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Semi-empirical equations for the systematic decrease in permeability with

depth in porous and fractured media

Article  in  Hydrogeology Journal · June 2010

DOI: 10.1007/s10040-010-0575-3

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Semi-empirical equations for the systematic decrease in permeability
with depth in porous and fractured media
Xiao-Wei Jiang & Xu-Sheng Wang & Li Wan
Abstract Permeability loss with depth is a general trend
in geological media and plays an essential role in
subsurface fluid flow and solute transport. In the near
surface zone where groundwater movement is active, the
decrease in permeability with depth is dominated by the
mechanical compaction of deformable media caused by
the increase in lithostatic stress with depth. Instead of
using empirical equations from statistical analysis, by
considering the well-defined relationships among perme-
ability, porosity, fracture aperture and effective stress
under lithostatic conditions, new semi-empirical equations
for the systematic depth-dependent permeability are
derived, as well as the equations for the depth-dependent
porosity in a porous medium and the depth-dependent
fracture aperture in a fractured medium. The existing
empirical equations can be included in the new equations
as special cases under some simplification. These new
semi-empirical equations perform better than previous
equations to interpret the depth-dependent permeability of
the Pierre Shale (with a maximum depth of approximately
4,500 m) and the granite at Stripa, Sweden (with a
maximum depth of about 2,500 m).
Keywords Permeability . Porosity . Porous media .
Fractured rocks . Sweden
Introduction
The decrease in permeability (as well as hydraulic
conductivity) with depth has been documented for both
porous media (e.g., Neuzil 1986; Whittemore et al.
1993; Hart and Hammon 2002; Wang et al. 2009) and
Received: 24 August 2009 / Accepted: 5 January 2010
Published online: 16 February 2010
© Springer-Verlag 2010
X.-W. Jiang : X.-S. Wang ()) : L. Wan
School of Water Resources & Environment,
China University of Geosciences,
Xueyuan Load 29, Haidian District, Beijing, 100083, China
e-mail: wxsh@cugb.edu.cn
Tel.: +86-10-82320552
Hydrogeology Journal (2010) 18: 839–850
fractured media (e.g., Snow 1968a; Louis 1974;
Carlsson et al. 1983; Zhao 1998; Jiang et al. 2009a).
For porous sedimentary rocks such as carbonate and
sandstone reservoirs, the decrease in porosity with
depth has been discussed in company with the depth-
dependent permeability (Amthor et al. 1994; Budd
2001; Ehrenberg and Nadeau 2005). In fact, a unique
relationship between permeability and depth is hardly
observed in the field because permeability measure-
ments at any depth show a remarkable variation.
However, a systematic trend of decrease in porosity,
hydraulic conductivity or permeability with depth can be
commonly identified. Moreover, it is found that these trends
are generally nonlinear.
The dependence of permeability on depth, which is a
kind of large-scale permeability heterogeneity, plays an
essential role in subsurface flow (Saar and Manga 2004).
The pumping tests in chalk and limestone aquifers
usually show an obvious decrease of yield with low-
ering of water level, which is dominated by variation
of hydraulic conductivity with depth (Rushton and
Chan 1976). In the investigation of groundwater
discharge into rock tunnels, Zhang and Franklin
(1993) found that a constant average hydraulic con-
ductivity was unrealistic and the permeability gradient
(the rate of decrease in permeability with depth) would
significantly affect the discharge patterns. The effect of
gradually decreasing hydraulic conductivity on water-
table depths for steady-state subsurface drainage is also
discussed by Gallichand (1994). In the study of topography
driven groundwater flow, Marklund and Wörman (2007)
found that the depth-dependent permeability controls the
distribution of vertical flux driven by fluctuation of the
landscape and would even affect the infiltration at ground
surface. In sedimentary basins, the change in permeability
with depth significantly affects the pore pressure distribu-
tion, which is significantly different from the results by using
average permeability (Walder and Nur 1984; Bethke and
Corbit 1988; Belitz and Bredehoeft 1988; Rice 1992; Wong
et al. 1997).
A quantitative description of the permeability-depth
relationship is necessary when the permeability loss is
accounted for in numerical modeling of subsurface flow or
in other involved research. Traditionally, empirical equations
based on statistical analysis of permeability measurements
are used to establish the permeability-depth correlation. In
DOI 10.1007/s10040-010-0575-3
840
particular, the (log-permeability)-depth relationship, which
supposes that permeability decreases exponentially with
depth, is the most frequently used model. The exponential
correlation between permeability and depth was initially
suggested by Louis (1974) and has been widely accepted
(Zhang and Franklin 1993; Budd 2001; Marklund and
Wörman 2007). This exponential equation for hydraulic
conductivity is applied in one of the additional programs for
the hydrogeologic-unit flow (HUF) package in MOD-
FLOW-2000 (Anderman and Hill 2003). For porous media,
similar exponential correlation is also applied between
porosity and depth as Athy’s law (Athy 1930). The
advantage of a simple exponential function is its
convenience for analysis. However, in some cases, the
simple exponential function fails to match field meas-
urements and some non-exponential equations were
employed. The (log-permeability)-(log-depth) relation-
ship was proposed by Snow (1968b) to analyze
permeability measurements of fractured crystalline
rocks from several dam sites (with a maximum depth
of 120 m). Manning and Ingebritsen (1999) also used
the (log-permeability)-(log-depth) function to analyze
the permeability loss with depth using permeability data
of the continental crust inferred from geothermal data
and progress of metamorphic reactions (with a max-
imum depth of 30 km). Another empirical function in
the form of log(log-permeability)-depth, which implies
that log-permeability decreases exponentially with
depth, was suggested by Belitz and Bredehoeft (1988)
for sandstones in the Denver basin.
Numerous factors such as tectonic activities, difference
in lithology, thermal or chemical cementation and others
would lead to permeability heterogeneity. It is difficult to
handle the full effect of these geological processes in a
single explicit equation. However, extracting a unique
permeability-depth relationship dominated by some well-
defined processes as a background of permeability
heterogeneity is possible and expected. It is widely
accepted that the gradual decrease in permeability (porosity)
with depth can be described using the theory of hydro-
mechanical coupling for both porous media (Neuzil 2003)
and fractured media (Rutqvist and Stephansson 2003). As a
result, hydro-mechanical coupling based models might be
able to interpret the permeability-depth correlation in semi-
empirical and semi-theoretical approaches. For porous
media, theoretical solutions of porosity-depth relationship
have been developed by using compaction models (Nagumo
1965; Ramm 1992; Connolly and Podladchikov 2000).
However, to the authors’ knowledge, few similar studies
have been done for permeability–depth relationship. Even if
a theoretical solution of porosity-depth relationship can be
applied to produce a permeability-depth relationship given a
certain relationship between porosity and permeability for
porous media, such an approach cannot satisfy fractured
media, whose permeability is highly dependent on the
special behavior of discontinuities. In this presentation,
semi-empirical equations for the permeability-depth trend
in porous media and fractured media are developed by
considering the well-defined relationships among perme-
Hydrogeology Journal (2010) 18: 839–850
ability, porosity, fracture aperture and effective stress under
lithostatic conditions.
The equations for permeability-depth in porous
media
For porous media (including the intact rock in fractured
rock masses), the permeability is generally considered to
be a result of the microstructure, characterized by the
porosity, pore geometry, particle size (specific surface
area) and other factors. These microstructure factors
depend on the geological processes involved in forming
the porous media and the depth-dependent stress
condition. For the type of porous media formed under
similar geological processes to those that result in
similar distribution of solid particles (in this presenta-
tion, denoted as a porous medium), porosity can play
the role of a dominant factor in controlling the
permeability, which is relatively sensitive to buried
depth. Compaction and aquathermal pressuring are
considered to be two of the most important causes of
porosity loss with depth (Luo and Vasseur 1992;
Domenico and Schwartz 1998). Although aquathermal
pressuring would be the essential cause of porosity loss
for deep buried sediments, mechanical compaction is
the primary factor controlling porosity for sediments
near the ground surface. It is reported by Schneider et
al. (1996) that the transition zone would be probably at
a depth of a few hundred meters for carbonate
sediments (Dunnington 1967; Beall and Fisher 1969)
and around 1.5 km for sandstones (Fuchtbauer 1967;
Schmidt and McDonald 1979; Bloch et al. 1986).
Therefore, in the near-surface zone of the earth, where
groundwater movement is most active, porosity-depth
correlation can be analyzed based on mechanical
compaction due to the change of effective stress.
In this section, a simplified model of depth-dependent
permeability for porous media is developed based on the
inter-relationship among permeability, porosity and
mechanical properties under lithostatic stress. The objective
is to find an equation that accounts for the most important
factors causing the systematic permeability-depth trend in a
porous medium. This equation should adopt the fundamental
discoveries of relationships among permeability, porosity,
effective stress and depth that can be described by functions
as follows:
k ¼ Fk;f ðfÞ ð1Þ

