Aquacultural Engineering 87 (2019) 102020

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Aquacultural Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aque

Options to reuse sludge from striped catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus, T

Sauvage, 1878) ponds and recirculating systems
N. Nhuta,b, N.V. Haoa, R.H. Bosmab, J.A.V. Verrethb, E.H. Edingb, M.C J. Verdegemb,
⁎

a
Research Institute for Aquaculture No 2, 116 Nguyen Dinh Chieu, District 1, HCM city, Viet Nam
b
Aquaculture and Fisheries Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 338, 6700AH Wageningen, the Netherlands

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: This paper compares the quantity and quality of solid waste obtained from traditional ponds and recirculating
Striped catfish aquaculture systems (RAS) for striped catfish and evaluates methane and compost production from these wastes.
Sludge Striped catfish sludge was collected from four commercial ponds along the Mekong river and from three indoor
Compost RAS. The amount of sludge dry matter produced per kilogram of fish in ponds was 6 times higher than that in
Methane
RAS. However, the concentration of nutrients in solid waste from RAS was much higher, with better compost
Biogas
Energy
quality and higher methane yield than that of sludge from ponds. Out of the collected 381 L biogas, the methane
yield of striped catfish’s solid waste in RAS systems was 201 L per kg chemical oxygen demand (COD). In ponds,
the collected 267 L biogas yielded 125 L CH4 per kg COD. The higher methane production from RAS sludge
concurred with higher digestibility of COD: 58% for RAS versus 38% for ponds. The quality and quantity of
methane from striped catfish sludge were lower than that for other animal manures, and the resulting electricity
yield was low. Considering the higher nutrient concentration in RAS-sludge, we recommend the combination
RAS and composting in reusing sludge, which is presently the best option for a more sustainable and cleaner
striped catfish production system.

1. Introduction
Effluents from aquaculture, among others, contain nutrients, pa-
thogens and residual antibiotics and chemicals. They affect the ecolo-
gical functioning of surface waters surrounding the farm (Folke and
Kautsky, 1992), as well as the health of riverine communities. Today,
65% of farms in the Mekong delta in south Vietnam discharge effluents,
including sludge, directly to the Mekong river, while the remaining
35% discharge their effluents to rice fields or gardens (Phan et al.,
2009).
In grow-out ponds, farmers feed their catfish with 22–35% protein
diets, with a feed conversion ratio (FCR) of 1.7–1.8 (Bosma et al., 2009;
Phan et al., 2009). The concentration of wastes in these effluents is low:
e.g., Anh et al. (2010) reported that striped catfish pond effluents
contain 22 mg L−1 5-day biological oxygen demand (BOD5), 27 mg L−1
chemical oxygen demand (COD), 61 mg L−1 total suspended solid
(TSS), 4 mg L−1 total nitrogen (TN) and 1 mg L−1 total phosphorus
(TP). Although these effluents are highly diluted, water volumes are
large, with farms discharging 60–90% of N (Anh et al., 2010) and 30%
of P (Nhut et al., 2017) supplied through feeding.
In particular, for every kilogram of striped catfish being produced,
about 2.5 to 9.1 m3 water is discharged to the Mekong river (Anh et al.,
2010; Bosma et al., 2011; Phan et al., 2009). Generally, producing fish
per kilogram yields 0.2–0.5 kg of dry sludge (Chen et al., 1997). The
collected or discharged sludge from ponds contains uneaten feed, faeces
and residues of chemicals that are applied while culturing the fish. The
amount of sludge that can be collected varies between fish species and
production systems. Sludge accumulating at the bottom of striped cat-
fish ponds contains 6 and 57% of N and P, respectively, from the feed
(Nhut, 2016).
However, some nutrients and energy contained in the sludge can be
reused for biogas fuel and fertilizer purposes. Reusing can be done by
either composting or by methanogenic fermentation. Composting is
done by mixing sludge with rice straw, a resource which abounds year-
round in the Mekong delta (Phung et al., 2009). Sludge from the bottom
of ponds contains inorganic soil particles, which in turn, might limit
methane production; while that from RAS contains sufficiently high
concentration of volatile solids which would yield high on-farm me-
thane production (Mirzoyan and Gross, 2013; Mirzoyan et al., 2008,
2010).
This study quantified and described sludge production during the
grow-out period of striped catfish in ponds and RAS, and determined

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: marc.verdegem@wur.nl (M.C.J. Verdegem).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaeng.2019.102020
Received 6 December 2018; Received in revised form 28 July 2019; Accepted 18 September 2019
Available online 21 September 2019
0144-8609/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
N. Nhut, et al.
Fig. 1. Characterization of traditional pangasius ponds (a) and recirculating aquaculture systems (b) used for solid waste collection.
and compared compost and methane production of the sludge collected
from striped catfish in ponds and in RAS. In this paper, we present first
the methods of compost and methane production, followed by analysis
and calculation. Thereafter we discuss the results before giving con-
clusions and recommendations.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Ponds and RAS for production and sludge collection
Sludge production and composition were determined in four com-
mercial striped catfish ponds and in three indoor RAS during a full
production cycle. Two ponds were located upstream in Dong Thap
province, and two were located downstream in Vinh Long province.
The ponds were 3.5–4.5 m deep. Fig. 1 and Table 1 summarize and
compare the pond and RAS design and operation. Design and operation
of ponds and RAS were described in detail by Nhut et al. (2017) and
Nhut (2016), respectively.
2.2. Sludge sampling from ponds and RAS
A 0.6-m2 circular sludge trap was installed in each of the three
randomly assigned ponds, and a 0.4-m2 ceramic tile, placed horizon-
tally at the sediment surface, was installed at six randomly assigned
locations. Sludge traps were emptied weekly, but the amount of col-
lected sludge was reported semi-monthly. A weekly sampling frequency
was necessary because the traps could spill over if sampled semi-
monthly only. Each tile and sludge trap location were marked by a 6-m
bamboo pole, with one end fixed in the sediment; the other end visible
above the water surface. The sediment accumulating on 3 tiles was left
2
Aquacultural Engineering 87 (2019) 102020
undisturbed until harvest. Then the amount of sludge accumulated
above the tiles was quantified and analyzed. For composition analysis,
the sludge accumulating above the other 3 tiles was collected semi-
monthly.
Sludge at the bottom of the ponds was removed, each time the
sludge bed became higher than 25 cm, by using a diesel-powered suc-
tion pump. Simultaneously, a sludge sample was collected, its total
volume and composition recorded, qualified and quantified. The loca-
tions with ceramic tiles and sediment traps were not disturbed during
sludge removal.
The sludge, collected semi-monthly from above the tiles in each
pond, was homogenously mixed before taking a 1-L sample. This
sample was kept at 4 °C during transport (maximum 4 h) to the la-
boratory where it was analyzed. Data included: pH (-), electric con-
ductivity (EC, mS cm−1), ash, total solids (TS), volatile solids (VS), total
carbon (TC), total organic carbon (TOC), chemical oxygen demand
(COD), total phosphorus (TP) and total nitrogen (TN). During the last
two months of the production cycle, totals of calcium (Ca), magnesium
(Mg), and potassium (K) in sludge were measured semi-monthly (mg
kg−1 DM).
At the end of the culture period, sludge accumulating above the
three undisturbed tiles in each pond was collected by using a 90-mm-
inner-diameter circular core. Sludge was then dried while it was still in
the core at room temperature. To analyze TOC, TC, TN and TP (% DM),
researchers used dry 5 cm layers of sludge that were cut starting at the
top (0–5 cm, 5–10 cm, 10–15 cm, 15–20 cm and 20–25 cm) and homo-
genously mixed per horizon per pond.
The sludge in RAS was collected every four hours from the bottom
section of the swirl separator for two weeks and reported semi-monthly
(Fig. 1). Sludge collection interval was short to prevent floating sludge
N. Nhut, et al. Aquacultural Engineering 87 (2019) 102020

Table 1 Table 2
Characterization of the fish ponds (Spond) and recirculating aquaculture systems Composition of sludge and rice straw before composting (on dry weight basis,
(SRAS) used for solid waste collection. Values are mean ± standard deviation unless stated differently). All sludge and rice samples were standardised to a dry
(SD). matter content of 40%.
Parameter Unit Spond SRAS Parameter Unit RS Spond SRAS

Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD

System information: pH – – 6.5 ± 0.0 6.7 ± 0.1

Replicates # 4 3 EC mS cm−1 – 0.8 ± 0.2 2.7 ± 0.1
Total culture m2 10,946 ± 212 0.85 ± 0.0 DM % ww 40.3 ± 0.4 40.2 ± 0.6 40.8 ± 0.8
surface area VS % 84.0 ± 0.8 15.6 ± 0.3 65.6 ± 0.7
Highest water m 3.8 ± 0.6 0.8 Ash % 16.0 ± 0.8 84.4 ± 0.3 34.4 ± 0.7
depth culture TC % 38.4 ± 0.6 5.6 ± 0.3 31.1 ± 0.9
tank TN % 1.36 ± 0.02 0.47 ± 0.0 2.2 ± 0.1
Volume1 m3 41,529 ± 5,388 0.85 ± 0.0 TP % 0.15 ± 0.01 0.28 ± 0.0 2.9 ± 0.1
System operation: C:N ratio g g−1 28.2 ± 0.6 11.7 ± 0.5 13.9 ± 0.7
Culture period days 255 207 Total Ca g kg−1 2.1 ± 0.3 7.6 ± 0.06 11.0 ± 0.03
Sludge removal # crop−1 1 or 3* 1242** Total Mg g kg−1 0.45 ± 0.03 3.8 ± 0.2 3.5 ± 0.06
frequency Total K g kg−1 16.8 ± 0.5 1.6 ± 0.4 0.35 ± 0.01
Stocking density kg m−3 0.6 ± 0.3 4.7 ± 0.7
Final density kg m−3 7.7 ± 4.1 171.4 ± 12.6 RS: rice straw, Spond: sludge in striped catfish ponds (n = 4), SRAS: sludge in
Initial individual g ind−1 39 ± 19 18 ± 3 striped catfish RAS (n = 3). Values are mean ± standard deviation (SD),ww:
weight wet weight. EC: electric conductivity, DM: dry matter, VS: volatile solids, TC:
Final individual g ind−1 833 ± 376 658 ± 31
total carbon, TN: total N, TP: total phosphorous.
weight
Total fish kg system−1 299,972 ± 74,741 146 ± 11
biomass1 room temperature until 60% moisture content. Collected from Vinh
Total feed kg system−1 433,673 ± 74,529 176 ± 5 Long province, the fresh rice straw was dried at room temperature until
Feed conversion – 1.5 ± 0.1 1.3 ± 0.1 60% moisture content; dry rice straw was cut into 2–3 cm-pieces.
ratio1
Feed composition (in ww)
Equal quantities of sludge from each pond were homogeneously
Dry matter % 89.3 ± 0.2 90.1 ± 0.3 pooled, and subsequently divided into 3 equal portions. The same was
Total nitrogen % 4.5 ± 0.3 4.2 ± 0.1 done with sludge collected from RAS. Each portion of the sludge from
Total carbon % 43.6 ± 1.5 53.2 ± 1.5 Spond or from SRAS was mixed with rice straw and referred to as
Carbohydrate % 47.0 ± 1.7 51.4 ± 1.9
Spond+RS and SRAS+RS, respectively. The Spond+RS was a homo-
Total COD g kg feed−1 1210 ± 9 1,188 ± 5
Ash % 7.5 ± 0.2 7.2 ± 0.2 genous 1:1 (DM basis) mixture of sludge and rice straw. For the
Total phosphorus % 1.3 ± 0.1 1.4 ± 0.2 SRAS+RS treatment, the sludge-rice straw ratio was 1:2. In this way, the
Total Ca g kg feed−1 23.5 ± 1.6 25.0 ± 0.69 C:N ratio in mixture was raised to 20 or higher (Table 6). Per treatment,
Total Mg g kg feed−1 3.7 ± 0.5 4.0 ± 0.4 3 batches of compost were made. Per experimental unit, 3 kg Spond+RS
Total K g kgfeed−1 2.5 ± 0.8 2.0 ± 0.1
or SRAS+RS mixture was put in a polystyrene box (height 40 cm x
Influent water
Make up water use m3 kg feed−1 3.1 ± 1.7 0.11 ± 0.04 length 40 cm x width 40 cm) with holes in cover and sides for air
m3kg fish−1 5.0 ± 3.0 0.15 ± 0.06 ventilation. During composting, moisture percentage was checked
pH – 6.4 ± 0.2 8.1 ± 0.1 every 4 days and adjusted to about 60%. The compost was mixed before
Salinity g L−1 0.2 ± 0.2 0.0
closing the box. The composting experiment was terminated after 60
TN mg L−1 4.7 ± 2.1 1.3 ± 0.7
TC mg L−1 14 ± 0.8 55 ± 20 days. For analysis of the composition, three random samples of final
COD mg L−1 6.5 ± 0.6 3.1 ± 1.1 compost in each treatment were collected and kept at 40C during
TP mg L−1 0.4 ± 0.1 0.5 ± 0.9 transport to the laboratory.
TSS mg L−1 202 ± 27 1.8 ± 0.5

Spond: Sludge in traditional striped catfish ponds, SRAS: sludge in striped catfish
RAS systems, ww: wet weight. In ponds, feed composition changed with culture
phase. In RAS, the same feed was used during the full production cycle. *One
time per crop cycle in downstream ponds, three times per crop cycle in up-
stream ponds. ** Six times of sludge collection per day (4-hr intervals) in RAS.
SD: standard deviation.
1
Calculated values based on information given in table are different from
given values, due to rounding errors.
from developing into gas, and subsequently from leaking out of the
swirl separator (Nhut, 2016). The RAS sludge was pooled and analyzed
for DM. At semi-monthly intervals, one 1 L of sludge sample per RAS
was collected and analyzed for pH (-), EC (mS cm−1), ash, VS, TC, TOC,
COD, TP and TN.
2.2.1. Determining composting potential of sludge
Table 2 describes the composition of sludge from striped catfish
ponds (Spond), RAS (SRAS) and rice straw (RS) which was used to make
compost. Pond sludge was collected during the last two months of the
production cycle according to Nhut et al. (2017) and Nhut (2016). Per
pond, the same amount of sludge (moisture content 60%) was used for
composting. Similarly, sludge collected from each RAS, was dried at
2.2.2. Determining methane production potential of sludge
Pond sludge was collected during the final 2 months of the pro-
duction cycle; RAS sludge, during the final month of the production
cycle. Equal amounts of sludge that were collected in four ponds were
homogeneously pooled into one composite sample. The same was done
with sludge collected from three RAS systems. Table 3 shows the initial
composition of Spond and SRAS.
Digested sludge, from a pig biogas plant in Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam, was used as inoculum further referred to as I. Prior to the
experiment, that digester was operating under mesophilic conditions
for 2 years. To deplete residual biodegradable organic matter (OM),
degas and remove residual methane, researchers homogenously mixed
and incubated the I for 7 days at 36 0C. The degassed I was stored at 4
0
C until use.
Different substrates were used to measure methane production: (1)
200 ml Spond +300 ml I (Spond+I), (2) 200 ml SRAS +300 ml I (SRAS+I)
and (3) 200 ml distilled water +300 ml I (Control). After analysis
(Table 3), all samples were standardized to a dry matter content of
60%. All treatments were executed in triplicate according to Angelidaki
et al. (2009).
Nine 550 ml incubation bottles were used, each filled with 500 ml
substrate (either Spond+ I, SRAS+ I or Control) leaving 50 ml headspace.

3
N. Nhut, et al. Aquacultural Engineering 87 (2019) 102020

Table 3 potential, energy and nutrient loss during composting.

Composition of sludge, inoculum and sludge-inoculum mixture for the biogas Treatment effects (pond vs. RAS) on nutrient concentrations in
reactor (on wet weight basis, unless stated differently). compost, nutrient removal during composting, methane production
Parameter Unit Spond SRAS I Spond+I SRAS+I potential and biogas composition of the bio-methane production test
were analysed by using one-way ANOVA, followed by Tukey test in case
pH 6.9 6.7 7.9 7.5 6.9 of significant difference (P < 0.05).
EC mScm−1 0.5 1.8 0.7 0.6 1.2
Alkalinity gCaCO3 L−1 – – – 1.8 2.3
DM % 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 3. Results
VS % 0.3 3.6 3.1 2.0 3.3
Ash % 5.7 2.4 2.9 4.0 2.7 3.1. Sludge production
TKN g L−1 0.3 1.7 2.8 1.8 2.3
TAN mg L−1 59 290 442 305 398
NO3-N mg L−1 1.1 2.4 3.1 1.8 2.5
Per kg of fish produced, six times more sludge dry matter was col-
COD g L−1 5.5 51.7 27.8 27.4 29,9 lected from ponds than RAS: 1.2 ± 0.50 and 0.2 ± 0.04 kg sludge,
TP g L−1 0.2 1.5 1.3 0.9 1.4 respectively (P < 0.05). The dry sludge in ponds declined with in-
creasing average fish body weight (per kg), while that in RAS slightly
Spond: sludge collected from traditional striped catfish ponds, SRAS: sludge col- increased with increasing average fish body weight (Fig. 3a). Per kg of
lected from the swirl separator in striped catfish RAS, Spond+I: sludge in tra-
fish produced in ponds and in RAS, similar amounts of volatile solids
ditional striped catfish ponds with inoculum, SRAS+I: sludge in striped catfish
were generated, and these increased with fish body weight (Fig. 3b).
RAS with inoculum. EC: electric conductivity, DM: dry matter, VS: volatile
solids, TKN: Kjeldhal nitrogen, TAN: total ammonia nitrogen, COD: chemical
oxygen demand, TP: total phosphorous. 3.2. Sludge composition in pangasius ponds and in RAS

