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Mesophilic Composting of Arctic Char Manure

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Compost Science & Utilization, (2005), Vol. 13, No. 1, 34-42

Mesophilic Composting of Arctic Char Manure

Paul R. Adler*1 and Lawrence J. Sikora2
1. National Center for Cool and Cold Water Aquaculture,
United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Kearneysville, West Virginia
2. Animal Manure and By-products Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural
Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland

Manure in coldwater aquaculture production systems is typically settled in quiescent zones created with-
in raceways to concentrate it prior to being pumped to storage in off-line settling basins. As the water pass-
es through the off-line settling basins, the solids settle out and the excess water is discharged to surface
water. Since the basins are not frequently emptied, the organic solids mineralize and nutrients flow out of
the basins with the surface water discharge. A system was tested to remove solids from settling basins fre-
quently and treat by mesophilic composting. Two carbon (C) sources (wheat straw or oak sawdust) were
evaluated. Manure was applied to beds of carbon sources at a rate of about 1cm of arctic char manure (8%
solids) every 10 days using a vacuum tank spreader modified for side discharge over the plots. The open
and porous structure of wheat straw resulted in several advantages over the oak sawdust; there was not
runoff during application even during freezing winter temperatures when the oak sawdust compost was
frozen solid, aerobic conditions were maintained with lower amounts of C, and decomposition rates were
higher resulting in less time needed to reach stability (about 90d vs. 140d). Inorganic nitrogen (N) in-
creased as the organic matter decomposed with either C source. Mineralization and nitrification rates were
higher with wheat straw. Water-extractable P decreased as the organic matter from both C sources de-
composed. Land requirements are about 0.001 ha to compost the manure for each 1 Mg Arctic char pro-
duced annually, but could be significantly higher for the wheat straw since experimental loading rates
were limited by the reduced capacity of the oak sawdust compost. A layered mesophilic compost system
may be a viable manure management system to store and treat manure and replace long-term storage in
off-line settling basins for fish farmers. In this system, solids would continue to be settled in the off-line
settling basins but pumped onto straw nearby for storage and stabilization on land thereby minimizing
discharge of nutrients to surface water.

Introduction anaerobic (anaerobic digesters, lagoons, and wet-

The goals of solids treatment systems in aquacul-
ture and animal production, in general, are volume re-
duction (e.g. thickening and dewatering) and stabi-
lization. Stabilization of solids reduces pathogens
(both human and animal) and eliminates offensive
odors and the potential for putrefaction (Metcalf and
Eddy 1991). Stabilization achieves these objectives by
biological reduction or chemical oxidation of volatile
solids, addition of chemicals to make solids unsuitable
for survival of microorganisms, or heat disinfection or
sterilization of the solids. Municipal biosolids treat-
ment and management systems are typically capital
intensive, whereas on farms, they are more land ex-
tensive, relying more on natural ecological processes
to achieve the desired goals.
There are a number of natural biosolids treatment
and management systems currently in use; some are
lands) and others are aerobic (vermicomposting, com-
posting, and land application) processing systems
(Metcalf and Eddy 1991; Reed et al. 1995). Anaerobic
storage of manure in settling basins has been the stan-
dard practice for liquid animal manure. However, the
anaerobic storage of manure produces offensive odors
and air pollutants and reduces the organic matter and
nutrient content of manure. Land application and
composting are the most common aerobic organic
solids treatment systems. Land application of solids at
agronomic rates has beneficial use (Millner et al. 1998).
The value of land-applied solids is greatly reduced by
anaerobic storage prior to land application. Although
land application of manure has a long history of being
an effective and practical technology, since it cannot
occur year round, anaerobic storage when it is liquid
manure, is a necessary component of the whole sys-
tem. Composting can be a practical system alternative

*Current address: USDA-ARS, Building 3702, Curtin Road, University Park, PA 16802-3702.

