document analysis.
It was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical tools. The study found that there
was no significant difference in performance of students taught by teachers who had
undergone refresher courses and those taught by teacher who had not undergone refresher
courses as they were both graduates. The study recommended that teachers should undergo
more regular in-service and refresher training of Science, Mathematics and Technology to
enable them embrace and conform to the emerging technologies and teaching methods.

These studies have shown that there is some relationship between teacher qualification and
students’ academic achievement; these studies were carried out in secondary schools with
specific subjects. The studies have reported that teachers without being expert of the said
subjects would not perform to the same level as qualified teachers. The studies reviewed dealt
with teacher qualification and experience influence on student performance with a lot of
focus on the secondary education level.

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Afangideh (2011) asserts that teacher qualification influences students’ performance and
professional preparation is needed by chemistry teachers through adequate and informed
exposure to courses for teaching effectiveness. The Education and Training Commission of
Europe (2010) also points out that teacher qualification is an essential factor that provides
learners with personal fulfilment, better social skills and more diverse opportunities.

Teacher experience has to do with the increased awareness of diversifying search for new
ideas, new commitments and new challenges. Teachers’ experience and knowledge of subject
matter are unique qualities for teaching effectiveness. According to Rice (2010) the
magnitude of the effect of teacher experience varies depending on the teacher’s level of
education and the subject area. He further opined that experience gained over time, enhances
the knowledge, skills, and productivity of workers. These qualities facilitate students’ skills
and abilities to think about chemistry processes, useful for exploration and analysis, and also
enables thorough understanding of chemistry concepts. Experienced teachers are great asset
to novice teachers who need advice, encouragement and continuous guidance. Okey (2012)
stated that experience is directly related to teachers’ ability to plan lessons, address divergent
student responses, reflects on their teaching effectiveness and their ability to stimulate student
inquiry.

Akinyele (2001) and Commey-Ras (2003) commented that experience improves teaching
skills while students learn better at the hand of teachers who have taught them continuously
over a period of years. Senechal (2010) found that teacher experience has a significant
positive effect on student achievement, with more than half of the gains occurring during the
teacher’s first few years, but substantial gains occurring over subsequent years; albeit, at a
slower rate. Furthermore, teachers with long years of experience are confident that even the
most difficult student can be reached if they exert extra effort; while teachers without
experience feel a sense of helplessness when it comes to dealing with unmotivated students
(Gibson & Dembo, 2001). With adequate pedagogical exposure, the teacher exhibits cordial
relationships with students and participation in class increases. Domike (2002) outlined phase
experiences in the teaching career. He opined that experiences in the teaching profession have
to do with factors such as exploration, stabilization, experimentation and diversification.

2.5 Relationship between teachers’ teaching methods and students’ performance in

English Language

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The primary purpose of teaching at any level of education is to bring a fundamental change in
the learner (Tebabal & Kahssay, 2011). To facilitate the process of knowledge transmission,
teachers should apply appropriate teaching methods that best suit specific objectives and level
exit outcomes. In the traditional epoch, many teaching practitioners widely applied teacher-
centered methods to impart knowledge to learners’ comparative to student-centered methods.
Until today, questions about the effectiveness of teaching methods on student learning have
consistently raised considerable interest in the thematic field of educational research
(Hightower, 2011).

Moreover, research on teaching and learning constantly endeavor to examine the extent to
which different teaching methods enhance growth in student learning. Quite remarkably,
regular poor academic performance by the majority students in English Language is
fundamentally linked to application of ineffective teaching methods by teachers to impact
knowledge to learners (Adunola, 2011).
Substantial research on the effectiveness of teaching methods indicates that the quality of
teaching is often reflected by the achievements of learners. According to Ayeni (2011),
teaching is a process that involves bringing about desirable changes in learners so as to
achieve specific outcomes. In order for the method used for teaching to be effective, Adunola
(2011) maintains that teachers need to be conversant with numerous teaching strategies that
take recognition of the magnitude of complexity of the concepts to be covered.

