UNIT 1: DOING PHILOSOPHY

THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF PHILOSOPHY

One day as Pythagoras was watching the Olympic Games, he observed that that there are three classes
of people. First was the one he called lovers of gain, these are the people whose main objective is to gain
material possessions. The second class he coined lovers of honor, these are the kind of people whose goal in life
is to achieve fame and honor by distinguishing themselves from others in different pursuits of life. The third
class he observed were those who does not care much for fame and wealth but whose main hope is to gain
understanding of the spectacle, these he called lovers of wisdom. Pythagoras thus gave them the good name of
philosophers. Philosopher comes from two Greek words: philo, lovers, and sophia, wisdom.
Philosophy formally understood as the science or study of all things through their ultimate causes and
principles under the light of natural reason or human reason. Philosophy being the science that studies all
things (reality) means that it leads us to gain a deeper understanding of our world by seeking out the most
profound reason for all things, answering not only the “what” and “when” of reality but the “why”, “how” and
“for what purpose.” Philosophy helps man seek for meaning not only of reality but ultimately of life and himself.
Philosophy can be considered as the mother of other sciences. Since it sees thing from a broader perspective.
Philosophy helps man to see the world from a bigger and holistic perspective. Rather than seeing the
world from a limited point of view, philosophy helps us to see reality like looking from the eye of a bird at flight,
seeing the entirety of the landscape below it. Philosophy helps us understand the interconnectedness of the
world and the continuity of actions from being to being. That in every action that man do there will always be
an appropriate reaction in response to it. Philosophy helps us to see beyond the physical aspect of things. It
helps us to see the nature or the essence of things. It goes beyond the physical composition. It helps us to see
the substance of things to understand and know the purpose of things better.
Holistic perspective and Partial Thinking
Being said that philosophy helps us to see the world in a broad perspective, we must note that
philosophizing helps us to have a holistic perspective rather than a partial one. What then is the difference
between holistic perspective and partial thinking?
• Holistic perspective
o Refers to the perspective that considers large scale patterns in system
o Often describe as looking at the “big picture” when describing and analyzing a situation
o a problem requires an individual to have an open mindset and an ability to get the general sense
or impression regarding a topic
• Partial Thinking
o Focuses on specific aspects of a situation
o Important component of analytical thinking, as an individual focus on certain areas or aspects of
a problem in order to understand it
o though partial thinking is useful, philosophy utilizes holistic thinking in making sense of problem
and issues related to the situation or problem.
Adopting a holistic view enables a person to view a problem more objectively and come up with better
decisions or solutions. A holistic view also means that one does not confine one’s understanding of the world
to one’s own perspective, but also includes the perspective of others. This view enables a person to better
appreciate his or her experience as vital components of better decision making and dealing with others.
HUMAN ACTS and ACTS OF MAN
Man, a being capable of self-reflection, a gift which is endowed in him alone among all mortal creation,
entails that man is always aware of his actions. It means that his/her decisions and choices are always acted out
with his own free will. These actions that are proper to man are identified as HUMAN ACTS. Human Acts are
actions of men that are freely done, this means that the actions are voluntary and are under direct control of
the will. But sometimes we notice that there are actions that we don’t have control of, these acts are called as
ACTS OF MAN. Acts of Man in contrast to human acts are actions that men/women share with other animals.
Example of actions that we share with animals are vegetative acts, acts of perception and emotions.
HUMAN ACT ACT OF MAN
• Acts proper to man as man • Acts shared with other animals
• Proceeds from Intellect (deliberate • Actions stemming from man’s senses,
actions) and will (free actions) instinct, and appetite
• Intentional

Human Activities emanated from deliberate reflection

In the process, one can learn more about himself or herself, including personal beliefs, ideals or values.
Previous experiences may be seen as important aspects of making reflections because they facilitate deeper
thinking and understanding of the self. Aside from knowing the self, many other activities also emanate from
reflection.