34 Compost Science & Utilization Winter 2005

4 Adler 34-42 3/9/05 1:43 PM Page 35
Mesophilic Composting of Arctic Char Manure
to storage in a lagoon and gives the farmer more flex-
ibility in time of application. The compost systems
most likely to be used on farms are windrows and aer-
ated piles (Rynk 1992).
Composting manure typically requires the addi-
tion of a carbon source either to meet microbial
process needs or reduce the moisture content of the
mixture to help maintain aerobic conditions. Com-
posting is an aerobic process and in order to compost
manures with low solids content, materials must be
added to absorb the liquid and provide sufficient
porosity to allow gas exchange. Composting of
biosolids requires addition of carbon sources to re-
duce the moisture content from 80 to 60% (Willson et
al. 1980). Fish manure has even higher moisture con-
tent (2-10% solids after initial primary treatment,
Chen 1998; Summerfelt 1999) requiring a greater
amount of carbon source to achieve porosity required
for aerobic decomposition with thermophilic com-
posting. Composting methods also recommend that
the C:N ratio of mixtures be adjusted to 25:1 or higher
to stimulate decomposition and preserve N in the sys-
tem. Carbon sources are abundant and selection is
based on cost and availability (Rynk 1992).
Like all decomposition processes, heat is generat-
ed during composting. This heat can be harnessed to
kill human, plant, or animal pathogens by making
piles large enough to self insulate and raise the tem-
perature to thermophilic levels. However, large com-
post piles need to be aerated either by turning the ma-
terial like in windrow systems or injecting air as used
in aerated piles to prevent them from becoming anaer-
obic. Aerobic decomposition under ambient tempera-
ture can be a less resource intense management alter-
native to thermophilic composting.
Mesophilic temperatures (10-40ºC) and aerobic
conditions can be maintained during decomposition
without mechanically mixing or injecting air, as is nec-
essary with thermophilic composting. These condi-
tions can be maintained by either ensuring that the
surface area to mass ratio is large enough so that heat
can be dissipated rapidly or the highly reactive mate-
rial is close enough to the surface so passive gas ex-
change can meet the high oxygen requirements of the
decomposing material. As the material decomposes
and becomes more stable, it has a lower requirement
for oxygen and can be buried because the reduced
passive gas exchange with depth is sufficient to meet
the lower needs of the more stable material.
Manure in coldwater aquaculture production sys-
tems is typically settled in quiescent zones created
within raceways to concentrate it prior to being
pumped to storage in off-line settling basins (IDEQ
1996). As the water passes through the off-line settling
Compost Science & Utilization
basins, the solids settle out and the excess water is dis-
charged to surface water. Since the basins are not fre-
quently emptied, the organic solids mineralize and
nutrients flow out of the basins with the surface water
discharge. Although most P is initially associated with
the solids (Heinen et al. 1996), it has been shown that
significant amounts of P are lost in this system with
the P content of rainbow trout manure collected in the
raceway decreasing by 50% while stored in the off-line
settling basin (IDEQ 1996). Reducing the loss of P from
solids can significantly reduce the amount of P lost to
the water environment. Decreasing the loss of P from
the solids could be achieved by reducing the amount
of time they are stored in the water within the off-line
settling basins. Our objective was to develop the pro-
tocol for a land-based aquaculture solids management
system that minimizes leaching of P to the surface wa-
ter environment by storing solids on land rather than
in water in off-line settling basins. In this system,
solids would continue to be settled in the off-line set-
tling basins but pumped onto straw (or another car-
bon source) nearby for storage and treatment. A lay-
ered mesophilic compost system was developed to
provide fish farmers with an alternative to expensive
solids removal technology; it uses resources and
equipment that are readily available and fit within
current management operations.
Materials and Methods
A farm-scale study was conducted to design a lay-
ered mesophilic composting system and to determine
the effect of carbon source on the operating parame-
ters. Field plots (about 13.4m2, 3.66m x 3.66m) were es-
tablished at The Conservation Fund’s Freshwater In-
stitute in Shepherdstown, West Virginia with two
carbon sources (wheat straw or oak sawdust) and three
replicates. Plots were laid out in a straight line to facil-
itate manure application with treatments randomly
aligned in blocks resulting in a randomized complete
block statistical design. A 15 cm layer of course wood
chips was used as a base layer to facilitate passive oxy-
gen transfer from the base and drainage. Arctic char
(Salvelinus alpinus) manure was applied to a layer of ei-
ther wheat straw or oak sawdust at a loading rate of
about 1cm (8% solids) approximately every 10 days us-
ing a vacuum tank spreader modified for side dis-
charge over the plots. The rate of application was de-
termined by dividing the total volume of manure
applied by the total area covered during application.
Prior to calculating the loading rate by this method, the
application profile was characterized over the length
and width of the experimental plots. Tubs (0.277 m2)
were placed between each adjacent plot in the center