According to Ayeni (2011), teaching is a continuous process that involves bringing about
desirable changes in learners through use of appropriate methods. Adunola (2011) indicated
that in order to bring desirable changes in students, teaching methods used by educators
should be best for the subject matter. Furthermore, Bharadwaj & Pal (2011) sustained that
teaching methods work effectively mainly if they suit learners’ needs since every learner
interprets and responds to questions in a unique way (Chang, 2010). As such, alignment of
teaching methods with students’ needs and preferred learning influence students’ academic
attainments (Zeeb, 2004).

2.5.1 Teacher-Centered Methods

Under this method, students simply obtain information from the teacher without building
their engagement level with the subject being taught (Boud & Feletti, 1999). The approach is
least practical, more theoretical and memorizing (Teo & Wong, 2000). It does not apply
activity based learning to encourage students to learn real life problems based on applied

14
knowledge. Since the teacher controls the transmission and sharing of knowledge, the lecturer
may attempt to maximize the delivery of information while minimizing time and effort. As a
result, both interest and understanding of students may get lost. To address such shortfalls,
Zakaria, Chin & Daud (2010) specified that teaching should not merely focus on dispensing
rules, definitions and procedures for students to memorize, but should also actively engage
students as primary participants.

2.5.2 Student-Centered Method

With the advent of the concept of discovery learning, many scholars today widely adopt
student-centered methods to enhance active learning (Greitzer, 2002). Most teachers today
apply the student-centered approach to promote interest, analytical research, critical thinking
and enjoyment among students (Hesson & Shad, 2007). The teaching method is regarded
more effective since it does not centralize the flow of knowledge from the lecturer to the
student (Lindquist, 1995). The approach also motivates goal-orientated behavior among
students, hence the method is very effective in improving student achievement (Slavin,
2006).

Danmole and Femi-Adeoye (2004) opined that no single method is best for the teaching of
English Language. They stated further that, teaching styles that would permit students’ active
participation such as field work, laboratory work (practical activities), group work, concept
mapping and inquiry methods should always be used. These methods are most likely to
ensure higher performance and promote students’ interest in English language.

The term teaching styles has been defined by McCoy (2006) as a set of teaching tactics
employed by the teacher to help students acquire knowledge or skills. Dupin-Bryant (2004)
sees teaching styles as ‘instructional format’. In teacher training, teachers may be exposed to
more formal learning design, pedagogical scenarios, lesson planning methodology etc.
Teachers then have personality and beliefs exposit to pre-service and in-service training. The
combination of these (training, personality and beliefs) with experience (i.e. concrete
exposure to classroom context and policies) will then lead to a giving style of teaching. A
teacher’s teaching style is based on their educational philosophy, their classroom
demographic, what subject area they teach and the school’s mission statement. According to
Grasha (2002) teaching styles define, guide and direct instructional practices that impact
students and their ability to learn. Broadly, teaching styles are categorized into teacher
centered and students centered. The main focus behind the teacher-centered style is the idea
that the teacher is the main authority figure. The students are simply there to learn through

15
lectures and direct instructions, and the focus is mainly on pressing tests and assessment. A
teachers’ role in this style is to pass on the knowledge and information needed to their
students. Ahmad and Aziz (2009) posit that, teacher centered teaching style is the traditional
teaching method where teachers are at the center of class activities. In traditional or teacher
centered classrooms, students have definite and fixed perceptions and ideas of their own roles
and those of their teachers. Based on these characteristics some teachers centered teaching
styles include: direct instructions, formal authority, expert and personal model.

In student centered teaching style, the teacher is still the authority figure, but the student
plays an active role in what is learned. The idea is that the teacher will advise and guide the
students down a learning path. Assessment involves informal and formal methods tests, group
projects, portfolios, and class participation. The teacher continues to assess a student’s
learning even throughout the lesson. The students are learning the information the teacher is
giving, and the teacher is learning how best to approach his students.

Eken (2000) stated that in student-centered classrooms, the teacher serves as a facilitator and
students are seen as being able to assume active roles and participate throughout the lesson.
These activities according to him are most likely to promote students’ interest in the task
especially when the activities are specially fashioned to suit the interest of the students.
Teachers facilitate student’s discussion and activities and interject only when and where
necessary. This gives the students a guided learning environment and helps students to
discover facts by themselves (Eken, 2000). When students are allowed to lead discussions
and activities, their achievement level is facilitated and their interest towards the subject and
task is promoted (Ahmad & Aziz, 2009). Student centered teaching styles include; facilitator,
delegator, collaborator, cooperative and personal teaching style.