Each bottle was closed with a butyl rubber stopper that was kept in
place with an aluminum clamp (Angelidaki et al., 2009). Pure N2 gas
was flushed for 2 min through the bottles before and after filling. The
bottles were incubated at 36 ± 2 °C during 63 days under dark con-
dition. During incubation, the bottles were constantly shaken at 72–75
strokes per minute, except during sampling and biogas volume mea-
surements.
At the end of the experiment, after 63 days, the composition of the
samples was analyzed. The harvested amounts of CH4 and CO2 were
daily measured.
2.3. Sample analysis
The composition of sludge in ponds differed from that in RAS
(P < 0.05). DM of sludge in ponds contained, on average, a higher
amount of ash (94%) than that (42%) in RAS; while volatile solids
(P < 0.05) of sludge in RAS were 9 times more. Moreover, the per-
centage TN, TP and TOC in RAS sludge was close to 10 times higher
than that in ponds sludge (P < 0.05) (Table 5).
TC and TOC concentrations per kg sludge DM in the pond sludge
bed changed significantly with depth. The amount of TOC in sludge in
the top 0–5 cm was 23 g per kg sludge DM, and this gradually declined
with depth reaching 13 g kg−1 dry sludge in the 20–25 cm-depth layer
(Fig. 4). The TN contents varied between 2 and 5 g per kg dry sludge
showing an irregular pattern with depth; TP content was 1.4–1.7 g per
kg dry sludge, and was similar between the 5 cm depth layers.

Sludge and compost samples were analyzed for pH, EC, DM, TSS, TS
(total solids), VS, COD, total Kjeldahl nitrogen (Kj-N), TP, TC, NH4-N
and NO3-N. The pH was measured by using pH electrode (model
Hi99121-HANNA); the EC by conductivity meter (HI98331- Hanna for
Soil Test). The total suspended solid (TSS, dried to constant weight at
103–105 °C) concentration was measured according to APHA (1999).
The DM or TS was weighed after drying at 105 °C for 24 h (Foy and
Rosell, 1991). The VS was calculated as the weight difference between
DM and ash content (after burning at 550 °C) according to APHA
(1999). The chemical oxygen demand (COD) was measured according
to APHA (1999). Total Kj-N was analyzed by using the Kjeldahl method
(Foy and Rosell, 1991); the TP by spectrophotometer following Boyd
and Tucker (1998). The TC was determined by using high temperature
combustion method; TOC, by high temperature combustion method on
acidified samples; NO2-N, by diazotized sulfanilamide method and NO3-
N, by cadmium reduction to nitrite method according to APHA (1999).
Totals of Ca, K and Mg were measured by using atomic absorption
spectrophotometry (Hatachi 180-60) after extraction in 1 N ammonium
acetate (pH 7).
Biogas production was determined daily as displaced water volume
(in ml) (Fig. 2). Biogas included CH4, CO2 and other gases. The volume
of biogas was measured as displaced water collected daily in the
graduated cylinder. Two ml biogas was taken directly by using syringe
from the headspace; CH4 and CO2 concentrations were measured by
using gas chromatography (Shimadzu GC, Japan). The methane pro-
duction was recalculated to standard temperature and pressure (XSTP)
according to Hansen et al. (2004).
2.4. Formulas, calculations and statistics
Table 4 shows the calculations related to compost, methane
3.2.1. Composting effect
Composting decreased the VS content by 36–40%, and the TOC
content by 31–53%. During composting, the TN percentage dropped
with 16–18%. Nutrient losses were similar for both ponds and RAS
sludge (P > 0.05). Because the TN loss due to composting was smaller
than the TOC loss, the C:N ratio dropped from 20 to 23 to 13–14
(Table 6). The TP percentage dropped to 0.2 – 0.6% during composting,
while the pH increased 0.2 and 1.3 units in Spond+RS and SRAS+RS,
respectively. Mineral losses were small and similar between Spond+RS
and SRAS+RS (P > 0.05). For nearly all parameters, the nutrient
content was higher in RAS compost than that in pond compost
(P < 0.05), which aligns with the better quality of the RAS sludge
compared to the pond sludge.
3.3. Methane production and compost quality
After fermentation, the CH4 volumes obtained were 0.26 L per g VS
from SRAS and 0.17 L from Spond (P < 0.05). The CH4 production per g
TS from SRAS was 15 times higher (P < 0.05) than for Spond (Fig. 5).
The daily volume of CH4, CO2 and other gases obtained from di-
gestion of SRAS and Spond increased quickly until day 9–10 of the sam-
pling period; and then declined, gradually becoming negligibly small
after 63 days (Fig. 5).The percentage of CH4 in RAS sludge biogas was
6% higher than that in pond sludge biogas (P < 0.05); the latter
containing 6% more CO2 in the biogas mixture (Table 7).
After 63 days of incubation, the amount of nutrients in RAS sludge
with inoculum (SRAS+I) was higher than that in pond sludge with in-
oculum (Spond+I) (P < 0.05), except for TP and NO3-N (P > 0.05).
The VS and COD digestion efficiencies were 1.5 and 1.6 times higher,
respectively, for RAS-sludge than for pond-sludge (P < 0.05) (Table 8).
Although, per kg fish produced and per kg feed consumed, the

4
N. Nhut, et al.
Fig. 2. Set-up to collect and quantify biogas production by inverted bottle filled with water.
amount of compost obtained was not significantly different between
ponds and RAS, the volume of methane harvested was higher in RAS
than that in ponds (P < 0.05). The energy yield of methane obtained
from RAS sludge was more than 2.5 higher than that from pond sludge
(P < 0.05) (Table 9).
4. Discussion
4.1. Quantity and quality of sludge
Per kg of fish produced, six times more sludge dry matter was dis-
charged from ponds than that from RAS. However, similar quantities of
volatile solids were discharged from ponds and RAS per kg of fish
produced. The difference in weight is due to soil particles in pond
sludge. Farmers exchange daily their pond water with water from the
Mekong River, with inflowing water delivering on average 202 mg L−1
TSS (Nhut et al., 2017). Assuming an average water exchange of 5 m3
per kg of fish produced (Anh et al., 2010; Bosma et al., 2011; Nhut
et al., 2017; Phan et al., 2009) about 1000 g of TSS enters the pond;
while with outflowing water, only 300 g of TSS is discharged. Including
feed inputs, about 1200 g of TSS accumulates in striped catfish ponds
per kg of fish produced (Nhut et al., 2017), which is more than usually
reported for pond fish culture (Chen et al., 1997).
Striped catfish produces diluted faeces, dispersing quickly through
the water column and difficult to trap. In RAS, 17% of feed dry matter
was collected in the sludge with the swirl separator (Nhut, 2016). The
quantity of faeces, collected daily as sludge from swirl separators in
RAS and flow-through tanks, fluctuated between 12 and 20% of the
feed input (on wet weight basis) (Nhut, 2016). In ponds, numerous
5
Aquacultural Engineering 87 (2019) 102020
factors can affect sludge production, including for example location,
season, tidal regime, day of culture cycle, fish density and biomass and
water exchange frequency. In ponds, VS peaked after 3 months of
culture when the feed load passed 200 – 250 kg ha−1 d−1 (Nhut et al.,
2017). At such a high feed load, algae could no longer compete for
nutrients with bacteria, causing them to die and precipitate to the se-
diment.
The VS, COD, TOC, TC and TN concentrations in sludge changed
due to decomposition (Adhikari et al., 2014; Boyd, 1985, 1995; Chen
et al., 1997; Gross et al., 1998, 2000), as shown by the differences in
concentration at different depths in the undisturbed sludge bed sampled
at the end of the culture period. The TC and TOC concentrations de-
creased with depth. This was also expected for TN (Boyd, 1995), but
this could not be observed in our study. The TP concentrations did not
change with depth, which is in line with results of Munsiri et al. (1996).
Similar concentrations of VS, TOC, COD, TN and TP for striped catfish
ponds were reported for channel catfish by Boyd (1995), and for trout
in raceways by Stephen et al. (1999).
The concentrations of Ca (0.73-0.86 mg L−1), Mg
(0.38–1.30 mg L−1) and K (0.04–0.12 mg L−1) are low in the Mekong
river in Vietnam (Shrestha et al., 2008). In the Mekong delta, soils at
20–50 cm deep contain 1378 mg kg−1, 432 mg kg−1 and 164 mg K kg-1
(Quang and Guong, 2011). However, in this study, the main supply of
Ca, Mg and K was through feeding (Table 1), and the observed con-
centrations in sludge were higher than that previously reported in
freshwater prawn and carp ponds (Wudtisin, 2006). These higher levels
might be due to factors such as concentrations in the diet, stage of
culture cycle during sampling and sampling method used (Munsiri
et al., 1996), and merit further study.
N. Nhut, et al. Aquacultural Engineering 87 (2019) 102020