Examples:
• Learning from your previous experiences and not repeating them again
• Evaluating and knowing the best choice from a set of options
• Gaining a holistic point of view first before making any conclusion
Beginning and end of philosophy
Philosophy begins with wonder. Once man becomes aware of the things around him, he begins to
question. He starts to wonder the “why, how and what” of things. “Wonder is the feeling of a philosopher, and
philosophy begins in wonder.” For, “it is owing to their wonder that men both now begin and at first began to
philosophize.” Such sense of wonder impels men not just to take things for granted but to look for their causes
and explanation. An honest search for knowledge eventually ends up in the ‘sense of mystery.’ Philosophy ends
(as a termination or limitation) in DEATH; for no man can philosophize after death. While, (as a purpose or goal),
Philosophy end in a REALIZATION. Man comes to realize that he cannot fully grasp the totality of reality itself.
The answers to his questions will lead further enigmas and puzzles. Socrates himself affirms this fact as he
realizes that the more we know the more we find out how little we know. In his honest search for truth, man
learns to acknowledge the limitation of the power of his reason. Paradoxically, his infinite capacity for
knowledge seems to contradict his infinite longing for the truth. But man can always be a lover of wisdom.
Thomas Aquinas acknowledges the sense of mystery before his death when he exclaimed that he could not
write anymore. It was said that he was able to have the vision of god himself making him realize that all he had
written seems straw compared to what he had seen.
The goal of philosophizing and the reason for studying philosophy
The main object of philosophizing is “to know the truth of things” (OBJECTIVITY) not to impose our truth
on things (SUBJECTIVITY). In philosophy, we need to have the correct perspective. And the correct perspective
is an objective perspective since it is the only perspective that can lead us to Truth, which is objective in nature.
This aim leads us to arrive the “certainty of truth.” Philosophy concerns how man sees the reality. His perception
to the reality conditions his actions, since man lives as he believes. His pattern of thinking greatly affects the
quality of his life. In this way, philosophy shape man’s worldview. Hence the orderly study of philosophy is most
recommendable, so as to attain a correct and well-founded view of reality. Marcus Aurelius once said “the
happiness of your life depends on the quality of your thoughts.” St. Paul in his letters to the Philippians
encourages us to direct our thoughts to whatever is holy, decent, pleasing and perfect (Phil. 4:8).
Meaning and process of doing philosophy
Doing philosophy means engaging oneself in “matters of utility” and methodologies to eliminate any
practical problem or abstract idea. In the process of doing philosophy, it is critical to have a holistic point of view
– the perception of looking at all aspects of a situation first before making a conclusion. Some other skills
involved in doing philosophy are CRITICAL, LOGICAL and ANALYTICAL THINKING, OBSERVATION and
COMMUNICATIVE SKILLS.
PROCESSES INVOLVED IN DOING PHILOSOPHY:
• Abstraction – a distinctive mental process in which new ideas are formed by considering common
features of several objects or ideas and ignoring the irrelevant features that distinguish those objects or
ideas.
• Deduction – Begins in a UNIVERSAL IDEA to a PARTICULAR OBSERVATION then to the CONCLUSION or
INFERRENCE (a conclusion based on EVIDENCE and REASONING)
o Example: All men are Mortal. (Universal Idea) Cardo is a man. (Particular Observation) Therefore,
Cardo is mortal. (Inference)
• Induction – Begins in a PARTICULAR OBSERVATION to a UNIVERSAL IDEA then to the CONCLUSION or
INFERRENCE.
o Example: I develop rashes when I eat peanuts. (Particular Observation) Rashes are symptoms of
allergy. (Universal Idea) Therefore, I am allergic to peanuts. (Inference)
Importance of doing philosophy
Doing philosophy can be applied to day-to-day activities and life perspectives. Because it involves an
evaluative process, doing philosophy allows a person to make better decisions and act accordingly to situations
with the help of various philosophical skills.