Winter 2005 35
4 Adler 34-42 3/9/05 1:43 PM Page 36
Paul R. Adler and Lawrence J. Sikora
along the length of the study area and side-by-side
across the width between the two center plots. After
application, the amount and percent solids was deter-
mined in each tub. From this initial work, it was deter-
mined that the loading rate was relatively uniform be-
tween plots (cv = 17.7%) and that the center of the plots
received more and the rate decreased with increasing
distance from the center towards the plot edges. Car-
bon was added after each application at an initial rate
to maintain a C:N ratio of about 25. After the first ap-
plication, it was determined that the carbon rate for
wheat straw could be cut in half due to its very low
density nature compared to the oak sawdust, leading
to a C:N ratio of about 16. The oak sawdust was ap-
plied at a rate to maintain a C:N ratio of about 25
throughout the study.
Oxygen within the most active zone of the compost
was measured, using an Oxor® II portable oxygen ana-
lyzer (Bacharach, Inc. New Kensington, Pennsylvania),
in four quadrants in each plot before the manure was
applied on the day of application, the next two days af-
ter application, and then periodically until the oxygen
content recovered. The most active zone of the compost
was where there was the greatest chance of anaerobic
conditions being present; below and above this zone,
oxygen levels were higher. The most active zone was the
most sensitive zone in the compost to measure to deter-
mine if the loading rate was appropriate and ensure the
system was not being overloaded. The temperature was
measured continuously in each plot using a HOBO® H8
Outdoor/Industrial, 4-Channel External Logger with
TMCx-HA series temperature sensors (Onset Computer
Corporation, Bourne, Massachusetts). The temperature
sensors were placed in the center of the lowest layer in
each plot; the ambient temperature sensor was placed
under a solar radiation shield. Precipitation at the site
was measured using a nonrecording gauge.
Samples were taken from layers that represented
three stages of compost age. Manure and carbon were
applied in alternating layers approximately every 10
days. At the completion of the study, the surface layer
represented “time zero” with age of compost increasing
with depth. The top layer extended from 0-63 days, the
middle layer from 63-118 days, and the bottom layer
from 118-167 days. To delineate the three layers, at 49
and 104 days after the first application, which corre-
spond to the last days when amendments were added
to the oldest and second oldest layer, respectively, a
plastic ribbon was placed on the surface in the center of
the plots. At 167 days after the initial application began,
a transect was cut through the center of each plot with
a shovel and two composite samples from each of the
three layer depths were taken. The layers represent 0-
63, 63-118, and 118-167 days after application. Compost
36 Compost Science & Utilization
stability was determined using the Dewar self-heating
test. The Dewar self-heating test (Niese 1963; Brinton et
al. 1995) was performed in 2-L insulated Dewar flasks.
Temperatures of mixtures were recorded using mini-
mum-maximum thermometers. The percent ash and
carbon, and the amount of nitrogen, ammonium, ni-
trate, and phosphorus were determined. The samples
were dried at 105°C to a constant weight, ground
through a 20-mesh (0.85 mm) screen in a Wiley mill.
The percent ash was determined by heating the sam-
ples at 550°C for 24h (APHA 1992 Method 2540G). The
percent carbon was calculated from the percent ash
[(100-%ash)/1.8] (Rynk 1992). Total N was determined
with a FP-428 LECO nitrogen determinator (TMECC
4.02-D) (LECO Corporation, St. Joseph, Michigan). To-
tal P was determined by digesting the samples with
HClO4 (Adler 1995) followed by measurement of the P
concentration (Murphy and Riley 1962). Duplicate sam-
ples were taken and stored frozen (-20°C) for subse-
quent analysis of ammonium, nitrate, and water-ex-
tractable P. Ammonium and nitrate were extracted by
shaking 2.5 g of compost with 25 ml of 2M KCl for 1h in
50 ml graduated conical-bottom polypropylene cen-
trifuge tubes on an end-over-end shaker, centrifuged
(3570xG for 15 min), and a subsample of supernatant
was analyzed (Mulvaney 1996). Water-extractable P
was determined by shaking 1 g of compost with 25 ml
of double deionized water in 50 ml graduated conical-
bottom polypropylene centrifuge tubes for 1h (Kuo
1996) on an end-over-end shaker, centrifuged (3570xG
for 15 min), and a subsample of supernatant was ana-
lyzed (Murphy and Riley 1962). The pH was deter-
mined on moist samples by mixing equal volumes of
double deionized water and sample (APHA 1992
Method 4500-H+).
Data were analyzed using the ANOVA procedure
for a split plot design in SAS (SAS Institute 1999) with
carbon source as the main plot and compost age
(depth within pile) as the subplot. The interaction of
carbon source and compost age was significant for all
dependent variables and their means were separated
by Tuky’s HSD (P ≤ 0.05).
Results and Discussion
The concentration of ash, C, N, and P within Arc-
tic char manure, oak sawdust, and wheat straw are
given in Table 1. The ash, N, and P content of arctic
char manure was higher than in either carbon source.
In comparing the carbon sources, wheat straw had
higher ash, N, and P content than oak sawdust. The
average loading rate of Arctic char manure, oak saw-
dust, and wheat straw and the ash, C, N, and P con-
tained in them over the experiment are given in Table
Winter 2005
4 Adler 34-42 3/9/05 1:43 PM Page 37

