Aquaculture 454 (2016) 199–209

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Aquaculture

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aquaculture

An assessment of chemical and biological product use in aquaculture

in Bangladesh
Hazrat Ali a,⁎, Andreu Rico b, Khondker Murshed-e-Jahan a, Ben Belton c
a
WorldFish, Bangladesh and South Asia office, Bangladesh
b
IMDEA Water Institute, Science and Technology Campus of the University of Alcalá, Avenida Punto Com 2, P.O. Box 28805, Alcalá de Henares, Madrid. Spain
c
Department of Agricultural, Food & Resource Economics, Michigan State University, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The aim of this study is to describe current chemical use practices in the aquaculture sector of Bangladesh and to
Received 17 November 2015 identify the factors that influence them. A survey on the use of chemical and biological products was conducted
Received in revised form 16 December 2015 between November 2011 and June 2012 using structured questionnaires administered to operators of nine farm
Accepted 18 December 2015
groups, including homestead ponds, carps, tilapias, koi fish, shrimps, shrimps and prawns, prawns, rice and fish,
Available online 23 December 2015
and pangas. Farm type and farm owner characteristics were used as independent variables to explain observed
Keywords:
chemical use. Forty-six chemical and biological products (7 water and sediment treatment compounds, 13 disin-
Antimicrobials fectants, 7 antibiotics, 7 pesticides, 8 fertilizers and 4 feed additives and probiotics) were reported to be applied in
Probiotics aquaculture. The use of disinfectants and antibiotics was found to be highest in intensive koi and pangas farms as
Fish farming compared to other farm groups, whereas the use of fertilizers was lowest in these farm groups. A higher percent-
Shrimp farming age of prawn and shrimp/prawn farmers applied pesticides than other farm groups. A multivariate analysis
Bangladesh showed that patterns of use of chemical and biological products were significantly different across aquaculture
farm groups, with the largest number of chemical compounds used by the intensive koi farm group. The study
shows that, despite rapid expansion of commercial aquaculture in Bangladesh, use of chemical and biological
products is still relatively low compared to other aquaculture producing countries in Asia. However, despite
this finding, the study identified a large number of compounds that are currently in use, and that require further
regulation and evaluation regarding their potential environmental and human health impacts, as already done in
most developed countries.
Statement of relevance: Chemical use practices in Bangladesh
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction disinfectants, water and soil treatment compounds, pesticides, fertil-

Bangladesh is the fifth largest aquaculture producing country in the
world (FAO, 2014) with a total production of more than 1.85 M tons in
2012–2013 (DoF, 2014). The vast majority of the aquaculture in
Bangladesh takes place in freshwater and brackish water production
systems, in many cases integrated with other agricultural crops such
as rice or vegetables (Ahmed and Garnett, 2010; Ali and Haque, 2011;
Belton et al., 2011; Wahab et al., 2012; Jahan et al., 2016). Over the
last two decades, the Bangladeshi aquaculture sector has expanded,
diversified and advanced technologically with an increasing trend
towards the intensification of cultivation methods in some regions
(Ali, 2009; Belton and Azad, 2012; Ali et al., 2013). With the expansion
and intensification of the aquaculture sector, there has been an increas-
ing demand for the use of chemicals and biological products (Faruk
et al., 2008). Natural and synthetic substances such as antibiotics,
⁎ Corresponding author at: WorldFish, Bangladesh and South Asia office, Road# 7,
House# 22/B, Block# F, Banani, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
E-mail address: ali_03ku@yahoo.com (H. Ali).
izers, probiotics, and other feed additives have become crucial inputs
to treat and prevent bacterial and parasitic diseases, to improve water
quality, to increase pond natural productivity and/or as growth pro-
moters (Subasinghe et al., 1996; Bondad-Reantaso et al., 2005; Rico
et al., 2013).
Use of these chemicals can contribute to the increased productivity
and growth of the aquaculture sector, but has also attracted criticism
due to possible negative consequences for human and environmental
health (Subasinghe et al., 2000; Graslund and Bengtsson, 2001;
Holmström et al., 2003; Heuer et al., 2009; Uddin and Kader, 2006;
Sapkota et al., 2008; Rico et al., 2013). Residues of potentially toxic
substances such as pesticides or antimicrobials can accumulate in
the treated animals, resulting in a potential hazard for consumers and
for the marketing and export of aquaculture produce (Heuer et al.,
2009; Sapkota et al., 2008). The extensive use of antibiotics in aquacul-
ture can contribute to the development of antimicrobial-resistant path-
ogenic bacteria both inside and outside the aquaculture facilities (Le
et al., 2005; Sørum, 1999; Inglis, 2000). Moreover, some antibiotics
are moderately to highly toxic to non-target bacteria and primary