Table 4
Summary of formulas for calculating in experiments.
Parameter Unit Formulas

Volatile solids (VS) g VS = Dry matter – Ash

Nutrient loss (NL)
Mineral loss (ML)
Feed conversion ratio (FCR)
CH4substrateproduction (VCH4)
CO2 substrate production (VCO2)
CH4substrate percentage (% CH4)
CO2substrate percentage (% CO2)
Other gas percentage (% other gases)
XSTP
CH4 / VSadded
CH4/CODadded
CH4/TSadded
TSremoval
VSremoval
CODremoval
Compost potential
Per kg fish produced (COF)
Per kg feed consumption (COpF)
Methane potential
Per kg fish produced (MF)
Per kg feed consumption (MpF)
Energy potential
Per fish produced (EF)
Per feed consumption (EpF)
% NL = 100* [(NUinitial – NUfinal) / NUinitial]
% ML = 100* [(Minitial – Mfinal) / Minitial]
– FCR = FC/(Wtotal final fish bw– Wtotal initial fish bw)
ml d−1 VCH4 = VCH4,S +I– VCH4,I
ml d−1 VCO2 = VCO2, S+I– VCO2, I
% % CH4 = 100* VCH4/ Vbiogas
% % CO2 = 100* VCO2/ Vbiogas
% % Other gases = 100% -% CO2 - % CH4
XSTP=Xm *[Tstandard*Pm/Tm*Pstandard]
L CH4g VS−1 CH4/VSadded = [VCH4cumulative/ 1000 /VSadded]
L CH4g COD−1 CH4/CODadded = [VCH4cumulative/1000 / CODadded]
L CH4g TS−1 CH4/TSadded= [VCH4cumulative/1000 / TSadded]
% TSremoval = 100 *[VS +I *(CinitialTS inS+ I - CfinalTS inS +I)] / (VS+I* CinitialTS inS+I)
% VSremoval = 100 * [VS +I * (CinitialVS inS + I - CfinalVS inS + I)] / (VS +I * CinitialVS inS + I)
% CODremoval = 100 * [VS +I * (CinitialCOD inS + I - CfinalCOD inS + I)] / (VS +I * CinitialCOD inS + I)
kg kg fish−1 COF = [(Sdm kg−1 FB + F * kg−1 Sdm) / (100%-Mstinitial)] – Dig * [(Sdm kg−1 FB + F * kg−1 Sdm) / (100%-Mstfinal)]
kg kg feed−1 COpF = COF/FCR
L CH4 kg fish−1 MF = L CH4.gVS−1*gVS. kg−1 fish / FB
L CH4 kg feed−1 MpF = L CH4.g VS−1*gVS. kg−1 feed
kWh E(1)
kWh kg fish−1 EF = E*(MF/1000)
kWh kg feed−1 EpF = E*(MpF/1000)

(1)
Theoretical energy content of methane gas according to Henze et al. (1997), E = 9.7 kW h/m3 CH4, VCH4 potential: volume of methane production for energy
production calculation (m3), VCH4, S + I: volume of methane production from test on substrate including inoculum (ml.d−1), VCH4, I: volume of methane production
from inoculums reactor (ml.d−1), VCO2, S+I: volume of CO2 measurement in reactor with substrate including inoculum (ml.d−1),VCO2, I: volume of CO2 measurement
in reactor with inoculum (ml.d−1), NUinitial: amount of VS, TOC, TN or TP in initial sludge in reactor (mg), NUfinal: amount of VS, TOC, TN or TP in final sludge in
reactor (mg), Minitial: amount of Ca, K or Mg in initial sludge in reactor (mg), Mfinal: amount of Ca, K or Mg in sludge in final sludge in reactor (mg), FC: cumulative
feed input (kg), Wtotal final fish bw: total fish biomass at harvest (kg, wet weight), Wtotal initial fish bw: total fish biomass at stocking (kg, wet weight),Vbiogas: volume of
biogas production (ml.d−1), VCO2: volume of CO2 production from substrate (ml.d−1), VCH4 cumulative: accumulative methane production during experimental period
63 days (ml); VSadded: total volatile solids in substrate added for test (g), CODadded: initial total chemical oxygen demand in substrate added for test (g); TSadded :
corrected for control reactor (g), XSTP: gas volume at standard temperature (°C) and pressure (ml), Pm: atmospheric pressure during measurement of gas production
during experiment (bar), Xm: gas volume at room temperature (°C) (ml), Tstandard : standard temperature, 0 °C (320F), Tm : room temperature in (360C) 96.8 °F,
Pstandard: standard pressure (bar), COP: Final compost production (kg in wet weight), FB: fish biomass produced (kg), VS + I: total volume of substrate including
inoculum in reactor (l), CinitialTS inS + I: initial total suspended solids concentration of substrate including inoculum in reactor (mg L−1), CinitialTS inS + I: final total
suspended solids concentration of substrate including inoculum in reactor (mg L−1), Cfinal lVS in S + I: initial volatile solids concentration of substrate including
inoculum in reactor (mg L−1), CfinalVS in S + I: final volatile solids concentration of substrate including inoculum in reactor (mg L−1), CinitialCOD in S + I: initial
chemical oxygen demand concentration of substrate including inoculum in reactor (mg L−1), CfinalCOD inS + I: final chemical oxygen demand concentration of
substrate including inoculum in reactor (mg L−1). Sdm: sludge of dry matter in pond-sludge or RAS-sludge (kg); F: rice straw: sludge ratio on dry weight in initial
composting with F = 1 for pond-sludge and F = 2 for RAS-sludge; Mstinitial: moisture content in initial composting for pond-sludge or for RAS-sludge (%); Mstfinal :
moisture content in final compost for pond-sludge or for RAS-sludge (%); FCR: feed conversion ratio, 1.53 for ponds and 1.25 for RAS (kg feed consumed/ kg fish
produced); Dig: percentage of dry matter lost during composting for pond-sludge or for RAS-sludge (%).

4.2. Compost quality, nutrient loss during composting and applicability
The pH, EC, TC, TP and TN concentrations reported by Phung et al.
(2009) were similar to the pond compost (Spond+RS) concentrations in
our study; except for Ca levels, which were much higher in our study.
The compost produced in the study by Phung et al. (2009) allowed
saving 30 kg ha−1 of N fertilizer input in rice cultivation. The nutrient
content in RAS compost (SRAS+RS) was higher than that in pond
compost. Both types of compost obtained in our study compared well to
that produced from cattle manure (Eghball et al., 1997), but were less
nutrient-rich than that from poultry (Abdelhamid et al., 2004), pig
manure (Abdelhamid et al., 2004; Roca-Pérez et al., 2009; Tran et al.,
2011) and sewage (Roca-Pérez et al., 2009). The compost based on SRAS
is a good product due to a favourable macro-nutrients content, and the
fact that in RAS, the use of drugs and chemicals is minimal (James
et al., 1998) (Table 10).
The pH and EC slightly increased during composting. This could be
the result of inorganic N- release or denitrification during composting.
Slight changes (positive or negative) in pH during composting were also
reported by Sánchez-Monedero et al. (2001) and Eghball et al. (1997).
The TOC, VS and TN decreased significantly, while losses of TP, Ca, Mg,
and K were negligible. These changes are related to the compost-
processing methods applied (Eghball et al., 1997; Goyal et al., 2005;
Tran et al., 2011). In our study, we composted the sludge in a partially
covered box with holes for air exchange. Most likely, we might have
obtained higher VS and N losses if we left this box totally uncovered.
The TN loss was lower (25–30%) when compost was covered than when
it was not (63–73%) during pig manure composting (Tran et al., 2011).
In general, composting studies with uncovered storage report higher TN
losses than that obtained in our study (Eghball et al., 1997; Sánchez-
Monedero et al., 2001; Sommer, 2001; Tran et al., 2011). The VS loss in
this experiment was in line with that obtained in some previous studies
(Eghball et al., 1997; Li et al., 2008 and Sommer, 2001). Because TC
loss was higher than TN loss during composting, the C:N ratio declined.
In contrast, negligible amounts of TP minerals were lost during com-
posting (Eghball et al., 1997). As expected, TP did not volatilise during
composting.
Considering the compost composition (Table 6), compost produc-
tion per kg of fish (Table 9) and the total striped catfish production in
the Mekong Delta, about 4.02 million tonnes compost containing 36
thousand tonnes of TN and 8 thousand tonnes of TP can be produced
from pond sludge. Producing striped catfish in RAS would generate
0.96 million tonnes of compost containing 16.3 thousand tonnes of TN
and 10.6 thousand tonnes of TP. Although lesser amount of compost

6
N. Nhut, et al. Aquacultural Engineering 87 (2019) 102020

Fig. 3. Sludge dry matter (a) and volatile solids (b) production (dry weight basis) by individual fish weight (wet weight basis) in striped catfish ponds and RAS.
Values are means (n = 3 for RAS and n = 4 for ponds). RAS: recirculating aquaculture system.