0 
f ¼ Ff;A m ð2Þ
0
m ¼ FA;z ðzÞ ð3Þ
where F indicates a function for relationship between two
factors for a porous media, k is the permeability
0
of porous
media, f is the porosity, σ is stress, m is the mean effective
DOI 10.1007/s10040-010-0575-3

stress (positive for compaction), z is the depth. Then, the
depth-permeability equation is derived as follows:
dk dFk;f dFf;A dFA;z
¼ ð4Þ
dz df d0m dz
Widely accepted formulae for Eqs. (1)–(3) in the
literature are applied in this presentation to find a semi-
empirical solution for Eq. (4) which can interpret the
general nonlinear systematic decrease of permeability with
depth.
The permeability-porosity relationship
Numerous approaches have been proposed to relate the
permeability to porosity in porous media. Civan (2000)
grouped these models into three categories: empirical
equations, hydraulic tube models and network models.
Hydraulic tube models are a reasonable compromise
between the empirical and network models (Civan 2001).
Among hydraulic tube models, the Kozeny-Carman model
has been extensively used in the literature because of its
simplicity (Bear 1972):
841
range from 4.275 to 8.537 for three ranges of permeability
in sedimentary formations. In Ghabezloo et al. (2009), n is
found to be 11 in a low permeability creeping material.
However, some theoretical models suggest that n=2
(Turcotte and Schubert 2001) or n=3 (Zhu et al. 1995;
Walsh and Brace 1984). For a given value of f0, it is
found that the Kozeny-Carman model is equivalent to a
case of the power-law model with a special n value. As
shown in Fig. 1a, when f0 =0.4, the curve of k/k0 versus
f/f0 derived by Eq. (5a) is almost the same as that given
by Eq. (5b) while n=4. When f0 =0.2, this special n value
is 3.4 as shown in Fig. 1b. It implies that the Kozeny-
Carman model could be included by the power-law
model.
In this study, it is assumed that the parameters, S in
Eq. (5a) and n in Eq. (5b), for the permeability-porosity
relationship are relatively stable in a porous medium. Thus
permeability change in the porous medium can be
described as a unique response of porosity change. From
Eq. (5b)) one has
  