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2015.12.025
0044-8486/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
200 H. Ali et al. / Aquaculture 454 (2016) 199–209
producers (Wollenberger et al., 2000; Flaherty and Dodson, 2005;
Grinten et al., 2010; Rico et al., 2014; Yasser and Adli, 2015; Andrieu
et al., 2015), thus possibly contributing to the degradation of aquatic
ecosystems receiving aquaculture effluents (Rico et al., 2012).
Around 100 pharmaceuticals companies produce over 400 different
aquaculture chemical products commercialized in Bangladesh (Alam
and Rashid, 2014). However, knowledge on the number of active ingre-
dients and the chemical use practices implemented in different aquacul-
ture production systems and regions of Bangladesh is rather limited. A
small number of studies have reported on the application of chemicals
in aquaculture in individual aquaculture systems in Bangladesh, and
usually draw on small samples of farms producing specific species
(MacRae et al., 2002, Faruk et al., 2005; Alday-Sanz et al., 2012; Hossain
et al., 2013a; Hossain et al., 2013b; Rico et al., 2013). These studies
therefore have limited capacity to fully describe the national situation
and to provide extensive comparative assessments. The collection of de-
tailed information on the use of chemical and other inputs in aquacul-
ture is crucial in evaluating their potential risks for human health and
for the environment, as well in evaluating prudent use of such com-
pounds, and their effectiveness for preventing and treating disease out-
breaks. In this study we report findings from the largest chemical use
survey performed in Bangladesh to date, which includes almost 1900
farms belonging to nine farm groups, including homestead ponds,
carps, tilapias, koi fish, shrimps, shrimps and prawns, prawns, rice and
fish, and pangas (see Table 1 for a definition). The study offers a compar-
ative assessment of current chemical use practices in the nine farm
groups and describes factors that influence them, with the objective of
identifying production technologies and practices that require further
governmental support or risk evaluation.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Study area and farm interviews
This study was performed as a part of the United States Agency for
International Development (USAID) funded Cereal Systems Initiative for
South Asia (CSISA) project. CSISA worked in six geographical “hubs” cov-
ering most of the major aquaculture producing areas in the country
(Fig. 1). Four additional districts located outside the CSISA hubs, which
were identified as having high concentrations of aquaculture opera-
tions, were also included in the survey. The survey deliberately targeted
Table 1
Characteristics of the nine farm groups included in the present study.
Farm group Major species
abbreviation
Homestead pond Indian major carpb, Indian minor carpc, Exotic carpd
Carp Indian major carpb, Indian minor carpc, Exotic carpd
Tilapia Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
Koi Koi (Anabas testudineus)
Shrimp Shrimp (Penaeus monodon)
Shrimp and prawn Shrimp (Penaeus monodon) and prawn
(Macrobrachium rosenbergii)
Prawn Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii)
Rice-fish Indian major carpb, Indian minor carpc, Exotic carpd
Pangas Pangas (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus)
Homestead pond, homestead pond aquaculture; carp, commercial carp culture in pond; tilapia, commercial tilapia culture in pond; koi, commercial koi culture in pond; Shrimp, commer-
cial shrimp culture in gher; shrimp and prawn, commercial shrimp and prawn culture in gher; prawn, commercial prawn culture in gher; rice-fish, rice and fish culture in rice field; pangas,
commercial pangas culture in pond.
a
Please see Jahan et al. (2016) for a detailed definition of the production systems.
b
Indian major carp (Rohu, Labeo rohita; catla, Catla catla; Mrigel, Cirrhina mrigala).
c
Indian minor carp (Calibaush, Labeo calbasu; Gonia, Labeo gonius; Bata, Labeo bata).
d
Exotic carp (Silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys moltrix; Bighead carp, Aristichthys nobilis; Grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella; Common carp, Cyprinus carpio; Black carp,
Mylopharyngodon piceus; Silver barb, Barbonymus gonionotus).
e
The term gher refers a paddy field which has been modified for shrimp or prawn production. Typically, paddy is cultivated in the middle of the field, which is surrounded by canals with
high wide dikes into which the shrimp are stocked.
areas in which there had been no project activity in order to obtain a
benchmark of the practices employed and only 1% of the surveyed
farms reported having received project training. A purposive stratified
sampling strategy was adopted, as aquaculture development in
Bangladesh occurs in a highly geographically clustered manner, making
it very difficult to sample representatively over a broad area. A number
of steps were followed to select sample farms for the study (see Jahan
et al., 2016 for details). The major aquaculture production systems in
each hub or district were identified, and the most important (in terms
of geographical distribution and contribution to national fish produc-
tion) nine farm groups, defined in terms of the major species produced
and the production technology used, were selected for further study
(see Table 1 for details of characteristics of the nine farm groups).
The chemical use survey was conducted between November 2011
and June 2012. Twenty-four enumerators, who had completed BSc de-
grees in aquaculture, participated in the survey. A total number of
1890 farms were surveyed, with interviews being conducted with
farm owners (84%), farm managers (9%), farm assistants (7%) or farm
technicians. Information was collected using a structured questionnaire
covering detailed information on chemical and biological products used
in aquatic health management (e.g. active ingredients, frequency of ap-
plication), disease occurrence, basic farm infrastructure and production
characteristics (e.g. number of ponds, production cycles per year), and
education and training level of the respondents. The draft questionnaire
was pre-tested and revised repeatedly prior to finalization. In addition,
focus group discussion meetings were organized at village level to iden-
tify the main disease symptoms faced by each of the different farm
groups studied. Respondents were asked to report the disease symp-
toms that they had observed during the last production year. The find-
ings of this session were summarized by a specialist, and respondents
ranked the diseases based on the frequency of outbreak. Key informant
interviews were conducted with aquaculture medicine retailers and
marketing representatives for veterinary chemical companies at the dis-
trict and sub-district level, in order to generate an inventory of product
names and the principal active ingredients contained in such products.
2.2. Compound classification
The reported chemical and biological products were classified into
seven categories: 1) water and soil treatment compounds, 2) fertilizers,
3) disinfectants, 4) antibiotics, 5) pesticides, 6) feed additives, and
Main production system a Number of
surveyed
farms
Extensive to semi-intensive polyculture (homestead ponds) 381
Semi-intensive polyculture (freshwater ponds) 212
Semi-intensive polyculture (freshwater ponds) 95
Intensive polyculture (freshwater ponds) 97
Improved extensive (brackish water ghere) 310
Improved extensive concurrent with rice (brackish water/freshwater gher) 134
Improved extensive concurrent with rice (freshwater gher) 212
Improved extensive polyculture (rice-field) 134
Intensive polyculture (freshwater ponds) 321
 H. Ali et al. / Aquaculture 454 (2016) 199–209 201