Furthermore, on life perspectives, philosophy enables reflective thinking which greatly influences a
person’s view of life, challenges and relationships. Doing philosophy directs how a person will perceive these
factors in life and how they will be faced.
In any setting, wisdom is always gained when philosophy is applied to formulate a conclusion about a
certain concern.
UNIT 2: METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING
Philosophizing
Philosophizing means to think or express oneself in a philosophical manner. It considers or discusses a
matter from a philosophical standpoint. In existentialism truth is based on exercising choices and personal
freedom, in postmodernism it is accepted that truth is not absolute and in logic, truth is based on reasoning and
critical thinking.
Logic
Logic is derived from the Greek word logos, which means “spoken word,” “speech,” or “reason.” It was
introduced by Zeno, a Greek philosopher, through is use of the term logike, which means “discourse of thinking”
or “treaties on thought.” Logic is formally defined as a science and art of correct thinking. Defined as a science
of correct thinking logic consists of a systematized knowledge of the principles that govern correct thinking. In
this vein, logic is not based on mere opinion or hypothesis, but on certain and demonstrated knowledge.
As an art of correct thinking, logic directs reason itself. Through logic, man’s reason is guided so that it
can proceed according to a system or order with ease and cautious avoidance of error as it draws definitions
and understands terms, propositions, syllogisms and fallacies among others.
Looking out for fallacies
The term fallacy is derived from the Latin infinitive fallere, which means to deceive or to appeal false or
deceptive. Fallacy happens, as maintained by logicians, when the mistake in reasoning is unintentional. To
further understand fallacy here are some kinds of fallacies.
1. Equivocation – employs vague terms or those used in an equivocal manner, in the course of the
argument or syllogism.
2. Amphiboly – this kind of fallacy arises from a defect in grammatical construction.
 3. Accent – arises due to a difference in interpretation brought about by misplaced emphasis on a phrase,
word or syllable in a proposition.
4. Division – arises when an argument takes what is true of the whole to be also true of its parts, or when
an argument takes the attributes of a collection of elements as the attributes of the elements
themselves.
5. Composition – arises when an argument proceeds to take the attributes of the parts to be that same
attributes of the whole itself.
6. Circular argument – arises when a proposition is argued as true because it is true.
7. Complex question – arises when the question raised presupposes an answer to another question which
is not raised.
8. Repeated assertion – arises when one believes that if one tells a big lie and this lie is told often enough,
people will come to believe that such lie is the truth.
9. Accident – general rules are applied to particular cases when particular cases have circumstances which
may not allow general rules to be applicable.
10. Converse accident – reverse of the fallacy of accident. Here, special or particular cases or circumstances
are applied to general rules. It is fallacious because what is true of one is not necessarily true of all.
11. Tu quoque – the so-called “two wrongs make a right” fallacy arises when one answers a charge of
wrongdoing by a similar charge to his opponent.
12. False cause – arises when one assigns as the cause those facts that merely preceded or accompanied
the effect.
13. Non sequitur – fallacy of “it does not follow.” Arises in an argument where the conclusion categorically
or completely lacks connection to the proposition.
14. Argumentum ad hominem – committed when the real claims or issues of an argument are ignored and
the character, personality or belief of the opponent is emphasized.
15. Argumentum ad ignorantiam – also called as the fallacy of appeal to ignorance, arises when an argument
is taken as true just because it has not been proven as false, or when an argument is taken as false
because it has not been proven as true.
16. Argumentum ad verecundiam – arises when one has difficulty in confronting or understanding
complicated questions seeks refuge to ideas, concepts, principles or judgments of a person who enjoys
a reputation of an expert or an authority on the matter at hand. Also known as the fallacy of appeal to
awe, modesty, respect or authority.
17. Argumentum ad populum – also called as the fallacy of appeal to people. Arises when one, instead of
concentrating on or giving more emphasis to the relevant facts of the argument, gives more emphasis
to the emotions and opinions of the crowd or of the multitude as basis of his conclusion.