Table 5 striped catfish production in ponds (0.8 kW h per kg fish produced

Sludge composition (on dry m basis) in striped catfish ponds (n = 4) and RAS equivalent to US$ 0.06/$VND 1.300 kg fish−1). The compost could also
(n = 3). Values are mean ± standard deviation (S.D.). be applied to other crops than rice (Casado-Vela et al., 2007, 2006; Pilar
Parameter Unit Spond SRAS p et al., 2005), and would lower nutrient discharge to surface waters by
20%; thus improving sustainability (Verreth and Oberdieck, 2009).
Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Considering that a major fraction of the reused compost nutrients will
a b not volatilize, the greenhouse gas emission potential would also be
pH – 6.70 ± 0.2 6.43 ± 0.1 0.001
EC mScm−1 0.75b ± 0.5 2.72a ± 0.1 0.001 reduced (Møller et al., 2004; Picot et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2013).
COD g O2 kg−1 87.0b ± 3.8 825.2a ± 8.7 0.001 Composting of RAS and pond sludge is simple and can be easily applied
Ash % 93.80a ± 2.8 42.14b ± 5.9 0.001 in striped catfish farms in the Mekong delta. Using compost is con-
VS % 6.20b ± 2.8 57.86a ± 5.9 0.001 sidered better than directly using fresh sludge, because it is easier to
TOC % 3.40b ± 1.5 31.31a ± 3.4 0.001
TC % 3.50b ± 1.3 32.82a ± 3.2 0.001
control the quality and quantity of nutrients applied. Currently, some
TN % 0.35b ± 0.1 2.84a ± 0.8 0.001 plant crops receive striped catfish pond effluents or fresh sludge, but
TP % 0.33b ± 0.2 2.57a ± 0.5 0.001 application rates and quality are not controlled, which leads to un-
Total Ca g kg−1 7.6b ± 0.06 11.0a ± 0.03 0.000 predictable crop yields.
Total Mg g kg−1 3.8a ± 0.21 3.5a ± 0.06 0.074
Total K g kg−1 1.6a ± 0.35 0.35b ± 0.01 0.004
4.3. Methane potential production
Mean with different superscript letter within rows are significantly different
(P < 0.05). Spond: sludge in striped catfish ponds, SRAS: sludge in RAS. SD: The pH, alkalinity and TAN concentrations in pond and RAS sludge
standard deviation, EC: electric conductivity, COD: chemical oxygen demand, were below the threshold levels that would inhibit methane production
VS: volatile solids, TOC: total organic carbon, TC: total carbon, TN: total ni- (Angelidaki and Ahring, 1993; Chen et al., 2008; Hansen et al., 1998).
trogen, TP: total phosphorous. For free ammonia, anaerobic microbes are inhibited at a concentration
above 1100 mg NH3 L−1 (Hansen et al., 1998). The substrate to in-
would be produced from RAS, the ash content is lower, collection is oculum ratios (VS weight basis) were 0.8 for SRAS+I and 0.08 for
easier, and transport costs are smaller than that from pond. In RAS, per Spond+I, which were sufficient considering that our goal was to com-
kg of fish produced would generate 0.87 kg compost with a present bine a high digestibility of VS with methane yield.
market value of US$ 0.02 ($VND 700 kg compost−1). This value would The methane yield from RAS sludge (SRAS+I) was higher than that
be enough to cover 50% of the pumping and aeration costs in RAS for from pond sludge (Spond+I) (Table 7). Although the inoculum to

7
N. Nhut, et al. Aquacultural Engineering 87 (2019) 102020

Table 6
Compost composition on dry weight basis, except for moisture (wet weight
basis) and RS : Sludge ratio. Values are mean ± standard deviation (SD),
n = 3.
Parameter Unit Spond+RS SRAS+RS p

Mean ± SD Mean ± SD

Initial composition
RS : Sludge ratio g g−1 1 2 –
Moisture % ww 59.8 ± 1.2 59.2 ± 2.5 0.589
pH – 6.9 ± 0.1 6.8 ± 0.1 0.313
EC mScm−1 2.2b ± 0.1 3.3a ± 0.1 0.001
VS % 49.8b ± 0.4 77.9a ± 0.7 0.001
Ash % 50.2a ± 0.4 22.1b ± 0.4 0.001
TOC % 22.0b ± 0.2 36.0a ± 0.5 0.001
TP % 0.2b ± 0.02 1.1a ± 0.01 0.001
TN % 0.9b ± 0.01 1.7a ± 0.01 0.001
C : N ratio g g−1 20.0b ± 0.1 23.4a ± 0.3 0.001
Total Ca gkg−1 4.8 ± 0.13 5.0 ± 0.2 0.266
Total Mg gkg−1 2.1a ± 0.09 1.5b ± 0.02 0.001
Total K gkg−1 9.2b ± 0.2 11.3a ± 0.3 0.001
Final composition
Moisture % 56.3 ± 2.1 58.9 ± 1.7 0.574 Fig. 5. Mean of daily biogas production in 550 ml digestion bottles from striped
pH – 7.3a ± 0.1 7.6b ± 0.1 0.001 catfish pond-sludge (Spond) and RAS-sludge (SRAS) (n = 3). All bottles include
EC mScm−1 2.0b ± 0.1 3.2a ± 0.1 0.001 inoculant. CH4-SRAS: methane gas from RAS-sludge, CH4-Spond: methane gas
VS % 31.6b ± 2.0 46.5a ± 0.3 0.001 from pond-sludge, Biogas-SRAS: biogas from RAS-sludge, Biogas-Spond: biogas
Ash % 68.4a ± 2.0 53.5b ± 0.3 0.001
from pond-sludge, CO2-SRAS: carbon dioxide from RAS-sludge, CO2-Spond:
TOC % 10.4b ± 1.0 17.5a ± 1.5 0.002
carbon dioxide from pond-sludge.
TP % 0.2b ± 0.01 1.1a ± 0.01 0.001
TN % 0.8b ± 0.01 1.4a ± 0.01 0.005
C : N ratio g g−1 13.5 ± 1.0 13.0 ± 1.9 0.728
Table 7
Total Ca gkg−1 4.8 ± 0.04 5.0 ± 0.1 0.065
Quantity and quality of biogas from digestion of sludge in striped catfish ponds
Total Mg g kg−1 2.1a ± 0.03 1.5b ± 0.1 0.001
Total K g kg−1 9.2b ± 0.2 11.3a ± 0.01 0.001 and RAS.
Nutrient loss* Parameter Unit Spond SRAS p
DM % 38.7 ± 0.3 44.4 ± 0.4 0.001
VS % 36.6 ± 3.9 40.3 ± 0.4 0.171 Mean ± SD Mean ± SD
TOC % 52.7 ± 4.4 51.4 ± 4.5 0.732
TN % 15.9 ± 3.8 17.9 ± 10.1 0.764 Methane yield
TP % 0.2 ± 2.5 0.6 ± 3.0 0.111 -per TS added L CH4gTS−1 0.010b ± 0.00 0.157a ± 0.02 0.001
Trace mineral loss* -per VS added L CH4gVS−1 0.165b ± 0.04 0.264a ± 0.04 0.019
Total Ca % 0.5 ± 3.2 0.8 ± 5.2 0.931 -per COD L CH4gCOD−1 0.125b ± 0.01 0.201a ± 0.03 0.017
Total Mg % 0.2 ± 3.6 0.2 ± 9.1 0.994 added
Total K % 0.4 ± 0.6 0.1 ± 3.1 0.898 Biogas quality
-CH4 % 46.8b ± 6.1 52.7a ± 5.7 0.001
Mean with different superscript letter within rows are significantly different -CO2 % 49.5a ± 5.7 43.7b ± 4.9 0.001
(P < 0.05). * % nutrient and trace mineral loss between initial and final com- -Other gases % 3.7 ± 1.4 3.6 ± 1.2 0.984
position divided by the initial composition (expressed as percentage).
Spond+RS : sludge collected from striped catfish ponds mixed with rice straw, Mean with different superscript letter within rows are significantly different
SRAS+RS: sludge collected from striped catfish RAS mixed with rice straw. SD: (P < 0.05). Spond: sludge in traditional pangasius ponds, SRAS: sludge in pan-
standard deviation, EC: electric conductivity, VS: volatile solids, TOC: total gasius RAS systems, n = 3. SD: standard deviation.
organic carbon, TP: total phosphorous, TN: total nitrogen, DM: dry matter.