Fig. 1. Map showing the geographical distribution of the surveyed farm groups.
202 H. Ali et al. / Aquaculture 454 (2016) 199–209
7) probiotics. The main active ingredients of reported chemicals were
recorded based on the product labels. If the substance was absent
from the product label, the active ingredient was obtained by
searching the product name in the database generated during the
key informant interviews, or by cross checking the product name
with published information. The substance names identified were
coded and entered into a customized electronic database, developed
using MS Access (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA, USA).
2.3. Data analysis
Data collected were coded and incorporated into computerized
databases using Statistical Package for Social Science, SPSS software
(SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA) and Excel software. After checking for nor-
mality, a one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by the
Duncan's Multiple Range Test was used to determine the significance
of differences between the characteristics of the farm groups studied.
Differences were considered to be statistically significant when
p ≤ 0.05.
A multivariate analysis was performed to evaluate different
chemical use practices among the nine farm groups investigated.
Two separate datasets were generated, one containing presence/ab-
sence data of each single chemical or biological substance among
the studied farms, and another one which contained all substances
aggregated into the seven substance categories. A canonical corre-
spondence analysis (CCA) was performed with the first dataset
and a redundancy analysis (RDA) was performed using the second
dataset, both using the farm groups as explanatory variables. Fur-
thermore, correlation between the 17 explanatory variables relating
to farm and respondent characteristics and the chemical use prac-
tices within each farm group was evaluated using the aggregated
substance dataset and performing an RDA. The significance of the
correlation between the chemical use datasets and the explanatory
variables was tested by performing a Monte Carlo permutation test
(n = 499) with the CANOCO 5 software package (Ter Braak and
Šmilauer, 2012). The results of the Monte Carlo permutation test
were considered to be significant when p ≤ 0.05, and marginally sig-
nificant when 0.05 b p b 0.1. Individual biplots were constructed for
each farm group, including only those explanatory variables that
were considered significant or marginally significant in the individual
analysis.
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of studied farm groups
The average age of farmers from all farm groups studied classed
them as middle aged, based on the population of Bangladesh
(Table 2). Heads of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), koi (Anabas
testudineus) and pangas (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) farming
households had a significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) number of years
of formal education than those of other farm groups studied. The av-
erage farm size and water surface area of shrimp was 1.50 ± 0.08 ha
and 1.38 ± 0.07 ha, respectively which was significantly greater
(p ≤ 0.05) than that of other farm groups. On the other hand, the
water depth in shrimp farms was significantly lower than that of
other farm groups (Table 2). Most of the studied farms continued
the production cycle throughout the year, except for the winter
months and some koi and tilapia farms completed more than one
production cycle per year. The highest stocking densities of fingerlings
were found in the intensive pangas, koi and carp farm groups, whereas
shrimp (Penaeus monodon) farmers were found to stock higher
densities of post larvae (PL) than shrimp and prawn (Macrobrachium
rosenbergii) and prawn farmers (Table 2). The mean highest production
(t/ha) was found in koi (33.04 ± 1.17) and pangas (31.50 ± 0.83),
followed by tilapia (11.04 ± 0.78), carp (5.53 ± 0.14), rice-fish
(2.24 ± 0.08), homestead pond1 (1.74 ± 0.03), prawn (1.73 ± 0.07),
shrimp and prawn (1.56 ± 0.06) and shrimp (0.85 ± 0.03). The inten-
sive application of feed in the pangas and koi farms often resulted in
water quality deterioration, which forced farmers to increase the
water exchange rates in comparison to the other farm groups.
3.2. Aquatic animal health issues
The percentage of the farms that reported experiencing any kind of
disease outbreak during the past 12 months was highest in the shrimp
and prawn farm group (35%) followed by shrimp (34%), prawn (29%),
koi (21%), pangas (11%), carp (8%), homestead pond (6%), tilapia (5%)
and rice-fish (4%) (Table 3). The most common disease identified during
the focus group discussions with shrimp farmers was White Spot
Syndrome Virus (WSSV). Prawn farmers faced a variety of disease
problems, but broken antenna and rostrum problems were reported
to be the most common. Farmers identified Epizootic Ulcerative Syn-
drome (EUS) as the most common disease affecting carp and koi pro-
duction, whereas pangas were most commonly affected by red spot
disease or rectal/anal protrusion problems. Tilapia farmers reported
two major disease problems: red spot disease and mortality caused by
parasitic infestations (Table 3).
3.3. Use of chemical and biological products
Forty six different chemicals or biological substances were found to
be used by the aquaculture farmers surveyed (Table 4). The substances
identified were divided into seven categories, based on their main use.
However, it must be noted that some of these substances can be used
for multiple purposes. The same active ingredient was present in multi-
ple products with different brand or trade names in many cases. For this
reason the evaluation is based on the main active substance contained
in these products, rather than the products themselves.
3.3.1. Water and soil treatment compounds
The farms studied used seven different water and soil treatment
compounds (Table 4). Almost all farmers interviewed used at least
one substance for water or soil treatment, with the exception of home-
stead ponds operators (Fig. 2). For integrated rice-fish farmers, water
and soil treatment compounds were the main chemical inputs, with lit-
tle additional fertilization required, due to the leaching of nutrients ap-
plied to the rice crop and from fish excreta. The most commonly used
water and soil treatments were liming compounds (calcium oxide and
calcium carbonate). Most farmers (73%) used lime when drying the
pond after harvest, and before filling the pond with new water. Howev-
er, some homestead pond operators applied liming materials without
discharging pond water as disinfectant to kill pathogens and potential
pests. Use of zeolite was most common among koi farmers (76%) as
compared to shrimp & prawn (48%), pangas (39%), shrimp (32%), tilapia
(28%), prawn (21%) and other farmers. After drying the pond, most koi
(79%) and pangas (56%) farmers used salt to treat the sediments and kill
potential pathogens. Some farms in the carp, pangas and tilapia groups
also applied salt to the water as preventive measure before the winter
season to prevent disease or parasite outbreaks.
3.3.2. Fertilizers
Most of the farms surveyed (74%) used one or more fertilizers during
pond preparation and maintenance, in order to increase the growth of
phytoplankton and zooplankton which is consumed as food by fish.
All the carp farms studied used fertilizers, with additional inputs of sup-
plementary feed (homemade feed and/or commercially produced
pelleted feed). Fertilization was also common among shrimp (95%),
1
Homestead ponds are usually small and are constructed close to the homestead area
and used for a range of domestic purposes. They are stocked mainly with carp and man-
aged extensively or semi-intensively.
 H. Ali et al. / Aquaculture 454 (2016) 199–209 203

tilapia (91%), homestead pond (82%), rice-fish (80%), prawn (70%),

Pangas, n = 321
shrimp and prawn (57%), pangas (47%) and koi (22%) farm groups

1533 ± 57.0
0.57 ± 0.06
41.0 ± 0.7

0.67 ± 0.1

31.5 ± 0.8

28.1 ± 1.5
0.88 ± 0.1
1.5 ± 0.02

1.1 ± 0.01
310 ± 2.7
(Fig. 2). Normally, farmers used a combination of inorganic and organic

8.5 ± 0.3
7.9 ± 0.3

7.1 ± 0.5
fertilizers. The most commonly used organic fertilizer was cow manure

40.5
(45%); however, some farmers also used poultry manure and home-

–
Rice-fish, n = 134 made compost (Table 4). Use of poultry manure was higher among
rice-fish farmers (38%) than in other farm groups. The most common
inorganic fertilizers were nitrogen and phosphorus containing com-

0.30 ± 0.02
0.27 ± 0.02
0.85 ± 0.02

0.27 ± 0.02
402 ± 20.2
43.9 ± 1.1

19.2 ± 2.7
162 ± 3.7
pounds. These were reported to be applied as a single compound, or
9.7 ± 0.5
6.7 ± 0.4

1.0 ± 0.0

2.2 ± 0.1

1.0 ± 0.0
as mixed fertilizer with two compounds. Among the inorganic fertil-

4.7
izers, urea and TSP were applied in large quantities. Overall, sixty

–
percent of farmers interviewed used urea. Use of this fertilizer was sig-
Prawn, n = 212

nificantly higher in carp (99%), tilapia (84%) and shrimp farms (81%),
0.46 ± 0.02
0.36 ± 0.02
1.1 ± 0.01
40.8 ± 0.9
10.6 ± 0.4
6.5 ± 0.3

268 ± 3.2
1.0 ± 0.0
110 ± 6.2
2.1 ± 0.1
1.7 ± 0.1

5.2 ± 1.2
28.9 ± 2.7
0.49 ± 0.1
than among other farm groups (Table 4). However, most of the sur-
veyed farms producing carp (79%), shrimp (72%) and tilapia (69%)
16.0 used TSP in conjunction with urea to fertilize the ponds.
Shrimp and prawn, n = 134

3.3.3. Disinfectants
A wide range of disinfectants were reported to be applied to disin-
fect culture facilities and equipment, and to treat bacterial disease out-
breaks. Thirteen different active ingredients were found to be applied.
These were most commonly used in koi production (72%), followed
0.45 ± 0.03
0.36 ± 0.02
0.96 ± 0.01