dFk;f
¼ n k0 fn0 fn1 ¼ nk=f ð6Þ
df

1 f3 This is the first item prepared for Eq. (4). Note that
k ¼ Fk;f ðfÞ ¼ ð5aÞ the constant n value also implies that the ratio of effective
5S 2 ð1  fÞ2 to non-effective porosity (Bernabe et al. 2003; Ghabezloo
et al. 2009) is assumed changeless in this study. Although
where S is the specific surface area of solid grains. Civan Eq. (5b) is used in this paper, other models of perme-
(2001) improved the Kozeny-Carman model by introducing ability-porosity relationship can also be applied by similar
non-integral exponents in Eq. (5a) to account for the steps.
interactive process between pore fluid and porous media.
In some other classic models (e.g., Walsh and Brace 1984),
permeability is proportional to integer powers of pore a
geometry parameters, i.e., porosity, hydraulic radius, tor- 1
tuosity and/or specific surface area. According to these 0.8 Kozeny-Carman model
models, the permeability-porosity relationship can be
power-law model, n=3
simplified and described by the power-law (Bernabe et al. 0.6
power-law model, n=5
k/k0

2003):
0.4 power-law model, n=4
n
k ¼ Fk;f ðfÞ ¼ k0 ðf=f0 Þ ð5bÞ 0.2

where k0 is the reference permeability corresponding to the 0

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
reference porosity, f0, and n is a coefficient which is
dependent on the grain size and the stack pattern of particles. /
Usually, the initial permeability, k0, and initial porosity, f0,
are used for the reference permeability and reference b
1
porosity. It has been demonstrated that the exponent, n, is
also related to the ratio of effective to non-effective porosity 0.8 Kozeny-Carman model
(Bernabe et al. 2003; Ghabezloo et al. 2009). This non- power-law model, n=3
0.6 power-law model, n=4
k/k0

effective porosity is dominated by dead-end pores (Bear

1972) filled by immobile fluid. It indicates a threshold or 0.4 power-law model, n=3.5
critical porosity for percolation in a porous medium.
Among the two permeability-porosity formulas, the 0.2
power-law relationship seems more general with a 0
variable factor, n, for different types of materials. A 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
compilation of laboratory data by David et al. (1994) /
shows that the value of n ranges from 4.6 to 25 in Fig. 1 A comparison of the Kozeny-Carman model and the power
common geologic materials. In Lucia (1995), n is found to law model of porosity-dependent permeability: a f0 =0.4, b f0 =0.2

Hydrogeology Journal (2010) 18: 839–850 DOI 10.1007/s10040-010-0575-3

842
Pore compressibility
Compaction of porous materials, which leads to decrease
of porosity, is controlled by the stress-strain behaviors.
This compaction can be described by stress-dependent
porosity. There are many different approaches to relate
where M is the ratio of horizontal stress to vertical stress
and is assumed to be constant. In addition, change of the
vertical effective stress with depth, h, is determined as
0

porosity change with stress. For example, Zimmerman et dz ¼ g e dz ð11Þ

al. (1986) defined four compressibilities for porous rock,
relating changes in the bulk and pore volumes to changes where g e is the effective unit weight which depends on
in the pore and confining pressures. A similar approach density of the porous media and its saturation. In this
had been employed by Wang et al. (2009) to relate presentation, the fully saturated situation and the equilib-
porosity with stress by defining bulk modulus of porous rium pore pressure are considered, thus g e can be
media and the matrix, respectively. calculated by
In this study, a different approach is used, i.e. the
modified Athy’s law, which had been proposed by Davis
g e ¼ ðs   w Þg ð1  fÞ ð12Þ
and Davis (1999). The equation is written as follows:

0 

0 where ρs is the density of solid grains, ρw is the density of
f ¼ Ff;A m ¼ fr þ ðf0  fr Þ exp am ð7Þ
water, and g is the acceleration of gravity. Both ρs and ρw
are assumed to be constant in this simplified model.
where f0 is the reference porosity for zero effective stress With Eqs. (10)––(12), change of the mean effective
(the initial porosity), fr is the residual porosity at high stress can be described as
stress, α is a coefficient. A more simple equation can be
written as: 0
dFA;z dm

0
 ¼ ¼ g g ð1  fÞ ð13Þ
f ¼ f0 exp am ð8Þ dz dz

where g g ¼ ð1 þ 2MÞðs  w Þg=3 is a constant. This is

where the residual porosity is ignored, as adopted in
Rubey and Hubbert (1959). Although Eq. (7) is empirical,
it has been widely accepted (Rutqvist et al. 2002; Neuzil
2003; Liu et al. 2009). The significant advantage of this
formula is inclusion of the residual porosity so that the
“residual” permeability can be accounted for.
With the assumption of a constant α value for a porous
medium, Eq. (7) leads to
the third item prepared for Eq. (4).
The solution of depth-dependent permeability
Substituting Eqs. (6), (9) and (13) into Eq. (4), the
equation for depth-dependency of permeability can be
rewritten as:

dFf;A df
¼ 0 ¼ aðf  fr Þ ð9Þ dk ng g aðf  fr Þð1  fÞ
dm0
dm ¼ k ð14Þ
dz f
This is the second item prepared for Eq. (4).
To solve this equation, the function of depth-dependent
porosity, f(h), must be firstly derived. With Eq. (13),
Eq. (9) can be rewritten as:
Effective stress under lithostatic conditions
The action of effective stress on a porous medium is df
subject to the pressure of confining materials, porous fluid ¼ g g aðf  fr Þð1  fÞ ð15Þ
dz
pressure and tectonic deformation. Measurements of the
complete state of geostress have been conducted in many For constant values of g g and α, the solution of Eq. (15) is
rocks at different depths across the world (Hoek and given by
Brown 1980). It has been found that the lithostatic stress is
generally proportional to depth. ðf0  fr Þð1 þ fr Þ
In this simplified model, the relationship between the fðzÞ ¼ fr þ  
0
vertical effective stress, z , the horizontal effective stress, ðf0  fr Þ þ ð1 þ 2fr  f0 Þ exp g g að1 þ fr Þz
0 0 0
H ¼ x ¼ y , and the mean effective stress under a ð16Þ
lithostatic condition are calculated with equations as
follows: where f0 is the initial porosity, which can be considered as
the porosity on the ground surface.
Equation (16) is the simple semi-empirical solution of
0 0 0 1
0 0

depth-dependent porosity for a porous medium. One can
H ¼ M z ; m ¼ z þ 2H ð10Þ
3 easily obtain the semi-empirical solution of the depth-

Hydrogeology Journal (2010) 18: 839–850 DOI 10.1007/s10040-010-0575-3

 843
dependent permeability by substituting Eq. (16) into where G indicates a function for relationship between two
Eq. (5a) or (5b). Using Eq. (5a), one has factors for a fracture,
0
T is the transmissivity of a facture, b

3 is its aperture, n is the effective normal stress (positive
ð1f0 Þ2 ðf0 fr Þð1þfr Þ for compaction). Then, the transmissivity-depth equation
kðzÞ ¼ k0 f 3 fr þ ðf f Þþð1þ2f f Þ exp g að1þf Þz
0 0 r r 0 ½g r  for a fracture is derived as follows:

2 dT dGT;b dGb;A dGA;z
ðf0 fr Þþð1þ2fr f0 Þ exp½g g að1þfr Þz ¼ ð21Þ
ð1fr Þð1þ2fr f0 Þ exp½g g að1þfr Þz2fr ðf0 fr Þ dz db d0n dz

Widely accepted formulae for Eqs. (18)–(20) in the

ð17aÞ literature are adopted in this presentation to find a
theoretical closed-form solution of Eq. (21). Subsequently,
where k0 is the initial permeability, which can be deemed it is combined with considerations of the change in
as the permeability on the ground surface. Using Eq. (5b), fracture frequency with depth to give an approximation
one has of the average nonlinear depth-dependent permeability of
( )n a fractured rock.
fr ðf0  fr Þð1 þ fr Þ=f0
kðzÞ ¼ k0 þ  
f0 ðf0  fr Þ þ ð1 þ 2fr  f0 Þ exp g g að1 þ fr Þz
ð17bÞ
The transmissivity of a fracture
Fluid flow in a deformable rock facture can be described
Equation 17b is the same solution of Eq. 15. with the cubic law (Witherspoon et al. 1980) as follows:

g ðbr þ bd Þ3 gb3
q¼ J¼ J ð22Þ
The equation for permeability-depth in a fractured 12nf 12nf
medium
where q is the volumetric flow rate through a joint per unit
In fractured media, groundwater flow mainly takes place in width, bd is the apparent aperture, br is the residual
discontinuities. Moreover, the occurrence of discontinuities aperture, J is the hydraulic gradient, ν is the fluid viscosity
can be the single most important factor that governs the and f is a friction factor that accounts for the roughness of
mechanical properties as well as permeability of rock the joint surface, b=br +bd, is the effective hydraulic
masses. Unlike porous media, the permeability of fractured aperture. Transmissivity, T, of a fracture is generally
rock is controlled by the aperture of individual fractures and defined as
their combination. Transmissivity of a facture can be
calculated by the famous cubic law with its aperture under q gb3
a certain stress condition. Studies on the change of perme- T ¼ GT;b ðbÞ ¼ ¼ ð23Þ
J 12nf
ability in loading/unloading procedure for fractured rock
masses have attracted numerous researchers. Equations of Therefore
stress-dependent permeability are developed based on exper-
imental studies and theoretical models for hydro-mechanical
behavior of discontinuities (Rutqvist and Stephansson 2003). dGT;b dT gb2
They encourage the attempt of expressing the permeability- ¼ ¼ ð24Þ
db db 4nf
depth trend with a simple equation for fractured rock masses
(Snow 1968b; Oda 1986; Wei et al. 1995).
In this section, a new simplified model of depth-dependent This is the first item prepared for Eq. (21).
transmissivity for a facture is established and applied to give
a systematic permeability trend of fractured media. This
equation is developed on the fundamental discoveries of Discontinuity closure under stress
relationships among the transmissivity, the aperture, the With increasing normal stresses on the faces, the aperture
effective normal stress and the depth of a fracture that can be of a discontinuity would decrease. The apparent aperture
described by functions as follows: can be interpreted as the residual aperture, br, plus an
apparent mechanical opening (Witherspoon et al. 1980)
T ¼ GT;b ðbÞ ð18Þ
bd ¼ umax  un ð25Þ

0
b ¼ Gb;A n ð19Þ Where un and umax are the normal deformation of the
fracture and the maximum closure, respectively.
0 Empirical models have been developed to give a
n ¼ GA;z ðzÞ ð20Þ correlation between the closure of a discontinuity and