Galton (2009) was optimistic that teaching styles can improve slow learners’ level of
achievement and promote their interest in the task at hand. Lassa (2005) noted that, teachers
are the main determinant of the quality of education in Nigeria. The provision of this
qualitative education cannot be achieved without the application of appropriate teaching
styles. Lassa (2005) narrated further that, when the appropriate methodology is applied, the
teachers will be able to stimulate and sustain the interest of pupils and students throughout
the lesson. Howard (2009) maintained that matching the teachers’ teaching styles with the
learning styles of the students suggests that educators and science teachers in particular needs
to become aware of how students learn. With this, they may be able to create an environment
that is conducive for optimal learning. Today’s teaching style needs to be different from

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approaches that have been traditionally used. It is time for the schools to start focusing on the
innate abilities that children possess rather than on the traditional education formula that is
not totally consistent with developmental learning or cognition (Creswell, 2009). Pintrich and
Marx (2011) suggested that, a teacher’s teaching styles therefore should be such that would
harmonize both external and internal environment of the students to bring out their best
sequel to their interest. Interest in science is very important as it motivates students to learn
(Bae, 2007). It is however worrisome that, recent studies show a decline in interest of
students especially in science as children grows (Bae, 2007).

Bae (2007) pointed out clearly that, it is boring for a student to study English language topics
and difficult to appreciate its value without interest. These perceived problems and lack of
interest on the part of the student is caused by in-appropriate use of teaching styles by the
subject teachers (Igboko & Ibeneme, 2006). Also Adejoh and Idachaba (2010) stressed that
English Language teachers need to replace conventional methods of teaching with teaching
approaches that are both students and interest centred. Igboko and Ibeneme (2006) opined
that, teachers of English Language should move with time and follow the paradigm shift in
educational psychology from teacher to learner centeredness. It is therefore reasonable for
teachers to initiate all the basics that students need to achieve using appropriate teaching
styles to enhance their achievement and arouse their interest in English Language.

2.5.3 Teacher-Student Interactive Method

This teaching method applies the strategies used by both teacher-centered and student-
centered approaches. The subject information produced by the learners is remembered better
than the same information presented to the learners by the lecturer (Slavin, 2006).

The method encourages the students to search for relevant knowledge rather than the lecturer
monopolizing the transmission of information to the learners. As such, research evidence on
teaching approaches maintains that this teaching method is effective in improving students’
academic performance (Damodharan & Rengarajan, 1999).

It is noted that the success of students in any examination depends largely on qualified and
dedicated teachers. If the teachers are qualified and have mastery of their subjects, that will
improve the performance of the students. Oshodi (1998), Dujilemi (2002), reiterated that
students in any country cannot perform beyond the quality of the teachers. In his own
contribution, Bangbade (2004), found out that teachers’ attributes have significant
relationship with students’ academic performance. According to him, such attributes include

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teacher’s knowledge of the subject matter, communication ability, emotional stability, good
human relationship with the students and interest in the job. He concluded that students
whose teachers lack the knowledge of the subject matter, who have poor communication
ability, poor emotional stability and lack of interest in the job perform poorly. Adeyemo
(2005), Oshodi, (2008) and Oyebanji (2003), opined that apart from the basic entry
qualifications teachers possess, other attributes greatly influence their efficiency and
effectiveness which invariably influence student’s academic performance.
Alimi and Balogun (2010) stated that teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter, pupils and
methodology and techniques of imparting knowledge are great attributes which have
significant effects on their academic performance. Rena (2000) explained further that for
students to perform well in any examination, one of the prerequisites is that their teachers
must know them and have profound knowledge of their state of physical, intellectual and
psychological readiness. The teacher must be well versed in the content of the subject matter
he/she is teaching. He must know the appropriate method to adopt in different situations.
Babajide (2001) found out that the poor quality of teachers in the secondary schools in the
state has a negative influence on the students’ academic performance in both internal and
external examinations.