1.6 ± 0.06
40.7 ± 1.1
13.8 ± 0.6
7.1 ± 0.4

265 ± 3.9
1.0 ± 0.0
98.1 ± 5.7
6.4 ± 0.3

1.1 ± 0.1
23.5 ± 1.2
0.57 ± 0.1

by pangas (46%), in order to disinfect pond water and control bacterial

outbreaks, followed by shrimp and prawn (35%), shrimp (27%), carp
17.9

(26%), prawn (25%), tilapia (14%), rice-fish (2%) and homestead ponds
(1%) (Fig. 2). The most commonly used disinfectants were potassium
Shrimp, n = 310

permanganate, hydrogen peroxide, sodium percarbonate, and chlorine

0.74 ± 0.01

1.0 ± 0.00

0.85 ± 0.03
42.6 ± 0.6
12.6 ± 0.4
7.2 ± 0.2
1.5 ± 0.1
1.4 ± 0.1

271 ± 2.9

35.3 ± 2.7
8.9 ± 0.3

1.6 ± 0.4
23.2 ± 1.2
1.09 ± 0.1

and chlorine releasing compounds such as quaternary ammonium

compounds (i.e., n alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride and
9.0

benzalkonium chloride) (Table 4). Potassium permanganate was used

mainly by carp (21%), koi (21%), pangas (17%), shrimp and prawn
0.20 ± 0.04
Koi, n = 97

451 ± 30.9

(7%), prawn (5%) and shrimp (4%) farms to treat disease infected fish
1.3 ± 0.03

1.7 ± 0.05
34.7 ± 1.1

0.16 ± 0.0
0.13 ± 0.0

33.0 ± 1.2

25.9 ± 1.4
196 ± 5.3
5.3 ± 0.3
8.2 ± 0.4

8.5 ± 0.1

and disinfect water. Around 19% of shrimp and 10% of shrimp and
39.2

prawn farms applied chlorine directly to the water; on the other hand,
–

52% of koi and 10% of pangas farms used benzalkonium chloride to dis-
Tilapia, n = 95

infect pond water and sediments between production cycles. The most
0.25 ± 0.02
0.20 ± 0.01

445 ± 45.8
37.9 ± 1.1

11.0 ± 0.8

25.0 ± 2.2
0.76 ± 0.5
1.4 ± 0.05
248 ± 6.4

commonly used oxidizing agents were sodium percarbonate and hy-

7.8 ± 0.6
8.7 ± 0.4

1.6 ± 0.1

4.6 ± 0.9

drogen peroxide, which were mainly applied by koi (50%), pangas

26.3

(25%), prawn (17%) and shrimp and prawn (10%) farmers to increase
–
Studied farm groups (Mean ± Standard error)

dissolved oxygen in water, to reduce hardness and to prevent the for-

Carp, n = 212

mation of ammonia, thus improving water quality and the health status
Characteristics of the respondents and production characteristics of the surveyed farm groups.

0.36 ± 0.02
0.28 ± 0.01

690 ± 37.9
42.2 ± 0.9

1.01 ± 0.0

27.1 ± 1.1
0.52 ± 0.1
1.5 ± 0.03
306 ± 3.7
9.2 ± 0.4
7.0 ± 0.3

5.5 ± 0.2

4.3 ± 0.9

of cultured animals.
18.9

3.3.4. Antibiotics
–

Seven antibiotic ingredients were found to be applied by the farms

Homestead pond, n = 381

studied to prevent or treat disease outbreaks. The majority of farmers

who applied antibiotics mixed them with feed (77%), while the remind-
er (23%) applied them directly to water. The highest proportion of
farmers using antibiotics were within the koi farm group (15% of
0.03 ± 0.01
335 ± 12.2
1.5 ± 0.02

1.7 ± 0.03
43.3 ± 0.7
13.0 ± 0.3

0.07 ± 0.0
0.06 ± 0.0

25.0 ± 5.0
286 ± 3.1

farms), followed by pangas (12%), shrimp and prawn (4%), prawn

5.7 ± 0.2

1.0 ± 0.0

1.0 ± 0.0

(3%), carp (3%), shrimp (3%), tilapia (1%), rice-fish (0.26%) and home-
0.52

stead pond (0.26%) producers (Fig. 2). The most commonly used antibi-
–

otic compounds were oxytetracycline and chlortetracycline followed by

Stocking density prawn/shrimp (number/m2)

amoxicillin trihydrate, sulfadiazine, sulfamethoxazole, cotrimoxazole

n = number of surveyed farms in each group.
Volume of water exchange per cycle (%)
Water exchange frequency (times/year)
Household head schooling years (years)

and doxycycline (Table 4). Koi and pangas farmers used the most varied
Water exchange (% farms practicing)

Pond distance from homestead (km)

selection of antibiotics, whereas the rest of farmers mainly applied

Number of crops per year (Cycles)

chlortetracycline and/or oxytetracycline.

Aquaculture experience (years)

Stocking density of fish (kg/ha)

Farm surface water area (ha)
Household head age (years)

3.3.5. Pesticides
Total production (t/ha)

Seven pesticides were reported to be used to treat fungal and para-

Pond/gher depth (m)
Crop duration (days)
Total farm area (ha)

sitic infestations in cultured species and to kill unwanted organisms in

the pond. The highest percentage of farmers using pesticides was
found within the prawn (41%) and shrimp and prawn (37%) groups
Variables

(Fig. 2). There was a marked difference in compounds used among

Table 2

the different farm groups studied. The most commonly used pesticide
compound was found to be rotenone, used to kill unwanted fish
204 H. Ali et al. / Aquaculture 454 (2016) 199–209

Table 3
Disease occurrence in the major species produced in studied farm groups and name of the diseases/syndromes reported.

Variable Homestead pond Carp Tilapia Koi Shrimp Shrimp and prawn Prawn Rice-fish Pangas

Disease occurrence (%) 6 8 5 21 34 35 29 4 11

Disease name/syndrome
Broken Antenna and rostrum disease √ √
Black gill disease √ √ √
Black/brown spot infection √ √ √
Dropsy √ √ √ √
Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome (EUS) √ √ √ √
Fungal disease √
Gill disease √ √
Parasitic disease √ √ √ √ √
Rectal/anal protrusion √
Red spot √ √ √ √ √
Rough skin discoloration √
Scale loss √
Soft shell √ √
Tail and fin rot disease √ √ √ √ √
White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) √ √ √

Table 4
List of chemicals and biological products used by aquaculture farmers in Bangladesh and percentage of farmers that use them.