18. Argumentum ad misericordiam – also called as appeal to pity. Such a fallacious argument arises when
an appeal to evidence is replaced by an appeal to pity, mercy or sympathy.
19. Argumentum ad baculum – also known as appeal to might and appeal to force, arises when one appeals
to intimidation or the use of force in order to gain acceptance of his/her propositions.
The truth being the object of philosophy entails that one must always achieve it through the art and science of
logic. In doing so one must be aware of how avoid mistakes in the process of correct thinking. One must
always be focused on the truth rather than the opinions.
Epistemology
Epistemology comes from the Greek word episteme, which means knowledge. This branch of philosophy
deals with various problems concerning knowledge. Among the major concerns in epistemology are the origin
of knowledge – whether empiricism (given by experience) or rationalism (given by the mind prior to experience)
– and the verification or confirmation of knowledge. Other highly specialized problems in this branch of
philosophy include the distinction between belief and knowledge, the nature of truth, the problems of
perception, the external word, meaning and other minds. For example, determining whether there is an
objective truth and investigating the bases of certainty are among the specific problem tackled in epistemology.
Thus, epistemology can be helpful in making judgments such as in the courts of law.
Truth and knowledge
Truth can be defined as a fact that has been verified. Something is true (a) it can be justified or proven
through the use of one’s senses (b) it is based on facts (c) it is a product of an agreement or consensus (d) it can
be applied in real life (tested and proven). Edmund Husserl on phenomenology said that the truth is based on
the person’s consciousness. This focuses on careful inspection and description of phenomena or appearances,
defines as any object of conscious experience, that is, that which we are conscious of. Knowledge on the other
hand is a simple data that comes from the outside that pass to our senses. It must be truthful to gain validity
and acceptance. Knowledge is also the clear awareness and understanding of something. It is the product of
questions that allow for clear answers provided by facts.
Theories on Truth
• Correspondence Theory
o States that the key to truth is the relation (or correspondence) between propositions and the
world.
• Coherence Theory
o States that the truth of any (true) propositions consists in its coherence with some specified set
of propositions (or significant wholes).
• Pragmatic Theory
o Holds that a proposition is true if it is useful to believe it.
Opinion
Opinions are comprised of statements which not only give facts but also provide conclusions or
perspectives regarding certain situations. They may advance a belief about certain things or provide
explanations. Opinions are also the bases for making arguments and convincing people that a certain claim is a
fact. They are often influenced by bias.
Understanding the difference of Truth from Opinion leads to wisdom
Understanding of opinions and facts and the means to distinguish one from the other can further
improve our understanding and appreciation of varied views and ideas. The ability to determine truth goes hand
in hand with the holistic perspective and enable us to make wiser decisions, especially in choosing the ideas and
views which we find acceptable. An individual cannot live his or her life just agreeing with everybody he or she
meets. A critical mind aided by philosophy can help us form our own personal point of view that can guide us in
making decisions and actions when faced with a problem. Philosophy can help us to determine ideas that are
truthful and acceptable which we can then use to form our own views regarding certain matters.
Wisdom
The word wisdom or sapience is the ability to think and act using knowledge, experience, understanding
common sense and insight. Wisdom has many definitions attached to it, including several subtypes. Two key
subtypes of wisdom that are worth noting are phronesis and sophia.
Phronesis refers to practical knowledge, or the seeking of knowledge to apply to the given circumstance
such as an understanding of people, objects, events, situations and the willingness as well as the ability to apply
perception, judgment and action in keeping with the understanding of what is the optimal course of action.
Sophia on the other hand refers to “transcendent wisdom” or “ultimate nature of reality.” The Oxford English
Dictionary defines wisdom as “capacity of judging rightly in matters relating to life conducts; soundness of
judgment in the choice of means and ends.