2.6 Relationship between teachers’ gender in the teaching of English language and
students’ performance

Gender is a specially constructed phenomenon that is brought about as society ascribes

different roles, duties, behaviors, and mannerisms to the two sexes, (Mangvwat, 2006). It is a
social connotation that has sound psychological background, and it is used to refer to specific
cultural patterns of behavior that are attributed to human sexes. Gender relates to cultural
attributes of both males and females (Akpochafo, 2009).

Gender according to Labey (2003) is a psychological experience of being a male or female. It

has to do with personality and central components of self-concept. Unlike sex, which is
concerned with, only the distinction between male and female based on biological
characteristics, gender encompasses other personality attributes as roles, orientation and
identity based on individual’s conceptualization of self. For instance, Singh (2010) opines
that gender refers to a socio-cultural construct that connotes the differentiated roles and
responsibilities of men and women in a particular society. This definition implies that gender
determines the role, which one plays in relation to general political, cultural, social and
economic system of the society. According to Betiku (2002), gender refers to all the

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characteristics of male and female, which a particular society has determined and assigned
each sex. Also, Onyeukwu (2000) sees gender as the dichotomy of roles culturally imposed
on the sexes.

Teachers cannot be dissociated from the schools they teach and academic results of schools.
It would therefore be logical to use the standardized students’ assessments results as the basis
for judging the performance of teachers. Teachers are celebrated and are rewarded when their
schools and teaching subjects are highly ranked. Basu and Chakroborty (2001) reported that
student taught by male teacher achieve higher than those taught by female teachers; this was
in contrast with Adedipe (2003) that reported a conflicting finding in which students that are
taught by female teachers performed significantly better than those taught by their male
counterparts.

Akiri and Ugborugbo (2008) found that there was a significant relationship between teachers'
gender and students' academic achievement. They stated further that having a female teacher
improves female students’ educational outcomes. In contrast, relatively less research has
examined the effects of teacher gender on students’ non-cognitive outcomes—e.g., attitudes,
preferences, and socio-emotional factors. The mechanisms behind teacher-student gender
interactions have also limited empirical support. Additionally, male teacher candidates have
often been compared to female teacher candidates.

Saban (2003) conducted a study using a survey that consisted of fixed-response and open-
ended questions. Saban (2003) sent the survey to 381 prospective classroom teachers enrolled
in a college program during the 2001-2002 academic year. After analyzing the results, Saban
(2003) found female teachers at the elementary level were more enthusiastic about and
committed to teaching than their male counterparts. Hussain et. al. (2011) found that teacher
attitude towards the teaching profession impacts student performance. Hussain et al. (2011)
stated the following: Female elementary school teachers have a more positive attitude
towards the profession as compared to the male secondary school teachers. This may be the
result of the stereotyping belief that teaching is a feminine job.

Positive societal views can also encourage male pre-service teachers to enter the elementary
teaching profession. Cooney and Bittner (2001) conducted four one-hour conversations
amongst male students, male teachers, and male professors at a United States university.
Cooney and Bittner (2001) found that pre-service teachers see themselves as being good role
models for young students. Even though these pre-service teachers recognized they are

19
entering into a predominantly female profession, the males viewed themselves as father
figures to those students without a positive male role model.

Petersen (2014) concluded society views males as good role models at the elementary level.
Additionally, male teachers at the elementary level were viewed as having a strict classroom
management style, thus providing a structured learning environment. Another positive
societal view, as described by Petersen (2014), is the issue of security. By having a male at
school, there seems to be a “greater sense of security”.

In what is sometimes referred to as the ‘feminization of education’, the share of female

teachers on all levels of education has been constantly rising across the globe. While female
instructors dominate primary school teaching in both developed (84.5%) and developing
countries (59.3%), this is less the case in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (44.9%) (UNESCO
Institute for Statistics, 2017).