Mesophilic Composting of Arctic Char Manure

2. At these loading rates, about 0.001 ha of land As organic matter decomposes, it becomes more
would be required to compost the manure for each 1 stable and less susceptible to change. The Dewar self-
Mg Arctic char produced annually (IDEQ 1996). The heating test was used to determine compost stability. It
application rate of wheat straw was about 30% lower records the reheating capacity of composts placed in an
than for oak sawdust. As described earlier, the load- insulated container at optimal moisture. The less stable
ing rate of wheat straw was reduced in half from the compost is, the greater the temperature will rise over
initial rate needed to give a C:N ratio of about 25. The the five-day incubation period. According to Brinton et
concentration of ash, C, N, P and the C:N ratio in the al. (1995), composts that rise 10°C or less above starting
initial compost mixture averaged over the three time temperatures are classified as stable. The oak sawdust
periods is presented in Table 3. compost mixture did not reach this stable stage until
some time during the 118-167 day period of composting
TABLE 1. (Table 4). However, the wheat straw compost mixture
Average concentration of ash, carbon, nitrogen, and reached stability during the 63-118 day period in about
phosphorus in the initial compost components. 50 d less time than the oak sawdust. The ash content in-
Values are means ± SD. creased and percent carbon decreased with age (Table
Compost Ash C N P 5); both are expected to occur as organic matter decom-
Components (%) (%) (%) (%) poses. Although both the oak sawdust and wheat straw
Arctic char manure 22.2±9.6 43.2±5.3 6.64±1.25 2.04±0.61 initially had similar % carbon, the rate of loss of carbon
Oak sawdust 1.74±0.24 54.6±0.1 0.361±0.117 0.006±0.005 was greater in the wheat straw compost having signifi-
Wheat straw 5.13±1.63 52.7±0.9 0.834±0.174 0.106±0.071 cantly lower % carbon at the end, indicating a more
rapid rate of decomposition. These data are consistent
with the observation that the wheat straw compost sta-
TABLE 2. bilized more rapidly than the oak sawdust compost.
Average loading rates of ash, carbon, nitrogen, and Oxygen concentration was measured in each of
phosphorus from compost components applied about the plots over time between manure applications. The
every 10 days. Values are means ± SD. wheat straw compost was more aerobic than the oak
Application sawdust compost (Figure 1). Oxygen levels recovered
Compost Ratex Ash C N P after less than five days; however oxygen dropped to
Components (kg/m2) (g/m2) (g/m2) (g/m2) (g/m2) lower levels and recovered to lower levels in oak saw-
Arctic char manure 1.01±0.65 236±210 429±281 65.3±44.0 21.07±15.76 dust. Since there were only small decreases in oxygen
Oak sawdust 1.73±0.45 30±8 943±246 6.2±1.6 0.11±0.03
Wheat straw 1.22±0.75 63±39 644±398 10.2±6.3 1.29±0.80
TABLE 4.
x
Expressed on a dry weight basis. Determination of compost stability using the Dewar self-
heating test. Compost mixture contained arctic char
manure and either oak sawdust or wheat straw. Layers
TABLE 3. represent averages of cumulative 10-day additions over
Average concentration of ash, carbon, nitrogen, and stated period after day of application.
phosphorus in initial compost mixture of arctic char
Compost
manure and either oak sawdust or wheat straw. Layers Layer Age Temperature (°C)
represent averages of cumulative 10-day additions over (Days)x Ambient Maximum Differencey
stated period. Values are means ± SD.
Oak sawdust
Compost
0-63 23 43.7az 20.7a
Layer Age Ash C N P
(Days) (g/kg) (g/kg) (g/kg) C:N (g/kg) 63-118 23 40.0a 17.0a
118-167 23 28.3b 5.3b
Oak sawdust
0-63 61±14 522±8 18.9±3.4 28.7±6.7 4.1±1.5 Wheat straw
63-118 106±61 496±34 34.1±10.4 16.3±7.5 8.4±2.9 0-63 23 38.9a 15.9a
118-167 114±80 492±45 23.8±9.9 23.3±8.4 9.5±3.4 63-118 23 29.7b 6.7b
Average 90±57 506±32 24.8±9.9 23.4±8.7 7.0±3.5 118-167 23 23.8b 0.8b
x
Composite samples taken from zones of increasing depth and age within
Wheat straw y
the compost. The difference between the starting ambient temperature and
0-63 102±16 499±9 28.6±3.8 17.8±3.0 6.6±2.1 the maximum temperature are an indication of the stability level of the
compost: very stable, well-aged compost (0-10°C), moderately stable,
63-118 144±70 475±39 44.3±10.9 11.4±3.8 11.1±2.9
curing compost (10-20°C), material still decomposing, active compost (20-
118-167 132±46 482±25 30.2±11.0 18.3±8.3 11.6±5.7 30°C), very unstable, young or very active compost (30-40°C), fresh, raw
z
Average 123±47 487±26 33.7±10.8 16.1±5.8 9.4±4.2 compost, just mixed ingredients (40-50°C) (Brinton et al. 1995). Least
square means were separated by Tuky’s HSD (P ≤ 0.05).