Homestead pond Carp Tilapia Koi Shrimp Shrimp and prawn Prawn Rice-fish Pangas All

Water and soil treatment compounds (n = 7)

Calcium oxide 63 92 87 89 83 84 92 84 88 82
Calcium carbonate 3.9 9 11 10 4.5 8.2 5.2 7.8 15 7.8
Zeolite 0.79 14 28 76 32 48 21 12 39 26
Sodium chloride 1.1 29 22 79 1.3 2 10 5 56 20
Sodium thiosulfate 0.0 0.0 1.1 3.1 0.32 1.5 1.9 0.0 2.2 0.95
Lactic acid 0.0 0.0 2.1 4.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.2 0.69
Unidentified 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.65 5.2 1.4 7.8 0.0 1.2
Disinfectants (n = 13)
Sodium percarbonate 0.52 2.8 3.2 29 1.6 3 6.6 0.0 8.1 4.7
Hydrogen peroxide 0.0 3.3 4.2 21 1.6 7.5 12 0.0 18 6.5
Calcium peroxide 0.0 0.47 0.0 4.1 0.65 0.75 2.4 0.0 2.5 1.1
Tetra acetyl ethylene diamine (TAED) 0.0 0.94 0.0 1.0 0.32 0.75 0.47 0.0 3.1 0.85
Benzalkonium chloride (BKC) 0.0 0.94 1.1 2.1 0.65 0.75 0.94 0.0 1.3 0.74
n Alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride 0.0 2.4 4.2 52 0.32 3.7 0.94 0.78 10 5.3
Tetradecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.1 0.32 6.0 2.4 0.0 0.62 1.1
Chlorine 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.1 19 9.7 2.4 0.0 0.62 4.3
Potassium permanganate 0.79 21 4.2 21 3.9 6.7 5.2 0.78 17 8.5
Formaldehyde 0.0 0.47 0.0 1.0 0.65 0.75 0.94 0.0 0.62 0.48
Potassium peroximono sulfate 0.0 0.94 6.3 2.1 1.6 1.5 0.94 0.0 2.8 1.5
Copper sulfate 0.0 0.47 1.1 2.1 0.65 0.75 0.47 0.0 1.3 0.63
Unidentified 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.6 0.0 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.42
Antibiotics (n = 7)
Amoxicillin trihydrate 0.0 0.0 1.1 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.62 0.21
Chlortetracycline 0.0 0.94 0.0 8.3 1.9 3 2.8 0.0 4.7 2.2
Oxytetracycline 0.26 1.9 0.0 7.2 1.3 2.2 1.9 0.78 5.6 2.2
Sulfadiazine 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.62 0.16
Sulfamethoxazole 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.62 0.16
Cotrimoxazole 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.62 0.11
Doxycycline 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.62 0.16
Pesticides (n = 7)
Yucca plant extract 0.0 0.0 7.4 1.1 0.32 1.5 0.47 0.0 0.31 0.69
Rotenone 2.6 4.7 8.4 8.2 3.9 32 34 0.0 13 11
Malathion 0.0 1.9 0.0 3.1 7.7 2.2 1.9 0.0 1.3 2.2
Trichlorfon 0.0 0.0 1.1 1.1 0.0 1.5 0.47 0.0 0.93 0.42
Methylene blue 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.2 8.7 6.0 9.4 0.0 4.7 4.0
Fenitrothion 0.26 21 4.2 4.1 3.6 2.2 1.9 3.1 3.4 4.6
Malachite green 0.0 0.94 0.0 3.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.9 0.58
Feed additives (n = 3)
Vitamin premix 0.0 5.2 21 30 0.97 5.2 21 1.6 27 11
Vitamin-C 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.2 0.0 0.0 1.4 0.0 10 2.3
Herbal growth factor 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.1 0.0 0.0 0.47 0.0 1.6 0.48
Probiotics 0.0 0.0 6.3 3.1 2.3 9.7 9.0 0.0 4.7 3.3
Fertilizers (n = 8)
Compost 0.52 9.9 1.1 0.0 0.65 0.75 0.94 3.9 1.3 2.0
Cow manure 69 53 65 11 52 19 38 44 22 45
Chicken manure 7.1 6.6 3.2 0.0 1.3 1.5 0.47 38 1.6 5.6
Molasses/Yeast 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.0 9.0 0.0 0.47 0.0 0.0 1.6
Urea 59 99 84 9.3 81 49 55 40 42 60
TSP 40 79 69 6.2 72 29 43 40 26 47
MP 5.8 36 22 1.0 7.4 31 40 3.9 5.0 15
DAP 0.79 14 1.1 1.0 32 21 26 3.1 8.1 13

n = number of substances or products within each category.

 H. Ali et al. / Aquaculture 454 (2016) 199–209 205

Fig. 2. Percentage of farmers that use antibiotics, disinfectants, water and soil treatment compound, pesticides, feed additives, probiotics and fertilizers in each of the studied farm groups.