Fig. 4. Composition of accumulated sludge at

the end of the culture period. Sludge accumu-
lated on tiles installed at the start of the culture
period during the full culture period. Values
are means from 4 ponds. Error bars show
standard deviation. TN: total nitrogen, TP:
total phosphorous, TOC: total organic carbon
and TC: total carbon.

8
N. Nhut, et al. Aquacultural Engineering 87 (2019) 102020

Table 8 plausible causes include a high hydrogen sulphide concentration during

Differences in sludge composition after incubation (wet weight basis). digestion, or presence of chemical and drug residues in the pond sludge.
Parameter Unit Spond + I SRAS + I p A 50% inhibition of methane production occurred with H2S con-
centrations of 60 to 240 mg L−1 (Speece, 1996). In addition, the pond
Mean ± SD Mean ± SD sludge accumulated over a 2-month period; hence, a large fraction of
easily degradable VS was already mineralized, leaving organic matter
Final sludge
pH 7.7b ± 0.1 8.2a ± 0.1 0.008 that is more difficult to digest (Stinson and Ham, 1995).
EC mScm−1 0.7b ± 0.1 1.4a ± 0.1 0.001 Typically, 1 kg of commercial striped catfish feed contains more
Alkalinity gCaCO3 L−1 2.0b ± 0.16 2.4a ± 0.03 0.001 than 200 g of soybean and 400 g of wheat flour (Hien et al., 2010).
DM % 5.4a ± 0.2 4.0b ± 0.2 0.001 Non–starch polysaccharides (NSP) containing lignin, hemicellulose and
VS % 1.2 ± 0.1 1.3 ± 0.1 0.101
cellulose, which have low digestibility, are present in soybean meal and
COD g L−1 18.8 b ± 0.07 20.6a ± 1.0 0.040
TN g L−1 1.4 b ± 0.02 1.9a ± 0.02 0.001 wheat flour. Meriac et al. (2014) reported that 1 kg of rainbow trout
TAN mg L−1 209.6b ± 7.3 282.0a ± 2.5 0.001 feed comprised 150 g soybean meal and 175 g wheat flour. The COD of
NO3-N mg L−1 0.6 ± 0.03 0.5 ± 0.2 0.101 the NSPs in trout faeces represented 65% of the total COD in the faeces.
TP g L−1 0.84 ± 0.002 1.45 ± 0.020 0.749
Presence of soybean meal in fish diets could also explain why decom-
Digestion efficiency
-VS removal % 38.3b ± 2.8 59.6a ± 1.7 0.001
position of collected fish faeces was 58% lesser than that for faeces of
-COD removal % 37.2b ± 0.5 57.5a ± 2.0 0.001 fish fed with soybean meal- free diets (Meriac et al., 2014). Overall, the
methane production potential of solids collected from striped catfish,
Mean with different superscript within row are significantly different trout, salmon and striped bass ponds is similar (Gebauer, 2004; Gebauer
(P < 0.05). Spond + I: pond-sludge with inoculum, SRAS + I: RAS-sludge with and Eikebrokk, 2006; Lanari and Franci, 1998) (Table 11). When
inoculums, (n = 3). SD: standard deviation. EC: electric conductivity, DM: dry compared to the waste from terrestrial animals, the methane yield (ml
matter, VS: volatile solids, COD: chemical oxygen demand, TN: total nitrogen,
CH4 g VS−1) from striped catfish sludge in RAS is lower than that for
TAN: total ammonia nitrogen, TP: total phosphorous.
piglet manure, cattle slaughter waste and duckweed. However, it was
higher than that for manure from sow, cow, buffalo, rabbit, sheep, goat,
Table 9
chicken, slaughter waste from pig and fish, household waste and grass
Compost, methane and energy potential obtained with sludge collected from
striped catfish ponds and RAS.
and cassava residues (Cu et al., 2015). Differences in methane yield of
different types of sludge or manure depend on the amount of fibres that
Parameter Unit Pond RAS p are difficult to digest in the volatile solids (Angelidaki et al., 2009).
Mean ± SD Mean ± SD
The methane and carbon dioxide fractions in biogas depend on the
proximate composition of the sludge. Wellinger et al. (2013) reported a
Compost potential yield of 60% CH4 : 40% CO2 for protein, 72% CH4 : 28% CO2 for lipid
-per fish produced kg kg 3.7a ± 1.6 0.87b ± 0.02 0.034 and 50% CH4 : 50% CO2 for carbohydrate. Striped catfish feed is a
fish−1
-per feed kg kg 2.4a ± 1.1 0.70b ± 0.02 0.043
mixture of ingredients with specific apparent digestibility coefficients
consumption feed−1 (ADC) (Hien et al., 2010; Hung et al., 2003). The high C and low N
Methane potential fractions in striped catfish pond sludge accounted for the observed ratio
-per fish produced L kg fish−1 13.9b ± 8.5 33.5a ± 1.8 0.012 in the biogas produced of 47% CH4 and 50% CO2, while the higher N
-per feed L kgfeed−1 8.7b ± 5.0 25.3a ± 1.1 0.003
fraction in RAS-sludge increased this ratio to 53% CH4: 44% CO2.
consumption
Energy potential One kilogram of striped catfish, produced in RAS, could produce
-per fish produced kWh kg 0.15b ± 0.10 0.33a ± 0.02 0.012 33.5 L CH4, which represents 0.33 kW h potential energy yield per kg of
fish−1 fish produced. With pond sludge, 13.9 L CH4 was obtained per kg of fish
-per feed kWh kg 0.08b ± 0.10 0.25a ± 0.01 0.003 produced, which represents a potential energy yield of 0.14 kW h per kg
consumption feed−1
of fish. Assuming 300 tonnes of striped catfish is annually produced per
Mean with different superscript within each row are significantly different ha in Mekong delta’s ponds (MARD, 2017), 42,000 kW h could be ob-
(P < 0.05).SD: Standard deviation. tained from pond sludge per ha. However, if all striped catfish in the
Mekong delta were produced in RAS, then the potential energy yield
substrate ratio (VS weight basis) in Spond+I was 10 times higher than would be higher, at 99,000 kW h per ha, than that from pond sludge.
that in SRAS+I, the fraction of VS and COD removed from pond sludge One year has 8,760 h, thus the potential energy yield would correspond
was smaller than that from RAS-sludge. The removal rates are low; to a constant energy supply slightly above 11.3 kW ha−1. The electricity

Table 10
Nutrient content of different types of compost from animal waste.
Compost pH EC VS % TC % C/N TP % TN % Ca Mg kg−1 K Ref.
mS cm−1 g kg−1 g kg−1

S + RS
pond 7.3 2 31.6 10 14 0.2 0.8 4.8 2.1 9.2 [1]
S + RS
pond 7.4 2.4 – 9 – 0.4 0.9 0.08 2.5 11.6 [2]
S + RS
RAS 7.6 3.2 46.5 18 13 1.1 1.4 5.0 1.5 11.3 [3]
S
cattle manure 7.7 7.4 19.2 10 – 0.9 1.1 0.013 0.005 12.0 [4]
S
poultry manure 8.0-8.7 3.6-4.3 70-75 35-37 9-13 – 2.7-4.1 – – – [5]
S
pig manure – – 63-72 58-63 1.5-3.8 1.7-3 – – 13.4 [6]
S
sewage 6.8-7.2 3.7-3.8 48-53 18-23 10-11 2.5-2.7 1.9-2.3 – – – [7]

Spond + RS: sludge in striped catfish ponds mixed with rice straw (this study) [1] Spond + RS: sludge in traditional striped catfish ponds mixed with rice straw (Phung
et al. (2009) [2] SRAS + RS: sludge in striped catfish RAS mixed with rice straw (this study) [3] Scattle manure: Beef cattle feedlot manure (result of experiment in 1992)
(Eghball et al. (1997) [4] Spoultry manure: Poultry manure + rice straw + oilseed rape cake (Abdelhamid et al. (2004) [5] Spig manure: Pig manure + rice straw (Tran
et al. (2011) [6] Ssewage: Sewage + rice straw (Roca-Pérez et al. (2009) [7]. EC: electric conductivity, VS: volatile solid, TC: total carbon, C/N: C:N ratio, TP: total
phosphorous, TN: total nitrogen, Ref.: reference.