Compost Science & Utilization Winter 2005 37

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Paul R. Adler and Lawrence J. Sikora

TABLE 5.
Ratios of ash, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in
compost mixture of arctic char manure and either oak
sawdust or wheat straw as it stabilized over time. Layers

Temperature (°C)
represent averages of cumulative 10-day additions over
stated period.
Compost
Layer Age Ash C C/Ash
(Days)x pH (%) (%) (%) C:N C:P N:P

Oak sawdust
0-63 7.91ay 10.1f 50.0a 501a 16.1a 128.3a 7.98a
63-118 7.63ab 13.6d 48.0c 359c 16.7a 68.0b 4.21bc
118-167 6.17c 31.8b 37.9e 121d 10.1c 52.4c 5.22b Time (days)
Wheat straw FIGURE 2. Temperature profile within the compost layers and
0-63 8.04a 12.3e 48.8b 407b 14.2b 41.7c 3.08d surrounding environment over a 14-day period following the ap-
63-118 7.02bc 30.5c 38.6d 127d 13.4b 26.4d 2.01e plication of arctic char manure. The application cycle varied, but
118-167 6.25c 46.4a 29.8f 65e 7.6d 25.6d 3.45cd averaged 10 days over the entire experiment.
x
Composite samples taken from zones of increasing depth and age within
y
the compost. Least square means were separated by Tuky’s HSD (P ≤ 0.05).
temperature because the greatest biological activity
occurs the first two weeks and then decreases. The
surface to mass ratio decreases over time as the pile
height increases, however, by the time significant
mass is present, the lower layers have low biological
activity and generate little heat. At the end of the ex-
periment (167 days and 17 applications), the depth of
Oxygen (%)