Hydrogeology Journal (2010) 18: 839–850 DOI 10.1007/s10040-010-0575-3

844
the effective normal stress. The hyperbolic function Ground surface
proposed by Bandis et al. (1983) is most widely applied as
0

un ¼  n0   ð26Þ
Kn0 þ n umax
H H
where Kn0 is the initial normal stiffness when un equals or n
is approximate to zero. Kn0 belongs to intrinsic mechan-
ical properties of a discontinuity and can be considered as
a constant. In this presentation, the initial condition is
specified to the situation in which bd =umax and un =0 with
zero normal stress on the ground surface. If one defines Fig. 2 Schematic representation of a facture and the stress
b0 = br + umax as the maximum effective aperture of condition
fracture at the initial condition, one has umax = b0 − br
and un = b0 − b. So Eq. (26) can be rewritten into where g h and g e are assumed to be constant for the fractured
media. The solution of Eq. (30) with the boundary condition

0 
0 0
on the ground surface, n ðz ¼ 0Þ ¼ 0, is
b ¼ Gb;A n ¼ b0   0 n  ð27Þ
Kn0 þ n ðb0  br Þ 0
n ¼ g h z ð31Þ
which gives the stress-dependent effective aperture. For
constant Kn0, there is And, there is
0
dGb;A db ðb  br Þ=ðb0  br Þ dGA;z dn
0 ¼ 0 ¼    ð28Þ ¼ ¼ gh ð32Þ
dn dn Kn0 þ 0n ðb0  br Þ dz dz

This is the second item prepared for Eq. (21). This is the last item prepared for Eq. (21).
It is necessary to mention that laboratory investigations
on single rock discontinuities had showed that both
normal closure and shear dilation can change facture
transmissivity (Tsang and Witherspoon 1981; Raven and The solution of depth-dependent transmissivity
Gale 1985; Olsson and Barton 2001). However, when it of a fracture
comes to a rock section that contains a multitude of Substituting Eqs. (24), (28), (31) and (32) into (21), one
discontinuities, the change in transmissivity is mainly has
determined by the normal closure on fractures caused by

normal stress (Barton et al. 1995; Min et al. 2004). 3g h 1  ðTr =T Þ1=3
dT
Accordingly, as a reasonable approximation, the influence ¼ T ð33Þ
of shear stress on closure of a fracture is currently ignored dz ðb0  br ÞKn0 þ g h z
in this model.
where Tr is the transmissivity when b=br. Equation (33)
indicates that the change of transmissivity with depth is
Effective normal stress under lithostatic conditions highly nonlinear.
Suppose that the fracture has a constant dip angle of θ, The solution of depth-dependent aperture can be
subjecting to the horizontal stress σ1 and the vertical stress derived by substituting Eq. (31) into Eq. (27) as follows
σ3 (Fig. 2), the normal stress on the joint can be calculated
by ghz
bðzÞ ¼ b0  ð34Þ
Kn0 þ ½g h z=ðb0  br Þ
1 þ 3 1  3
n ¼ þ cos 2 ð29Þ
2 2
Appling Eq. (34) in the cubic law, the solution of
transmissivity-depth can be obtained as
Under lithostatic conditions, applying Eqs. (10)–(12),
the relationship between the effective normal stress and 3
g zðb0  br Þ=b0
the depth can be described as T ðzÞ ¼ T0 1  h ð35Þ
ðb0  br ÞKn0 þ g h z
0  
dn 1þM 1M
¼ gh ¼  cos 2 g e ð30Þ where T0 is the transmissivity when b=b0. Equation (35)
dz 2 2 is also the solution of Eq. (34).

Hydrogeology Journal (2010) 18: 839–850 DOI 10.1007/s10040-010-0575-3


To simplify the expression, defining a reference depth
zc =(b0 −br)Kn0/g h, Eqs. (34) and (35) can be rewritten into
 accounted for.
1 ðbr =b0 Þðz=zc Þ
bðzÞ ¼ b0 þ ð36Þ
1 þ ðz=zc Þ 1 þ ðz=zc Þ
3 Comparison of equations for porous media
1 ðbr =b0 Þðz=zc Þ
T ðzÞ ¼ T0 þ ð37Þ
1 þ ðz=zc Þ 1 þ ðz=zc Þ
Eqs. (36) and (37) are the simple analytical equations of
the depth-dependent aperture and the depth-dependent
transmissivity of a rock fracture, respectively.
The solution of depth-dependent permeability
of a fractured rock mass
In a hydraulic test of a fractured rock, e.g., packer
injection test, the test segment generally penetrates a
group or several groups of joints. If the length of the
segment is relatively short so an average depth can be
applied and the flow in the hydraulic test is dominated by
a group of parallel joints with the same aperture, the
permeability of the test segment, k, can be calculated by
k¼
v NT v
¼ lT ð38Þ
g L g
where N is the number of joints across the segment and L
is the length of the segment, v/g is applied to transform the
hydraulic conductivity to the permeability where v is the
coefficient of kinematic viscosity, and l=N/L is the depth-
dependent density of the joints (fracture frequency).
Assuming constant value of v/g and substituting Eq. (36)
into Eq. (38), the depth-dependent permeability can be
described by

l 1 ðbr =b0 Þðz=zc Þ 3
kðzÞ ¼ k0 þ ð39Þ
l0 1 þ ðz=zc Þ 1 þ ðz=zc Þ
where k0 and l0 is the permeability and the density of
joints for the fractured rock on the ground surface,
respectively.
According to Eq. 36, the fracture porosity of the rock
mass due to opening of the joints can be approximate by
 