9
N. Nhut, et al. Aquacultural Engineering 87 (2019) 102020

Table 11
Methane production from different types of aquaculture sludge.
Digestion efficiency (%)

0
Sludge T( C) HRT (day) TS (%) Salinity TS VS COD CH4 CH4 Reference
(%) (L g COD add−1)

Spond 36 60 6 Fresh 11.6 38.3 37.2 46.8 0.125 [1]

SRAS 36 60 6 Fresh 32.7 59.6 57.5 52.7 0.201 [2]
Strout 24-25 22-38 1.4-2.4 Fresh – 93-97 – > 80 0.20-0.25 [3]
Ssalmon RAS 35 30 8.2-10.2 Brackish – 47-62 35-55 49-58 0.11-0.18 [4]
Sstriped bass RAS 30 6-8 0.4 Brackish – 92-98 99.6 4-53 0.04-3.6 [5]

Spond: sludge in traditional striped catfish ponds this study [1], SRAS: sludge in striped catfish RAS this study [2], Strout: rainbow trout RAS Lanari and Franci (1998)
[3],Ssalmon RAS: sludge in Atlantic salmon RAS Gebauer (2004) [4], Sstriped bass RAS: sludge striped bass RAS Mirzoyan (2009) [5]. HTR: hydraulic retention time, TS:
total solids, VS: volatile solids, COD: chemical oxygen demand.

yield from methane is around 30% (Henze et al., 1997), so a 3.4- kW-
power source could be realized. This could provide about 10–12% of
the electricity consumption for aeration and pumping in RAS for striped
catfish.
4.4. Research constraints
Small quantities of compost were produced under controlled indoor
conditions. Compost yield under open field conditions should still be
evaluated. Checking compost quality produced from sludge collected at
different moments during the full production cycle, not just at the end
of the sampling period, is also recommended.
5. Conclusion and recommendations
Per kg of striped catfish produced, the generated amount of sludge
in ponds is high (1.2 kg), which is due mainly to a high mineral content
originating from suspended soil particles in the daily water intake.
Although RAS generates six times less sludge than ponds, RAS sludge
contains high concentration of VS, which makes it the better resource in
producing compost or energy from methane. Nevertheless, sludge from
striped catfish has lower quality and quantity of methane than that
from animal manures, and the resulting electricity yield is low.
Therefore, composting is presently considered as the best option to
reuse part of the nutrients that are trapped in the sludge from striped
catfish in RAS. Compost can also be produced from pond sludge, al-
though the nutrient content is lower and the ash content is higher.
Denitrification is another option that could be explored in processing
sludge from ponds or RAS. Advantages are that water exchange with
the river can be reduced further, and that less liming material is needed.
A disadvantage of denitrification, however, is that the volatile solids are
mainly volatilized.
Acknowledgements
We express our special thanks to the following: Mr Quan and Mr
Hanh for collecting samples during composting and biogas experiments;
Mr Huynh for providing the sludge from ponds and RAS as base ma-
terial for the compost and biogas experiments; to the Ministry of
Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) in Vietnam, the Dutch-
funded SUPA project, and the Sandwich PhD program of Wageningen
University for jointly funding this research; and to all our colleagues at
the Research Institute for Aquaculture No2 (RIA2) for supporting this
research in various ways. The authors are also grateful for the review of
the English grammar by Dr. Lorna Mira Calumpang.
References
Abdelhamid, M.T., Horiuchi, T., Oba, S., 2004. Composting of rice straw with oilseed rape
cake and poultry manure and its effects on faba bean (Vicia faba L.) growth and soil
properties. Bioresour. Technol. 93, 183–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.
2003.10.012.
Adhikari, S., Pani, K.C., Mishra, B., Jena, J.K., Jayasankar, P., 2014. Carbon, nitrogen and
phosphorus budget for the culture of Indian major carps with different stocking
density. Hydrol. Curr. Res. 3 (5), 2–6. https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7587.1000176.
Angelidaki, I., Ahring, B.K., 1993. Thermophilic anaerobic digestion of livestock waste:
the effect of ammonia. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 38, 560–564. https://doi.org/10.
1007/BF00242955.
Angelidaki, I., Alves, M., Bolzonella, D., Borzacconi, L., Campos, J.L., Guwy, A.J.,
Kalyuzhnyi, S., Jenicek, P., Van Lier, J.B., 2009. Definding the biomethane potential
(BMP) of solid organic waste and energy crop: aproposed protocal for batch assay.
Water Sci. Technol.-WST 59, 927–934. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2009.040.
Anh, P.T., Kroeze, C., Bush, S.R., Mol, A.P.J., 2010. Water pollution by pangasius pro-
duction in the Mekong delta, Vietnam: causes and options for control. Aquac. Res. 42,
108–128. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2010.02578.x.
APHA, 1999. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water, 20th
edition. American public health association, American water works association,
water pollution control federation, Washington DC.
Bosma, R.H., Anh, P.T., Potting, J., 2011. Life cycle assessment of intensive striped catfish
farming in the Mekong Delta for screening hotspots as input to environmental policy
and research agenda. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 16, 903–915. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11367-011-0324-4.
Bosma, R.H., Chau, T.T.H., Potting, J., 2009. Environmental Impact Assessment of the
Pangasius Sector in the Mekong Delta. Wageningen University Report to the Dutch
Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality and the Vietnamese Ministry of
Agriculture and Rural Development. (access 9 October 2018). https://library.wur.
nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/381127.
Boyd, C.E., 1985. Chemical budgets for channel catfish ponds. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 114,
291–298 https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1985)114 < 291:
CBFCCP > 2.0.CO;2/.
Boyd, C.E., 1995. Bottom Soils, Sediment, and Pond Aquaculture. Springer Science &
Business Mediahttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1785-6.
Boyd, C.E., Tucker, C.S., 1998. Pond Aquaculture Water Quality Management. Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Boston. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-5407-3.
Casado-Vela, J., Sellés, S., Díaz-Crespo, C., Navarro-Pedreño, J., Mataix-Beneyto, J.,
Gómez, I., 2007. Effect of composted sewage sludge application to soil on sweet
pepper crop (Capsicum annuum var. annuum) grown under two exploitation regimes.
Waste Manag. 27, 1509–1518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2006.07.016.
Casado-Vela, J., Sellés, S., Navarro, J., Bustamante, M.A., Mataix, J., Guerrero, C., Gomez,
I., 2006. Evaluation of composted sewage sludge as nutritional source for horti-
cultural soils. Waste Manag. 26, 946–952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2005.
07.016.
Chen, S., Coffin, D.E., Malone, R.F., 1997. Sludge production and management for re-
circulating aquacultural systems. J. World Aquac. Soc. 28, 303–315. https://doi.org/
10.1111/j.1749-7345.1997.tb00278.x.
Chen, Y., Cheng, J.J., Creamer, K.S., 2008. Inhibition of anaerobic digestion process: a
review. Bioresour. Technol. 99, 4044–4064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.
2007.01.057.
Cu, T.T.T., Nguyen, T.X., Triolo, J.M., Pedersen, L., Le, V.D., Le, P.D., Sommer, S.G., 2015.
Biogas production from Vietnamese animal manure, plant residues and organic
waste: influence of biomass composition on methane yield. Asian-Australas. J. Anim.
Sci. 28, 280–289. https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.14.0312.
Eghball, B., Power, J.F., Gilley, J.E., Doran, J.W., 1997. Nutrient, carbon, and mass loss
during composting of beef cattle feedlot manure. J. Environ. Qual. 26, 189–193.
https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq1997.00472425002600010027x.
Folke, C., Kautsky, N., 1992. Aquaculture with its environment: prospects for sustain-
ability. Ocean Coast. Manag. 1, 5–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/0964-5691(92)
90059-T.
Foy, R.H., Rosell, R., 1991. Loadings of nitrogen and phosphorus from a Northern Ireland
fish farm. Aquaculture 96, 17–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/0044-8486(91)90136-U.
Gebauer, R., 2004. Mesophilic anaerobic treatment of sludge from saline fish farm ef-
fluents with biogas production. Bioresour. Technol. 93, 155–167. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.biortech.2003.10.024.
Gebauer, R., Eikebrokk, B., 2006. Mesophilic anaerobic treatment of sludge from salmon
smolt hatching. Bioresour. Technol. 97, 2389–2401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
biortech.2005.10.008.
Goyal, S., Dhull, S.K., Kapoor, K.K., 2005. Chemical and biological changes during