the compost pile was 41.9±4.0cm (oak sawdust) and

Time (days)
FIGURE 1. Oxygen levels within the compost layers over a 14-day
period following the application of arctic char manure to wheat
straw or oak sawdust. The application cycle varied, but averaged
10 days over the entire experiment. Day 0 is the oxygen level just
prior to manure application. Vertical bars denote ± SD (n = 12).
levels in wheat straw after manure application, load-
ing rates could have been significantly higher com-
pared to oak sawdust. Particle size of wheat straw was
greater allowing higher levels of gas exchange and
therefore oxygen to meet the higher demands in the
wheat straw compost due to the higher rate of decom-
position. In general, grass has more labile carbon than
trees leading to increased rates of decomposition as
was observed in this study.
There were greater ambient temperature fluctua-
tions, than within the compost (Figure 2). The oak
sawdust compost was generally warmer than the
wheat straw, and both were warmer than ambient, but
generally stayed between 15-25°C. The compost pile is
not expected to heat up significantly above ambient
83.8±5.0cm (wheat straw).
The structure of carbon source affected both the
potential for runoff and the oxygen content. The
wheat straw’s open structure made it possible for it to
absorb liquid manure without runoff during both the
summer and winter season. The particle size of the
oak sawdust, however, was too fine and the surface
layer would crust over between applications thereby
inhibiting infiltration, and runoff often resulted dur-
ing application. If sawdusts were used, some mechan-
ical breakup of the surface would be required so that
the liquid would be readily absorbed. Higher rates of
carbon would not have prevented the sealing of the
surface from occurring. During the winter, the saw-
dust was frozen solid and even less permeable to infil-
tration, whereas the structure of wheat straw contin-
ued to be open enough to accept application even
during freezing temperatures. Higher oxygen content
was maintained in the wheat straw compost through-
out the study.
Carbon source affected the form and quantity of N
in the compost. The total percent N was higher in the
most stable compost (Table 6), an observation consis-
tent with conservation of N, but not verified with a N
mass balance. Losses of N would be expected to be
lower in a mesophilic compost system compared to a
thermophilic compost system because the volatile loss
of N during composting increases with temperature

38 Compost Science & Utilization Winter 2005

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Mesophilic Composting of Arctic Char Manure

(Kuroda et al. 1996) and air flow (Hong et al. 1998; El-
well et al. 2002). Nitrogen can be lost as ammonia
(Hong et al. 1998; Elwell et al. 2002) and nitrous oxide
(Czepiel et al. 1996; Hao et al. 2001), a greenhouse gas.
However, the amount of N lost as nitrous oxide, is a
small fraction of the total N lost (Kuroda et al. 1996; He
et al. 2001). Loss of N has been observed to be highly
and negatively correlated with C loss (Barrington et al.
2002); in this study the loss appeared to be similar be-
tween the two carbon sources. Leaching losses of N
during composting have been measured (Eghball et al.
1997; Zebarth et al. 1999; Sommer 2001), and may have
been a source of possible loss in this study. However
>80% of N lost in these studies was due to ammonia
volatilization (Eghball et al. 1997; Sommer 2001).
Mineralization and nitrification rates were higher
with wheat straw as indicated by the higher levels of
both ammonium and nitrate probably due to the high-
er rates of decomposition. Mineralization and nitrifi-
cation generate acidity thereby decreasing compost
pH as observed in this study (Table 5). The quantity of
NH -N remained constant during composting with
4
oak sawdust (Table 6), whereas it increased about
600% with the wheat straw compost ending up about
50% higher than the oak sawdust. The quantity of
NO3-N increased with both C sources, but was about
three times higher with wheat straw compost. High
nitrate content of the compost would suggest that the
compost is a readily available form of N to crops. The
NH4/NO3 ratio decreased in both the oak sawdust
and wheat straw compost; a decreasing NH4/NO3 ra-
tio is considered another indicator of compost stabili-
ty (Chefetz et al. 1996).
The bottom layer is considered stable by both the
Dewar self-heating test and the increase in nitrate for-
mation that took place. It appears that compost made
from arctic char manure would need to stand for at
least 63 days before it is considered stable. The rate of
decomposition varies based on a number of factors re-
lated to the environment, such as aeration, tempera-
ture, and moisture, and those that relate to the com-
position of the starting materials like composition of
the carbon (Komilis and Ham 2000) and availability of
limiting nutrients. Organic matter quality decreases as
C:N ratio, lignin, and polyphenol content increase
(Harborne 1997; Heal et al. 1997; Northup et al. 1998;
Northup et al. 1999). The composition of carbon can
significantly affect the rate of decomposition and this
along with the more aerobic environment may have
lead to the greater rate of decomposition with wheat
straw. With a C:N ratio of 20-30, water soluble N
should be minimized (Stevenson and Cole 1999) and
leaching losses minimal. Adding less C can have an
economic advantage if the C source needs to be pur-
chased and it was observed that as the C:N ratio de-
creased, more inorganic N was present.
Phosphorus content and form varied with C
source. Although the amount of P added per plot was
similar with both carbon sources, the P concentration
in the wheat straw compost was about two times high-
er (Table 7) because about half the amount of biomass
was added compared with the oak sawdust. Some P in
the oak sawdust compost was also lost due to runoff
during application. Although the inorganic fraction of
total P is consistently high in composts, about 70-
95+% (Traore et al. 1999; Sharpley and Moyer 2000;
Frossard et al. 2002; Eghball 2003), the fraction of total
inorganic P which is water-extractable range from be-
ing relatively low 1-12% (Frossard et al. 2002; Eghball
2003; Leytem et al. 2004), to high 15-40% (Sharpley and