entering the ponds with the inflow water before stocking. It was found farms (0.1–0.3 ha; 51%), medium scale farms (0.3–1.0 ha; 42%) and
that 34% of prawn and 32% of shrimp and prawn farmers used it, which large scale farms (N1.0 ha; 32%), and a reverse tendency was found
was much higher compared to other farm groups. The highest frequen- to use inorganic fertilizers among different farm groups. The use of
cy of application of the insecticide fenitrothion was found among carp disinfectants was found to be higher in large scale farms (35%)
farms (21% of farms) followed by other freshwater and brackish water followed by medium scale farms (32%), small scale farms (23%) and
farms. The insecticide malathion was applied by 8% shrimp farms; a very small scale farms (3.2%). This tendency was similar for the use of
much greater share than in any other farm category. These organophos- antibiotics, pesticides, feed additives (mainly vitamins) and probiotics
phate insecticides were used to control parasitic infestations, and for (Table 5).
killing unwanted organisms during pond preparation prior to stocking.
A similar percentage of prawn (9%), shrimp (9%), koi (6%), shrimp and 3.4. Factors related to the number of chemical and biological products used
prawn (6%) and pangas (5%) farms used the fungicide methylene blue,
whereas malachite green was applied by the 3%, 2%, and 1% of surveyed Results of the multivariate analysis show that the numbers of
koi, pangas and carp farmers, respectively. chemical and biological products differed significantly by the different
aquaculture farm groups. Fig. 3 indicates that use of water and soil
3.3.6. Feed additives treatment compounds in shrimp and prawn farms and fertilizers in
Three different feed additive products were reported to be used the homestead ponds was more common than in other farm groups
(i.e., vitamin premix, vitamin-c and herbal growth factor) to ensure op- studied. However, the highest number of individual pesticide com-
timal diet quality and to improve immunological status of cultured spe- pounds was found to be used by the pangas and tilapia farm groups
cies. Such products were used mainly by koi (33%), pangas (27%), tilapia whereas a larger number of disinfectants, feed additives and probiotics
(21%), prawn (21%) and carp (5%) farmers (Fig. 2). The most commonly were used by shrimp and shrimp and prawn farms.
used among these feed additives were vitamin premixes, and the The parameters tested in the multivariate analysis and the charac-
highest frequency of application was found for koi farms (30%) followed teristics of the studied farm groups are shown in Table 2, while the re-
by pangas (27%), prawn (21%), tilapia (21%), shrimp and prawn (5%) sults from the Monte Carlo permutation test for each of the studied
and carp (5%) farms (Table 4). aquaculture farm groups are provided in the Supplementary Material
(Fig. S1). The number of chemical and biological products used was
3.3.7. Probiotics
Several probiotic products containing different concentrations of
beneficial bacteria such as Bacillius spp. and yeast, Rhodopseudomonas Table 5
Use of chemicals and biological products by farm size.
sp., Rodobacter sp., Rodococcus sp. and Streptococcus spp. were used. Of
the farmers who used these products, most (95%) applied these prod- Very small Small Medium Large
ucts directly to water in order to treat water or sediment to improve (b0.1 ha) (0.1–0.3 ha) (0.3–1.0 ha) (N1.0 ha)
Compounds n = 370 n = 466 n = 671 n = 383
its quality and to reduce stress to the animals cultured. Some pangas
and koi farmers (5%) also mixed them with feed as nutritional sup- Water and soil treatment
compounds
plements to improve food digestibility and the health of cultured
Lime 71 91 92 94
species in order to prevent disease outbreaks. The highest percent- Salt 6.5 24 24 21
age of probiotic application was found in shrimp and prawn farms Zeolite 3.0 22 33 39
(10%) followed by prawn (9%), tilapia (6%), pangas (5%), koi (3%) and Other 0.27 1.7 4.0 4.2
shrimp (2) (Fig. 2; Table 4). Probiotics were not reported to be used in Disinfectants 3.2 23 32 35
Antibiotics 0.54 2.6 5.4 8.1
the homestead pond, carp and the rice-fish farms surveyed. Pesticides 3.5 19 26 24
Feed additives
3.3.8. Chemicals and biological products use by different farm size groups Vitamins 1.9 9.2 13 17
Farm size has been reported to be a good indicator for different Other 0.27 1.3 3.0 5.7
Probiotics 0.27 2.4 4.5 5.5
chemical use practices (Rico et al., 2013; Phu et al., 2015). In this
Fertilizers
study the farm size (i.e., surface area) was also found to correspond Cow manure 71 46 38 28
with different chemical use practices. The use of water and soil treat- Other organic fertilizer 7.6 11 9.7 6.3
ment compounds was generally lower in very small farms (size Urea 59 58 61 64
b0.1 ha; Table 5). On the other hand, a higher number of very small TSP 38 44 50 52
Other inorganic fertilizer 8.9 25 32 28
farms (75%) applied organic fertilizers as compared to small scale
206 H. Ali et al. / Aquaculture 454 (2016) 199–209

Fig. 3. A. RDA ordination diagram indicating the different use of chemical classes in the studied farm groups. Of all the variance observed in the chemical use dataset, 8.8% can be explained
by the different aquaculture farm groups. Of this variance, 84% is displayed on the first axis (x) and 11% on the second axis (y). The results of the Monte Carlo permutations indicate that a
significant part of the variance on chemical use is explained by the different aquaculture farm groups (p = 0.002). B. CCA ordination diagram indicating the different use of chemical com-
pounds in the studied farm groups. Of all the variance observed in the chemical use dataset, 6.3% can be explained by the different aquaculture farm groups. Of this variance, 45% is
displayed on the first axis (x) and 19% on the second axis (y). The results of the Monte Carlo permutations indicate that a significant part of the variance on chemical use is explained
by the different aquaculture farm groups (p = 0.002). Only the 15 most relevant chemicals are displayed.