At early stages of development, due to a gender gap in educational investment that favours
boys, the teaching profession is usually dominated by men (Kelleher et al, 2011). As
countries develop and incomes rise, educational sectors tend to expand and girls are able to
close or even reverse the gender gap in schooling and teaching. In fact, most advanced
countries have witnessed two striking reversals in their educational systems since the
nineteenth century. Firstly, female teachers have surpassed male teachers and therefore
teaching has become female dominated in both primary and secondary education (Drudy,
2008) Secondly, girls have surpassed boys in school enrolment, achievement, and graduation
rates (DiPrete & Buchmann, 2013).

Recent global trends have sparked a lively public and academic debate on whether the
expansion of female teachers can help explain, in part, the reversal of educational gender
gaps in many world regions. The idea that girls perform better under female teachers whereas
boys show better outcomes under male teachers is sometimes referred to as the same-gender
teacher effect. In the academic literature, three theoretical explanations for the same-gender
teacher phenomenon have been proposed: role model effects, stereotyping, and sexual
harassment.

Firstly, it is believed that same-gender teachers can act as role models, enhancing students’
motivation and learning outcomes. Secondly, teachers play an important role in creating a
classroom environment that either fosters gender equality or discrimination. Studies show
that traditional academic gender stereotypes such as ‘males are good at math and females are

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good at reading’ can lead to female anxiety towards math and to biased evaluation of teachers
(Beilock et. al., 2010).

We find that boys show higher test performance and subject appreciation compared to girls in
both reading and math when taught by a male teacher. The reverse is true when students are
taught by female teachers: in classes of female teachers, girls perform relatively better and
enjoy their subject more. Interestingly, this finding does not imply that both boys and girls
respond to teacher gender. While teacher gender does not affect boys’ average test
performance or subject appreciation, it strongly matters for girls’ performance. When taught
by a female teacher, girls show a strong boost, particularly in test performance. These effects
are significant for both reading and math, but particularly strong for math. Gender effects
found are larger than those found in other world regions, which is not surprising given that
Western and Central Africa features the world’s largest educational gender gaps (Grant &
Behrman, 2010 Grant, M. J., & Behrman, J. R. (2010).

2.7 The Curriculum of English Teachers Education

Since the teachers of English language in Nigerian secondary schools are mainly graduates of
Department of English of universities and colleges of Education, the discussion in terms of
curriculum will be limited to these two levels of institutions, English course offered by these
institutions will be examined under the following headings: language, literature and general
linguistics. This will however be on a very brief term owing to the nature and purpose of this
research.

University courses, according to historical accounts in most of the West African Universities
were until recently colleges and universities in English-speaking countries, Britain and
U.S.A. Consequently, the structure and content of the courses in their English departments
reflect the needs in native English-speaking situations. Some of these universities are even
some years behind their foreign models. Looking at their syllabuses, one may find out that
some have tried to adjust their courses to local needs. Literature is well provided for in most
of these universities and colleges of educations because this has been the traditional
discipline in the English departments.

General linguistics has however become an important but an optional course in most of these
universities and colleges of education. But how much of the theory is brought to bear on the
problem of English as a second language is a matter for speculation. In some cases, it is
regarded as a separate discipline not directly related to the English language courses.

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Adekunle (2009) reveals that the most neglected area in all the universities is the language
courses. Language courses are listed in the calendar under various titles: use of English
“problem of contemporary English usage” “Spoken English” and “conversational English”.
“Only one of these universities examined language in form of oral test and offer use of
English in the final degree examination”.

There has been little or no change in this trend; some universities still neglect language
courses. The colleges of Education are not better than the universities in most of the cases
therefore the programme run by these institutions are very similar.

It therefore means that in addition to the problems of unqualified teachers who are already in
the classroom there is need to review the entire curriculum of English teacher’s education.
For instance, general linguistics, according to Adekunle (2009) is offered in all the colleges
as a compulsory course because of its importance in speech and language improvement and
as indispensable background for the methodology course. Adekunle explained further that “it
is difficult to find out from the curriculum or syllabus how much work is done apart from the
popular constrictive analysis at phonological level”.

This suggests that the general low performance in English by our students both at the
secondary school external examination can be attributed to the quality of teachers teaching
English. Our problems in this regard therefore are:

a. The problem of untrained teachers who have received no professional training in

English teaching and

b. Those who have received the training as English teachers, but half-baked training.

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