TABLE 6. TABLE 7.
Nitrogen quantity and form in compost mixtures Phosphorus quantity and form in compost mixtures
containing arctic char manure and either oak sawdust or containing arctic char manure and either oak sawdust or
wheat straw. Layers represent averages of cumulative 10- wheat straw. Layers represent averages of cumulative 10-
day additions over stated period after day of application. day additions over stated period after day of application.
Compost Total Inorganic Compost Total Water
Layer Age N NO -N NH4-N N Layer Age P Extractable P WEP/TP
3
(Days)x (g/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (%) NH4/NO3 (Days)x (g/kg) (g/kg) (%)

Oak sawdust Oak sawdust

0-63 31.3cy 11d 577b 1.90d 66.8a 0-63 3.96cy 0.64c 16.57a
63-118 30.1c 25d 459c 1.71d 19.5b 63-118 7.19b 0.61c 8.53bc
118-167 37.4ab 809b 591b 3.75b 0.7c 118-167 7.49b 0.35d 4.76d

Wheat straw Wheat straw

0-63 34.9b 110d 151e 0.75e 3.2c 0-63 14.96a 1.10b 9.11bc
63-118 28.9c 359c 365d 2.48c 1.3c 63-118 15.64a 1.45a 9.60b
118-167 39.2a 2410a 903a 8.47a 0.4c 118-167 14.16a 0.67c 5.59cd
x x
Composite samples taken from zones of increasing depth and age within Composite samples taken from zones of increasing depth and age within
y y
the compost. Least square means were separated by Tuky’s HSD (P ≤ 0.05). the compost. Least square means were separated by Tuky’s HSD (P ≤ 0.05).