found to be positively correlated with stocking density in farms produc-
ing carp (p = 0.03), tilapia (p = 0.004), prawn (p = 0.002), shrimp
(p = 0.05), shrimp and prawn (p = 0.06), pangas (p = 0.08) and home-
stead pond (p = 0.09) groups. This result may be related to the need for
more intensive management of water quality parameters when animals
are stocked at higher densities, and may also reflect the investment
capacity of farmers, with those able to afford to stock at high densities
also being able to afford other inputs.
Similarly, the stocking densities of shrimp and prawn PL were posi-
tively correlated with the number of water and treatment compounds,
disinfectants, feed additives and antibiotics used in the shrimp
(p = 0.004), and shrimp and prawn (p = 0.08) farm groups. In koi
farms, longer cropping cycle duration (p = 0.08) tended to correlate
with the use of a larger number of chemical and biological products,
and a similar result was found for rice-fish farmers (p = 0.01). Num-
ber of schooling years also correlated (p = 0.04) with a higher use of
chemicals in rice-fish farms. The larger number of fertilizers was ap-
plied in prawn farms with high farm productivity (p = 0.002). A
similar trend was observed in shrimp and prawn (p = 0.002), tilapia
(p = 0.02), shrimp (p = 0.01), pangas (p = 0.04) and homestead
pond (p = 0.02) farms. The number of crops per year was found to be
significantly correlated with the reported number of pesticides and dis-
infectants used in tilapia farms (p = 0.004), and marginally correlated
in shrimp farms (p = 0.054).
In the pangas farm group, a positive correlation was found between
the number of fertilizers, pesticides and disinfection treatments used,
and the frequency (p = 0.01) and volume of water exchange (p =
0.03). The number of ponds on a farm was correlated to the higher use
of antibiotics, probiotics, water and sediment treatment compounds
and disinfectants in the shrimp farm group (p = 0.006). A similar tenden-
cy was found for using water and sediment treatments in tilapia (p =
0.06) and pesticides in rice-fish (p = 0.06). A higher frequency of use of
fertilizers was found among the farmers of the shrimp farm group with
more experience on aquaculture production practices (p = 0.016).
4. Discussion
4.1. Chemical and biological product use in aquaculture in Bangladesh
The tendency towards the intensification of aquaculture production
practices in Bangladesh (Belton and Azad, 2012) seems to be resulting
in a greater reliance on the use of chemical and biological products.
Among the different types of water and sediment treatment compounds
used, liming materials were widely applied by all the types of farms
surveyed. Generally, liming materials were wetted and distributed
over pond water and sediments to neutralize acidity and increase total
alkalinity (Boyd and Tucker, 1998). The majority of commercial farms
in the present study also used zeolite to remove ammonia and hydrogen
sulfide gas (with potential to lead to toxicity), and to control pathogens.
In some cases, farmers also reported to use zeolite to reduce the turbid-
ity of pond water to facilitate phytoplankton growth. Ammonia accu-
mulation caused by excessive feed use and the accumulation of fish
excreta in koi farms was found to be related to a high prevalence of ze-
olite use among these farmers. Removal of ammonia was also reported
to be the main rationale for use of zeolite in brackish water shrimp
ponds; nevertheless, the efficacy of this practice has been broadly
questioned (Boyd, 1995; GESAMP, 1997) since ammonia absorption is
greatly repressed by the high concentrations of dissolved cations in
brackish waters, meaning that the cavities of zeolites can hardly absorb
gases. Most of the water and soil treatment compounds used can be
considered as relatively innocuous inorganic substances with a short
environmental lifespan, and have no toxic effects on aquatic organisms
when applied in recommended dosages. They may, however alter, at
least temporarily, water quality parameters such as alkalinity, hardness
and pH in receiving ecosystems (Boyd and Massaut, 1999; Rico et al.,
2012). Application of sodium chloride to treat external parasites and
fungal infections in fishes was also a common practice across most
farm groups.
Most of the studied farms groups used fertilizers to stimulate phyto-
plankton growth, and ultimately enhance the growth of plankton feed-
ing fish and crustaceans (GESAMP, 1997; Boyd and Tucker, 1998; Boyd
and Massaut, 1999). However, only a limited number of koi farms ap-
plied fertilizers, because of their highly dependency on commercially
produced pelleted feed. Eutrophication in receiving waters due to feed
inputs and fertilizers is one of the main criticisms of the environmental
performance of the aquaculture sector globally (Naylor et al., 2000;
Primavera, 2006).
Almost one fourth of the farms studied exchanged pond water, with
the exception of rice-fish and homestead ponds. Most of these
discharged pond water into adjacent crop land, canals, rivers and fallow
land without treatment, though it is recommended that the organic load
of water and load of solid suspended materials in effluent water should
 H. Ali et al. / Aquaculture 454 (2016) 199–209
be less than that of receiving waters (DOF, 2011). Intensive pangas and
koi farms exchanged water more frequently than other farm groups, but
the frequency and volume of water exchange in Bangladesh are very
low compared to high daily rates of water exchange in pangasius
farms in Vietnam (Phan et al., 2009). High levels of disinfectant use
and discharge of wastewater into the surrounding environment can re-
sult in negative impacts on surrounding aquatic ecosystems (Rico et al.,
2012; Phu et al., 2015). However, relatively low levels of application of
disinfectants and limited water exchange in Bangladesh equate to quite
limited environmental impacts and ecological risks to non-target aquat-
ic organisms (Rico and Van den Brink, 2014). Targeted use of nutrient
enriched wastewater from fish ponds also has the potential to increase
the productivity of rice, fodder and crops on adjacent crop land and to
reduce fertilizer and irrigation costs (Khan, 2009; Ali and Haque,
2011; Haque et al., 2016), although there is a danger that applying ex-
cessive nutrients to rice will result in excessive vegetative growth (Ali
et al., 2013).
The more intensive farm groups, particularly koi and pangas,
were found to rely on different types of disinfectants (i.e. sodium
percarbonate, hydrogen peroxide, n alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammoni-
um chloride), more than other farm types; however, the prevalence
of the use of these compounds in the pangas farm group was low, as
compared to pangasius production in Vietnam (Rico et al., 2013). The
majority of the farms studied used chlorine and chlorine containing
compounds, potassium permanganate and oxidizing agents. Chlorine
is widely used as a disease prevention measure in intensive aquaculture
(Graslund, 1998) as, besides controlling phytoplankton and macro-
algae abundance in ponds, it kills small crustaceans and other inver-
tebrates that could act as vectors for the disease-causing organisms
(Boyd, 1996; Dierberg and Kiattisimkul, 1996; Kongkeo, 1997). Po-
tassium permanganate was used to treat fungal infections and as
piscicide or general disinfectant, principally in fish production. Ac-
cording to Faruk et al. (2008), the most commonly used oxidizing
agents used in fresh and brackish water aquaculture in Bangladesh
are sodium percarbonate and hydrogen peroxide. This was con-
firmed by the present study. Sodium percarbonate and hydrogen
peroxide are also used to remove hardness and poisonous gases
and to help preventing fish diseases by improving water quality.
The majority of the interviewed farmers used their bare hands to
mix antibiotics with feed or, in the case of prawn and shrimp farms,
applied them directly to the pond water surface upon outbreak dis-
ease. Most farms in the present study used tetracycline antibiotics
(i.e., chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline) to treat disease affected
fish (94%) and/or as a prophylactic (6%). Tetracyclines are used in
aquaculture in different concentrations and spectrums in most Asian
countries (Baticados et al., 1990; Primavera, 1993; Faruk et al., 2008).
These antibiotics are effective against a wide range of Gram-positive
and Gram-negative bacteria, including the Gram-negative Vibrio spp.
(GESAMP, 1997). Intensive koi and pangas farms used a more varied
range of antibiotics as compared to other farm groups. These included
sulfadiazine, sulfamethoxazole, cotrimoxazole and doxycycline. The
use of antibiotics in aquaculture may cause the development of antibi-
otic resistance among pathogens, which compromises both human
and cultivated animals' health (Holmström et al., 2003) with a conse-
quent loss of the efficacy of these antibiotics (Bartie et al., 2012; Dung
et al., 2009). However, the present study indicates that the frequency
of antibiotic use in aquaculture in Bangladesh is presently much lower
than in other Asian countries/species [e.g. pangasius in Vietnam
(100%), tilapia in Thailand (9.7%) and China (16%) and shrimp in
China (6.7%)] (Rico et al., 2013; Phu et al., 2015).
The most commonly used pesticide in the present study was found
to be rotenone (Table 2). Rotenone is the cheapest fish toxicant avail-
able and is widely used in freshwater and brackish water fish nursery
and grow-out ponds to remove unwanted species and other harmful
aquatic organisms (Chowdhury et al., 2012). Boyd and Massaut
(1999) reported that rotenone is not associated with any food safety