l 1 ðbr =b0 Þðz=zc Þ
ff ðzÞ / lb  ff 0 þ ð40Þ
l0 1 þ ðz=zc Þ 1 þ ðz=zc Þ
where ff0 is the fracture porosity on the ground surface.
Equations. (39) and (40) give the general trends of
permeability loss and fracture porosity loss of a fractured
rock. They are quite different from the trends of perme-
ability and porosity of a porous medium as described by
Eqs. (16), 17a and 17b. However, a similar pattern can be
seen, in that the permeability loss with depth is more
Hydrogeology Journal (2010) 18: 839–850
845
significant than the porosity loss with depth. For the
fractured rock, depth-dependent fracture density should be
Discussion
In Connolly and Podladchikov (2000), an equation of
depth-dependent porosity is derived as follows
f0
fðzÞ ¼ ð41Þ
f0 þ ð1  f0 Þ expðbDgzÞ
where Δρg is defined similar to g g introduced in Eq. (13),
β is the coefficient of pore compressibility. It is the
pseudoelastic compaction profile as a typical result of a
complex model in dealing with temperature-dependent
viscoelastic compaction of sediments (Connolly and
Podladchikov 2000). However, Eq. (41) is also closes to
the special case of Eq. (16) if the residual porosity is
ignored and β is equal to α. In this situation, the depth-
dependent permeability of porous material can be sim-
plified to
k0
kðzÞ ¼   n ð42Þ
f0 þ ð1  f0 Þ exp g g az
Further simplification can be made by assuming a
constant effective unit weight, g e, in Eq. (12), i.e.,
g e ¼ ðs  w Þg. It leads to
df
¼ g g aðf  fr Þ ð43Þ
dz
By solving Eq. (43), the depth-dependent porosity can be
obtained as
 
fðzÞ ¼ fr þ ðf0  fr Þ exp g g az ð44Þ
It is similar to the modified Athy’s law as shown in
Eq. (7). If zero residual porosity is considered in Eq. (44),
the widely used empirical exponential function of depth-
dependent permeability can be derived as follows:

kðzÞ ¼ k0 exp ng g az ð45Þ
In Wang et al. (2009), the exponential function of
depth-dependent porosity had also been derived by
assuming a constant effective unit weight and a zero
residual porosity. However, the solution of the depth-
dependent permeability in Wang et al. (2009), which was
obtained by the Kozeny-Carman model, is different from
either Eq. (42) or Eq. (45). Instead, if zero residual
porosity is assumed in Eq. (17a), which is also obtained
DOI 10.1007/s10040-010-0575-3
846
by the Kozeny-Carman model, then Eq. (17a) can be
simplified as
 
exp 2g g az
kðzÞ ¼ k0   ð46Þ
f0 þ ð1  f0 Þ exp g g az
As a typical example, the permeability-depth trend of
the Pierre Shale is revisited. The data from Neuzil (1986)
with a maximum depth of about 4,500 m is analyzed. The
initial porosity of the shale approximates f0 =0.4 accord-
ing to its deformation characteristics (Neuzil 1993). It is
difficult to determine an accurate n value for the shale if
Eq. (17b) is applied. In this presentation, n=4 is chosen
following Fig. 1a to make an agreement between the
results of Eqs. (17a) and (17b). In this situation, the two
equations lead to the same result. The value of g gα(1 + fr)
is identified by a trial-and-error method to obtain a best
match between the estimation and the observation data. As
shown in Fig. 3, the systematic decrease of permeability
of the Pierre Shale is well characterized by curves A and
B with the initial permeability varying from 1.0×10−4
millidarcies (mD) to 2.0×10−2 mD. The confidence of
permeability at a depth between curves A and B is 92.9%.
An average trend is represented by curve C, which
indicates that the residual permeability is 1.3×10−6 mD
on average. Note that curves A, B and C have different
values of fr. There are uncertainties if both the value of
g gα(1 + fr) and the value of n are unknown for the Pierre
Shale. It is found that for any specific n value between 1
and 5, one can search a corresponding value of g gα(1 + fr)
to approximately satisfy the observation. The reason is
that the permeability-depth trend given by Eq. (17b) is a
coupling of the effects of n and g gα(1 + fr). However, this
Permeability (mD)
7 6 5 4 3 2
10 10 10 10 10 10
Test methods
uncertainty can not diminish the advantage of the semi-
empirical equations in showing a similar pattern of
systematic nonlinear decrease in permeability with depth
as observed in the Pierre Shale.
Comparatively, the permeability-depth trend estimated
by using Eqs. (42) and (46), i.e., with zero residual
porosity, fails to approach a non-zero residual perme-
ability as represented by curve D in Fig. 3. It shows a too
rapid decrease below the reference depth (450 m) defined
as the reciprocal of g gα(1 + fr). Curve E in Fig. 3
calculated using Eq. (45) has even more serious problem.
It approximately coincides with curve C only in the
extremely shallow part, where the change in unit weight is
negligible.
Comparison of equations for fractured media
The empirically exponential function in describing
decrease in permeability with depth for fractured rocks,
which is widely used in the literature (Louis 1974; Zhang
and Franklin 1993), can be interpreted as a special case of
the new equation in this study. In Eq. (33), if the depth is
significantly less than the reference depth and the residual
aperture is ignored, there is
d ln T 3 3
¼   ; z << zc ð47Þ
dz zc þ z zc
It leads to
T ðzÞ  T0 expð3z=zc Þ; z << zc ð48Þ
Consequently, the exponential equation is an approximation
for relatively shallow buried rock masses.
In Wei et al. (1995), hyperbolic equations have been
1
proposed to describe the depth-dependent hydraulic
10 aperture and permeability for a fractured rock mass as
10 follows:

Consolidation b z
¼1 ð49Þ
A þ Bz
Steady Flow
Transient Flow
b0
2
10
Depth (m)