10
N. Nhut, et al.
composting of different organic wastes and assessment of compost maturity.
Bioresour. Technol. 96, 1584–1591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2004.12.
012.
Gross, A., Boyd, C.E., Lovell, R.T., Eya, J.C., 1998. Phosphorus budgets for channel catfish
ponds receiving diets with different phosphorus concentrations. J. World Aquac. Soc.
29, 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.1998.tb00297.x.
Gross, A., Boyd, C.E., Wood, C.W., 2000. Nitrogen transformations and balance in channel
catfish ponds. Aquac. Eng. 24, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0144-8609(00)
00062-5.
Hansen, K.H., Angelidaki, I., Ahring, B.K., 1998. Anaerobic digestion of swine manure:
inhibition by ammonia. Water Res. 32, 5–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-
1354(97)00201-7.
Hansen, T.L., Schmidt, J.E., Angelidaki, I., Marca, E., Jansen, Jl.C., Mosbæk, H.,
Christensen, T.H., 2004. Method for determination of methane potentials of solid
organic waste. Waste Manag. 24, 393–400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2003.
09.009.
Henze, M., Harremoes, P., Jansen, J., Arvin, E., 1997. Wastewater Treatment: Biological
and Chemical Process, 2nd ed. Springer, Berlin, Germany. https://doi.org/10.1007/
978-3-662-22605-6.
Hien, T.T.T., Phuong, N.T., Le Tu, T.C., Glencross, B., 2010. Assessment of methods for
the determination of digestibilities of feed ingredients for Tra catfish, Pangasinodon
hypothalamus. Aquac. Nutr. 16, 351–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.
2009.00671.x.
Hung, L.T., Lazard, J., Mariojouls, C., Moreau, Y., 2003. Comparison of starch utilization
in fingerlings of two Asian catfishes from the Mekong river (Pangasius bocourti
Sauvage, 1880, Pangasius hypophthalmus Sauvage, 1878). Aquac. Nutr. 9, 215–222.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2095.2003.00244.x.
James, E., Shelton, J.M.H., Skipper, L.T., 1998. An Evaluation of Composted Fish Waste.
Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Recirculating Aquaculture: on
July 16-19, 1998 at Virginia polytechnic Institute and State University Roanoke.
Symposium 4- Waste management, Cooperative Extension/Sea Grant, Virginia Tech,
Virginia, US, pp. 80–86. (accessed 9 October 2018). https://books.google.be/books/
about/Proceedings_of_the_Second_International.html?id=D08RAAAAYAAJ&redir_
esc=y.
Lanari, D., Franci, C., 1998. Biogas production from solid wastes removed from fish farm
effluents. Aquat. Living Resour. 11, 289–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0990-
7440(98)80014-4.
Li, X., Zhang, R., Pang, Y., 2008. Characteristics of dairy manure composting with rice
straw. Bioresour. Technol. 99, 359–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2006.12.
009.
MARD, 2017. Annual Report of Striped Catfish Production in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam
(in Vietnamese).https://tongcucthuysan.gov.vn/en-us/Aquaculture/Aquaculture/
doc-tin/010614/2018-05-23/kiem-soat-chat-che-dien-tich-nuoi-ca-tra-tu-phat-tai-
cac-tinh-dong-bang-song-cuu-long.(accessed 9 October 2018). .
Meriac, A., Eding, E.H., Schrama, J., Kamstra, A., Verreth, J.A.J., 2014. Dietary carbo-
hydrate composition can change waste production and biofilter load in recirculating
aquaculture systems. Aquaculture 420–421, 254–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
aquaculture.2013.11.018.
Mirzoyan, N., Gross, A., 2013. Use of UASB reactors for brackish aquaculture sludge di-
gestion under different conditions. Water Res. 47, 2843–2850. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.watres.2013.02.050.
Mirzoyan, N., Parnes, S., Singer, A., Tal, Y., Sowers, K., Gross, A., 2008. Quality of
brackish aquaculture sludge and its suitability for anaerobic digestion and methane
production in an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor. Aquaculture 279,
35–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.04.008.
Mirzoyan, N., Tal, Y., Gross, A., 2010. Anaerobic digestion of sludge from intensive re-
circulating aquaculture systems: review. Aquaculture 306, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.aquaculture.2010.05.028.
Møller, H.B., Sommer, S.G., Ahring, B.K., 2004. Methane productivity of manure, straw
and solid fractions of manure. Biomass Bioenergy 26, 485–495. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.biombioe.2003.08.008.
Munsiri, P., Boyd, C., Teichert-Coddington, D., Hajek, B., 1996. Texture and chemical
composition of soils from shrimp ponds near Choluteca, Honduras. Aquac. Int. 4,
11
Aquacultural Engineering 87 (2019) 102020
157–168. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00140596.
Nhut, N., 2016. Improving Sustainability of Striped Catfish (Pangasianodon hy-
pophthalmus) Farming in the Mekong Delta, vietnam, Through Recirculation
Technology. PhD Thesis Wageningen University. https://doi.org/10.18174/394644.
Nhut, N., Hao, N.V., Bosma, R.H., Verreth, J.A.V., Verdegem, M.C.J., Eding, E.H., 2017.
Quantifying sustainability indicators in striped catfish Pangasianodon hy-
pophthalmus downstream and upstream ponds. Aquac. Environ. Interact. 9, 293–309.
https://doi.org/10.3354/aei00231.
Phan, L.T., Bui, T.M., Nguyen, T.T.T., Gooley, G.J., Ingram, B.A., Nguyen, H.V., Nguyen,
P.T., De Silva, S.S., 2009. Current status of farming practices of striped catfish,
Pangasianodon hypophthalmus in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Aquaculture 296,
227–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2009.08.017.
Phung, C.V., Phuc, N.B., Hoang, T.K., Bell, R.W., 2009. Recycling of fishpond waste for
rice cultivation in the Cuu Long delta, Vietnam. In: Nair, J., Furedy, C., Hoysala, C.,
Doelle, J. (Eds.), Technologies and Management for Sustainable Biosystems. Nova
Science Publishers, New York, pp. 87–93. (accessed 9 October 2018). http://
researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/3330/.
Picot, B., Paing, J., Sambuco, J., Costa, R., Rambaud, A., 2003. Biogas production, sludge
accumulation and mass balance of carbon in anaerobic ponds. Water Sci. Technol. 2,
243–250. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2003.0127.
Pilar, M., María del Carmen, S., Miguel, U., 2005. Vegetable waste compost as substrate
for melon. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 36, 1557–1572. https://doi.org/10.1081/
CSS-200059054.
Quang, P.V., Guong, V.T., 2011. Chemical properties during different development stages
of fruit orchards in the mekong delta (Vietnam). Agric. Sci. 2, 375–381. https://doi.
org/10.4236/as.2011.23049.
Roca-Pérez, L., Martínez, C., Marcilla, P., Boluda, R., 2009. Composting rice straw with
sewage sludge and compost effects on the soil–plant system. Chemosphere 75,
781–787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.12.058.
Sánchez-Monedero, M.A., Roig, A., Paredes, C., Bernal, M.P., 2001. Nitrogen transfor-
mation during organic waste composting by the Rutgers system and its effects on pH,
EC and maturity of the composting mixtures. Bioresour. Technol. 78, 301–308.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0960-8524(01)00031-1.
Shrestha, S., Kazama, F., Nakamura, T., 2008. Use of principal component analysis, factor
analysis and discriminant analysis to evaluate spatial and temporal variations in
water quality of the Mekong River. J. Hydroinformatics 10, 43–56.
Sommer, S.G., 2001. Effect of composting on nutrient loss and nitrogen availability of
cattle deep litter. Eur. J. Agron. 14, 123–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1161-
0301(00)00087-3.
Speece, R.E., 1996. Anaerobic Biotechnology for Industrial Wastewaters. Archae Press,
pp. 394 P ISBN: 0965022609.
Stephen, J.N., Moccia, R.D., Durant, G.M., 1999. The chemical composition of settleable
solid fish waste (manure) from commercial rainbow trout farms in Ontario, Canada.
N. Am. J. Aquac. 61, 21–26 https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8454(1999)
061 < 0021:TCCOSS > 2.0.CO;2.
Stinson, J.A., Ham, R.K., 1995. Effect of lignin on the anaerobic decomposition of cel-
lulose as determined through the use of a biochemical methane potential method.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 29, 2305–2310. https://doi.org/10.1021/es00009a023.
Tran, M.T., Vu, T.K.V., Sommer, S.G., Jensen, L.S., 2011. Nitrogen turnover and loss
during storage of slurry and composting of solid manure under typical Vietnamese
farming conditions. J. Agric. Sci. 149, 285–296. https://doi.org/10.1017/
S0021859610000699.
Verreth, J.A.V., Oberdieck, A., 2009. A Hand Book for Sustainable Aquaculture. Project
N°: Coll-Ct-2006-030384. (accessed 10 October 2018). http://www.sprl.pl/
userfiles/files/SustainAqua%20handbook_EN%281%29.pdf/.
Wellinger, A., Murphy, J.D., Baxter, D., 2013. The Biogas Handbook: Science, Production
and Applications. Elsevier ISBN: 978-0-85709-498-8.
Wudtisin, I., 2006. Bottom Soil a Quality in Ponds for Culture of Catfish, Freshwater
Prawn, and Carp in Thailand. PhD Thesis. .
Zhang, X., Spanjers, H., van Lier, J.B., 2013. Potentials and limitations of biomethane and
phosphorus recovery from sludges of brackish/marine aquaculture recirculation
systems: a review. J. Environ. Manage. 131, 44–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jenvman.2013.09.016.