Compost Science & Utilization Winter 2005 39

4 Adler 34-42 3/9/05 1:43 PM Page 40
Paul R. Adler and Lawrence J. Sikora
Moyer 2000; Eneji et al. 2003). In contrast to inorganic
N, water-extractable P decreased as the organic matter
decomposed with either carbon source. The percent of
total P that was water-extractable decreased over time
in this study from 16.6 to 4.8% in the oak sawdust and
9.1 to 5.6% in the wheat straw compost (Table 7).
There were also higher amounts of water-extractable
P in the wheat straw (0.67 to 1.45 g/kg) than in the oak
sawdust compost (0.35 to 0.64 g/kg). These values
were similar to those measured in other studies (Tra-
ore et al. 1999; Sharpley and Moyer 2000; Frossard et al.
2002; Eghball 2003; Eneji et al. 2003; Leytem et al. 2004).
Others have also observed a decrease in water-ex-
tractable P over time with different types of composts
(Traore et al. 1999). When P was fractionated, it was
found that other forms of inorganic P such as HCl-sol-
uble P increased and water-extractable P decreased
(Traore et al. 1999; Eneji et al. 2003). This trend suggests
the possible transformation of water-extractable P to
more stable forms which would reduce the potential
for runoff losses.
Water soluble P can be sequestered by having a
higher C:P ratio. Net immobilization of P occurs when
the C:P ratio is >300 and net mineralization when <200
(Stevenson and Cole 1999). The average C:P ratio of
the initial compost mixture ranged about 63 for wheat
straw to 98 for oak sawdust compost (Table 5), so
would not be expected to biologically immobilize P.
Although organic matter decomposition has a signifi-
cant impact on P cycling in soils (Gressel and McColl
1997), inconsistency in use of the C:P ratio as an index
of immobilization or mineralization has been suggest-
ed to possibly be due to variable amount of inorganic
P in organic materials, presence of limiting nutrients
(e.g. N, S), and quality of the carbon (Dalal 1977).
Both the type of manure and stability of the com-
post have been shown to affect P form and quantity in
compost. Sharpley and Moyer (2000) found that com-
posting did not consistently affect inorganic P of ma-
nure; in dairy compost, inorganic P increased, where-
as in poultry compost it decreased. Working with
immature and mature beef, horse or dairy manure
composts, Gagnon and Simard (1999) found that
Mehlich-3 extractable-P levels were higher after 13
weeks of incubation in soil amended with immature
composts. They suggested that organic acids generat-
ed by the higher microbial activity associated with im-
mature composts reduced P adsorption sites and in-
creased Mehlich-3 P content in the soil-compost
mixture. Preusch et al. (2002) observed that although
composting yielded a more predictable and reliable
source of mineralizable N than fresh litter, compost-
ing did not consistently affect P, possibly due to added
amendments or stability level in the final product.
40 Compost Science & Utilization
Adler and Sikora (2003) followed water-extractable P
levels during 8 weeks of composting of poultry litter
by a windrow method. At two weeks, water-ex-
tractable P was higher than at any other time suggest-
ing that immature composts may have plant-available
or water-soluble P contents equal to or in excess of
those found in the original litter. The mesopholic com-
posting process tested here showed that water-ex-
tractable P decreased with stability which could re-
duce the P fertility of the compost, but also reduce the
risk of runoff P from the area where compost was ap-
plied. Although agricultural fields are the primary
sources of nonpoint P pollution, only those fields that
are highly erodible, near water, and high in P become
major sources of P enrichment (Sharpley et al. 1996).
Preventing P loss from surface soil focuses on defin-
ing, targeting, and remediating those areas with high
soil P levels and with high runoff potential (Gburek
and Sharpley 1998).
Standard practices have been defined to achieve
pathogen reduction for thermophilic composting sys-
tems. Pathogen survival in raw manure and the soil
environment has been studied (Guan and Holley
2003). Until more information is available on pathogen
survival in mesophilic compost, standards used for
application of raw manure at organic farms should be
followed (Riddle et al. 2003), where it is not applied
within 90 to 120 days before harvest, depending on the
type of crop.
Conclusions
Although storage and land application of liquid
manure has a long history of being an effective and
practical technology, since it cannot occur year round,
anaerobic storage is a necessary component of the
whole system. Composting increases the value of ma-
nure and can be a practical system alternative to stor-
age in a lagoon, giving the farmer more flexibility in
time of application. Currently manure from fish grown
in raceway systems is settled and stored in basins. Dur-
ing storage, phosphorus and other nutrients are con-
tinually released from the manure into the surround-
ing water in the basin. Because of how manure is
managed on farms, water flows through these basins
daily carrying these released nutrients to surface wa-
ter. The layered mesophilic compost system described
in this study allows the manure to be stored and treat-
ed on land after it has been settled in the basins, great-
ly reducing the potential discharge of phosphorus to
surface waters. Since building infrastructure, such as a
pad, are not necessary to the success of this system, it
can be readily moved to utilize any leached nutrients
for crop growth rather than allow them to build up to
Winter 2005
4 Adler 34-42 3/9/05 1:43 PM Page 41
Mesophilic Composting of Arctic Char Manure
high levels in the soil. Land requirements are about
0.001 ha to compost the manure for each 1 Mg Arctic
char produced annually, but could be significantly
higher for the wheat straw since experimental loading
rates were limited by the reduced capacity of the oak
sawdust compost. Mesophilic composting of high liq-
uid content manures does not require excess carbon to
reduce its water content as is needed with ther-
mophilic composting because oxygen demands are
lower and the layer that has the highest requirement
for oxygen is near the surface. It is a less resource in-
tense system than standard composting technology
and is a practical technology that could be readily
adopted on fish farms, and other farms with liquid ma-
nure systems, using current equipment.
Acknowledgements
We thank Holly Lohman, Renee Yost, and Sarah
Ogden for their technical assistance in chemical analy-
sis of samples and Fred Ford and Brian Mason at The
Conservation Fund’s Freshwater Institute for their as-
sistance in field application.
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