3
k z
¼ 1 ð50Þ
103 k0 A þ Bz
Estimation Results

A B
where A and B are two constants. Oda (1986) derived
C D
similar equations with B being equal to 1. One can see the
E
104 relationship between Eqs. (48) and (36) if A and B are
Fig. 3 Estimation of depth-dependent permeability of the Pierre defined as
Shale (data from Neuzil 1986). The hydraulic conductivity is trans-
formed into the permeability with v/g=10−7 m·s according to a normal
zc 1
condition. Measured data were obtained from three types of tests A¼ ;B¼ ð51Þ
(Neuzil 1986). Three estimation results with Eq. (17b) are presented as 1  ðbr =b0 Þ 1  ðbr =b0 Þ
A: fr =0.112, k0 =1.0 × 10−4 mD, g gα(1 + fr)=0.0033 m−1; B: fr =
0.043, k0 =2.0 × 10−2 mD, g gα(1 + fr)=0.0014 m−1; C: fr =0.073, k0 =
1.3 × 10−3 mD, g gα(1 + fr)=0.0022 m−1. The next two estimation
With these definitions, Eq. (36) can be rewritten as
results with k0 =1.3 × 10−3 mD and g gα=0.0022 m−1 are presented as D Eq. (48). Wei et al. (1995) estimated the data from Snow
from Eq. (42) and E from Eq. (45), respectively (1968a) and A=58.0 m and B=1.02 were obtained. This B