207
hazards. However, the application of this substance to kill unwanted
fish in aquaculture ponds often causes a significant decline in zooplank-
ton, with cladocera and copepoda being particularly affected (Ling,
2003). Tilapia and koi farms were found to use yucca plant extract and
aluminum phosphate to control unwanted organisms. These are de-
graded by bacteria and are not expected to pose significant environ-
mental threats (Boyd and Massaut, 1999). Fenitrothion was used by
some studied carp farms for the eradication of aquatic insects (mainly
tiger bug) prior to the release of fry or fingerlings. Fenitrothion is consid-
ered a potentially toxic pollutant which can contaminate aquatic ecosys-
tems and is moderately toxic to fish (Thomson, 1989; Benli and Özkul,
2010). The chemical has adverse effects on the metabolism of macro-
molecules and hematopoietic organs of fish, and its use may pose a
threat to humans, fauna and flora of the environment (Salam, 2014).
The farms studied also used fungicides such as methylene blue and
malachite green, which are moderately to highly toxic to aquatic inverte-
brates, fish and primary producers depending on their specific mode of ac-
tion (Maltby et al., 2009). Chemicals banned under the 2011 national code
of conduct for the regulation of aquaculture in Bangladesh were not gen-
erally reported, with the exception of malachite green, which was used by
a limited number of koi, pangas and carp farms and is internationally
banned, due to its attributed carcinogenic properties (Srivastava et al.,
2004). Such results are in line with a study by Rico et al. (2013), who
also identified the use of this compound in one shrimp farm surveyed.
Most of the farms studied used feed additives, particularly vitamin
premix mixed with feed, to ensure optimal diet quality and to improve
the immunological status of cultured fish. Probiotics are considered an
environmentally safe alternative to the prophylactic use of antibiotics
and are used to improve water quality and immunological status of
cultured species (Decamp et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2008). Probiotics
have only recently been introduced for aquaculture production in
Bangladesh. The present study shows that several probiotics were
used for multiple purposes. Probiotics compete with bacterial patho-
gens for nutrients and/or inhibit the growth of pathogens and they are
only effective and cost-beneficial when properly applied together with
a suitable farm management (Decamp et al., 2008). Therefore, knowl-
edge of intestinal microbiology and effective preparation and safety
evaluation of probiotics are very important for commercial aquaculture
(Wang et al., 2008). Probiotics can play an important role in maintaining
water quality parameters, soil quality and health management as well
as increasing the growth and survival of shrimp (Hossain et al., 2013a,
Hossain et al., 2013b). The studied farm groups mainly used Bacillus
spp. which improved water quality, survival and growth rates and the
health status of shrimp and reduced the pathogenic Vibrio spp.
(Dalmin et al., 2001). The frequency of probiotic use in the surveyed
farm groups was very limited as compared to other Asian countries
such as shrimp and pangasius farm in Vietnam, tilapia and shrimp
farm in Thailand (Rico et al., 2013), where alternatives to intensive an-
timicrobial use have been intensively researched and implemented.
Farm size was positively correlated with the use of most chemical
and biological products. This observation is related to the fact that few
of the smallest farms (i.e. homestead pond farms) are managed on a
commercial basis, and thus use only limited inputs. This is also a reflec-
tion of the fact that operators of larger farms are likely to have greater
financial capacity to invest in input use. However, a higher percentage
of small scale farm groups used organic fertilizers as they are cheaper
than comercially available inorganic fertilizers. Organic manures have
traditionally been used as a source of nutrients for fish ponds in rural
areas of Bangladesh (Barman and Karim, 2007).
4.2. Factors influencing use of chemical and biological products in
aquaculture
Results of the multivariate analysis indicate that use of chemical and
biological products in the studied farm groups was correlated with a
number of factors. Application of water and soil treatment compounds
208 H. Ali et al. / Aquaculture 454 (2016) 199–209
in carp, shrimp, shrimp and prawn and tilapia farms to treat soil and
water was positively correlated to stocking densities of carp fingerlings
and PL. The fertilization of homestead ponds and prawn farms is also
correlated with higher stocking densities of fingerlings. Use of
probiotics, was also positively correlated with stocking densities of
shrimp and prawn PL. These results suggest that the application of
these compounds in extensive and improved extensive farming sys-
tems could increase opportunities for stocking fingerlings/PL at
higher densities. Similarly, Rico et al. (2013) reported that use of
chemical and biological products in shrimp and prawn farms in
Bangladesh seemed to correspond with increased survival rates of
PL.
The farms studied experienced a variety of disease problems. Disease
outbreaks have been recognized as one of the main constraint to the de-
velopment of the aquaculture sector in Bangladesh (MacRae et al., 2002;
Faruk, 2008; Paul and Vogl, 2011; Rahman, 2011; Karim et al., 2012),
and most freshwater fish species farmed are affected by different
types of disease, causing significant monetary loses (Hasan et al.,
2013). Most of the farmers surveyed across farm categories applied
chemicals when faced some disease or mortality problems, based on
their own knowledge or on the instructions provided by chemical
sellers. Very high stocking densities and high levels of feed use in koi
farming in Bangladesh often result in deteriorating water quality, and
has been associated with disease outbreaks (Rahman, 2013) that reduce
productivity (Kulsum, 2005). A number of disinfectants and pesticides
were applied in intensive koi farms to improve water quality parame-
ters and minimize disease outbreaks, both of which were positively cor-
related with longer cropping cycles.
Results showed a correlation between fertilization and yields in
prawn, tilapia and homestead pond farm groups. This confirms the po-
tential to increase the productivity of extensive and improved extensive
farming systems by the simple means of improved fertilization. On the
other hand, there was a tendency for treatment with antibiotics to
increase in line with productivity in intensive pangas and improved
extensive shrimp and prawn farms. However, among the shrimp farm
group, there was also a correlation between probiotic use and farm pro-
ductivity, perhaps suggesting potential for use of probiotics to serve as a
preventive measure against disease outbreaks, thereby reducing reli-
ance on chemotherapy and indicating possible benefits from the expan-
sion of probiotic use in shrimp farming systems in Bangladesh.
5. Concluding remarks and future prospects for the sector
This study identified a wide range of chemical and biological products
used in aquaculture in Bangladesh. The widespread and continuous use
of some of the chemicals identified can potentially pose a risk to aquatic
animal health, the surrounding environment and human health. Further
research should focus on assessing their environmental discharge and
impacts, particularly for koi, pangas, shrimp and prawn, and develop
cost-benefit analyses of these chemicals in aquatic health management,
which may help to limit or optimize their use in aquaculture.
Newly introduced probiotics may provide an appropriate alternative
to the increasing use of antimicrobial compounds in aquaculture as
stocking densities increase, resulting in the deterioration of water qual-
ity. This possibility implies the need to test the efficacy of these sub-
stances more rigorously, and to perform cost-benefit analyses under
field conditions in Bangladesh. Regarding occupational health hazards
and human health risks, it should be noted that most of the farmers
interviewed who used antimicrobial products did so without taking
any protective handling measures, indicating a need for further educa-
tion and training.
The diagnostic capacities of farmers and their access to diagnostic
and veterinary services should also be improved through training on
aquatic animal health and provision of more responsive public services.
Chemical supply shops were identified as important sources of informa-
tion for the farmers surveyed, and improving the knowledge and
capacity of chemical retailers to provide improved diagnostic services
to farmers is therefore of crucial importance. The government of
Bangladesh should also seek improve the system for registration and
risk evaluation of aquaculture chemicals, as already implemented in
most developed countries. This will require improvements in the proce-
dures for registration of chemicals at the national level, and more rigor-
ous evaluation of substances in terms of their occupational health,
human health, and environmental risks in the context of aquaculture
in Bangladesh.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2015.12.025.
Acknowledgments
This paper is a contribution to the CGIAR Research Program on Live-
stock and Fish (L&F). We gratefully acknowledge financial contributions
from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID)
Feed the Future Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia project
(CSISA-BD, Grant no.: EEM-G-00-04-0013).
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