Hydrogeology Journal (2010) 18: 839–850 DOI 10.1007/s10040-010-0575-3


value indicates that br is about 2.0% of b0 and zc is
56.86 m in the study area of Snow (1968a). Wei et al.
(1995) declared that the two constants can be fixed and
applied to any rock masses.
In Eq. (39), which characterizes the depth-dependent
permeability for fractured rock masses, fracture density is
a pre-determined factor. It has been reported that disconti-
nuity frequency would decrease with depth (Snow 1968b;
Carlsson et al. 1983; Martin and Christiansson 2009; Jiang
et al. 2009b). A high density of fractures near surface is
generally caused by the effect of weathering and unload-
ing. In this study, the data of granite at Stripa, Sweden, are
selected for discussion. Decrease in fracture frequency
with depth for the granite can be identified based on the
data from four boreholes at Stripa (Carlsson et al. 1983) as
shown in Fig. 4. However, a fractured zone exists 800–
900 m below surface and results in an abnormally high
fracture frequency. The decreasing trend of fracture
frequency without the disturbed segment at 700–1,000 m
depth can be approximated by
l=l0 ¼ 0:07 þ 0:93 expð0:0028zÞ
where l0 is 5.6 m−1. This approximate trend is applied in
this study to analyze the decrease in permeability with
depth at Stripa. Wei et al. (1995) analyzed this depth-
dependent permeability by using Eq. (50) without consid-
ering the fracture frequency. As previously mentioned, B=
1.02 indicates that br/b0 =0.02. However, by considering
the decrease of fracture frequency as described with
Eq. (51), different results of the permeability trend can
be obtained by using the new equation, Eq. (39). It is
Fracture frequency (m 1)
0 2 4 6 8 10
0 conditions assumed in the models would probably be false
200
Borehole data
400
Approximate trend
600
Depth (m)
800
Fractured zone
1000
1200
1400
Fig. 4 The average fracture frequency versus depth at Stripa,
Sweden (data from Carlsson et al. 1983)
Hydrogeology Journal (2010) 18: 839–850
847
found that br/b0 =0.08 satisfies the average permeability
data from Carlsson et al. (1983) best while zc is fixed at
56.86 m. As shown in Fig. 5, most of the data can be
included between two curves of k0 =4 mD and k0 =25 mD.
For fractures in granite, the residual aperture obtained by
Witherspoon et al. (1980) is 3.2–13.1 μm which is 3–12%
of the initial aperture. Accordingly, br/b0 =0.02 seems too
small and br/b0 =0.08 is more confident. However, more
work is needed in study of the in situ characteristics of
fractures at Stripa to check the efficiency of the alternative
equations. Figure 5 also shows that in the shallow part
(less than 500 m), the curve by Wei et al. (1995) and the
curve generated using Eq. (39) coincides with each other.
Remarks on limitations
The new semi-empirical equations of the depth-dependent
permeability, Eqs. (17a) and (17b) for porous media, and
Eq. (39) for fractured media, are constrained by the
simplifications in setup of the models and limited by the
efficiency of the adopted formulas in describing the hydro-
ð52Þ mechanical coupling processes. They are new approxima-
tions of the features that control the variation in permeability
with depth.
Firstly, the equations give unique systematic depth-
dependent permeability due to hydro-mechanical coupling
for a single porous medium and fractured medium,
without consideration of the change in lithology. They
may well satisfy the measured permeability at a site where
deep buried sediments or rocks are similar to that near
surface. However, different parameters are required if the
lithology of the medium significantly changes with depth.
Faults or fractured zones developed by tectonic move-
ments can also cause nonsystematic change of the
permeability for the same fractured rock mass.
The lithostatic stress and hydrostatic fluid pressure
if abnormal tectonic stress or fluid pressure is significant.
Abnormal high or low fluid pressure can be induced by
Permeability (mD)
_4 _3 _2 _1
10 10 10 10 1 101 102
10
c = 56.86 m
br /b0=0.08 k0 =4 mD
102
Depth (m)
k0 =10 mD
Carlsson et al.(1983)
k0 =25 mD 103
Wei et al.(1995)
Fig. 5 Change of permeability with depth at Stripa, Sweden (data
from Carlsson et al. 1983). The hydraulic conductivity is trans-
formed into the permeability with v/g=10−7 m·s according to a
normal condition
DOI 10.1007/s10040-010-0575-3
848
deposition or erosion in a sedimentary basin (Jiao and
Zheng 1998). In this situation, additional trends of
permeability change with depth over the systematic
permeability-depth relationship are needed. Temporal
variations in total stress and fluid pressure can also occur
in a sedimentary basin that will lead to time-dependent
change in permeability with depth. It is not handled in the
new equations in the current paper. However, for a
relatively short period during a geological process, this
time-dependent effect can be generally ignored.
Equations (17a) and (17b) are based on the Kozeny-
Carman model and power-law model, respectively, in
describing the permeability-porosity relationship. In deri-
vation of the equations, the specific surface area of the
particles, S, and the exponent, n, are assumed to be
constants. It is possible that change of these items with
depth can also influence the permeability-depth trend.
Generally, the compressibility of the solid grains in a
porous medium is smaller than that of the framework. As
a result, change of specific surface area would not be a
serious problem. For unconsolidated fine grained sediments,
it is possible that the microstructure of the pore such as its
connectivity, space tortuosity and the amount of dead-end
pores (non-effective porosity), will significantly depend on
the stress condition and affect the depth-dependent perme-
ability. However, few theoretical or empirical formulas have
been proposed that account for this process. This is a topic
that deserves further investigation.
In particular, Eqs. (39) and (40) satisfy an individual
fracture set with similar dip angle and mechanical
properties. They are problematic while the reference
depth, zc, and the relative residual aperture, br/b0, differ
for different groups of fractures. However, if it is
necessary, the permeability tensor can be produced by a
combination of the individual fracture sets obeying
Eq. (39). Identification of different parameters for the
fracture sets is difficult with the normal hydraulic test
method in boreholes. In this situation, the estimated zc and
br/b0, within a single equation, represent average behavior
of the rock fractures, which dominate the flow in a
hydraulic test. In Eq. (30), g h is independent of the dip
angle when M=1. This is generally approximated under
lithostatic conditions and encourages the use of Eq. (39) in
describing the average permeability-depth trend of frac-
tures with variable direction but similar mechanical
properties.
The semi-empirical equations are available only in the
surficial environment where permeability loss is domi-
nated by gravitational compaction and the effect of
aquathermal processes such as chemical cementation, is
insignificant. In this presentation, the new permeability-
depth trend equations show their efficiency for a porous
medium with depth less than 4,500 m (Fig. 3) and for a
fractured medium with depth less than 2,500 m (Fig. 5).
Manning and Ingebritsen (1999) reports the permeability
of the continental crust with a maximum depth of 30 km
in which the (log-permeability)-(log-depth) equation
(logk=−14–3.2logz) is applied. Due to complexity in rock
types and mixing of porous and fractured media as well as
Hydrogeology Journal (2010) 18: 839–850
a significant change of tectonic and geothermal conditions
in this large scale of depth, it is hard to conclude that this
log-log trend can well represent the permeability-depth
trend for a porous medium or a fractured rock in near
surface conditions. In fact, the Manning and Ingebritsen
(1999) equation fails to match the observations shown in
Figs. 3 and 5. However, one can see an approximate log-
log trend in a certain depth range with the semi-empirical
equations reported here, as characterized by the linear part
of the curves in Fig. 3 (depth range: 200–1,000 m) and
Fig. 5 (depth range: 100–1,000 m).
Conclusions
Nonlinear decrease in permeability with depth is a general
trend in both porous and fractured media. In the near
surface zone where groundwater movement is active, it is
dominated by the hydro-mechanical coupling of deformable
media with increasing stress under gravity loading. New
semi-empirical equations that express the systematic depth-
dependent permeability of a porous/fractured medium are
presented in this study.
Instead of using empirical equations based on statistical
analysis, by considering the well-defined relationships
among permeability, porosity, and effective stress under
the lithostatic condition, a semi-empirical model is
proposed to describe the unique change in permeability
with depth for a porous medium. A new equation of
depth-dependent permeability is derived as well as a new
equation of depth-dependent porosity. The empirical
exponential function and the equation developed by
Connolly and Podladchikov (2000) can be considered as
specially simplified cases of the new equation. In
interpreting the permeability trends of the Pierre Shale
(Neuzil 1986), with maximum depth approximating
4,500 m, the new equation performs better than the
previous equations.
For fractured rock, a model of depth-dependent trans-
missivity of a fracture is presented, which considers the
cubic law, the closure of the fracture aperture under
the lithostatic condition. A widely accepted formula for
the relationship between aperture and normal effective
stress is applied to handle the deformation behavior of the
fracture. A closed-form semi-analytical solution of the
transmissivity-depth relationship for a fracture is derived
as well as the solution of depth-dependent aperture. The
solution is combined with the consideration of fracture
frequency to produce the equation of systematic depth-
dependent permeability for a fractured medium. The
empirical exponential function and the equation developed
by Wei et al. (1995) and Oda (1986) can be considered as
specially simplified cases of the new equation. Comparable
application results of the equations are presented in
interpreting the permeability trends of the granite at Stripa,
Sweden, with a deepest depth of approximately 2,500 m.
Acknowledgements This research is financially supported by the
Yalongjiang River Joint Fund established by the National Natural
DOI 10.1007/s10040-010-0575-3

Science Foundation of China and the Ertan Hydropower Develop-
ment Company (Grant No. 50639090). The research is also partially
supported by the Program of Outstanding Overseas Chinese Young
Scholars established by the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (Grant No. 40528003). We appreciate valuable comments
from Dr. D. Hart and two anonymous reviewers as well as constructive
suggestions from the editors, Dr. J. Bahr and Dr. J. Jiao.
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