 UNIT 3: THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT
Introduction
The concept of the HUMAN PERSON is considered a PERENNIAL PROBLEM. Perennial because it has
already been examined from the early period of history and until today. Thus, it has been relevant since time
immemorial and until today – relevant because it has direct impact on how we give value to human persons,
which is HUMAN DIGNITY, which is the basis for considering someone as a human person. For example, on the
issue of ABORTION. Some modern thinkers (doctors, scientists, psychologists, and philosophers) argue that
abortion is justifiable. This is because they understood the HUMAN PERSON AS A CONSCIOUS AND SELF-AWARE
being. Now, the fetus or embryo in the mother’s womb is NOT conscious and self-aware. Thus, the fetus or
embryo is not considered as a human person. Hence, it would be justifiable to eliminate the life inside the womb
since it is only of the same value with plants – it has life but not conscious and self-aware. However, this is not
really the case. In deciding whether one is a human person, one must not consider only the ACTUALITY (what it
is NOW) of the being but its POTENCY (what it might BECOME). Hence, the argument of some modern thinkers,
that abortion is justifiable according to their understanding of the human person as only conscious and self-
aware, is problematic. It is because they failed to realize that, although the embryo or fetus in the womb is not
conscious and self-aware as of the moment, it is still possible for it to DEVELOP into a conscious and self-aware
human being. In this case, abortion will always be unjust or may never be justified.
Moreover, it is considered a problem because of its COMPLEXITY as a concept. While it is already a
complex concept, there were also a lot of explanations that were put forward by different thinkers from
different historical periods. Oftentimes, those explanations contradict each other. Thus, adding up to its
complexity. Furthermore, it is considered complex because it explains different aspect of the human person:
What is man made up of? What constitutes man? What makes man distinct from other beings? What is man’s
origin? Is man really free? What is man’s life’s purpose? What it means to be happy?
Now, understanding the question “WHAT IS A HUMAN PERSON?” is to understand its ESSENCE. And to
understand its essence is to examine its ASPECTS. Now, a human person has TWO ASPECTS: MATERIAL (body –
physical) and IMMATERIAL (soul – spiritual). By knowing these aspects of the human person, we arrive at a
conclusion that THE HUMAN PERSON IS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT. Being an EMBODIED SPIRIT refers to the
INSEPARABLE UNION OF THE BODY AND THE SOUL. Meaning to say, a human person is not just the body nor it
is just the soul, but the human person is the inseparable union of the body and soul. Therefore, the human
person is the meeting point of the material and immaterial entities. THIS CONCLUSION, THAT THE HUMAN
PERSON IS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT, ALLOWS US TO ACCEPT OUR LIMITATION, REALIZE OUR POTENTIALS, AND
RECOGNIZE OUR UNIQUENESS.
In deeply understanding the concept of the human person, since it is a perennial issue, it would be
helpful to look at some explanations of the concept from different philosophers from different historical periods.
HISTORICAL PERIODS:
• Ancient Period (PLATO and ARISTOTLE)
o They understood the concept of the human person from a COSMOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE. They
were concerned about the origin of the world and how it came to be. And since they saw that
man is part of the world, it would be inevitable for them to also understand the concepts
underlying man or the human person. Both Plato and Aristotle AGREE that the human person is
a being with body and soul.
• Medieval Period (ST. AUGUSTINE and ST. THOMAS AQUINAS)
o This period is a.k.a. the Age of Faith
o This period was more concerned of proving God’s existence based on Rational Methods or
Natural Reason.
o They understood the concept of the human person from a THEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE. First,
they proved that God exists. Then, they proceeded to prove that God created the world. And
since, man is also part of the world because man is in the world, they inferred that God created
 man as well. From there, they continued explaining in depth the concept of man or human
person.
• Modern Period (RENE DESCARTES and JOHN LOCKE)
o This period found it hard to fathom or understand the idea of God simply because God is
IMPERCEIVABLE or cannot be sensed.
o Hence, to better understand man in his nature, they considered MAN AS THE MOST SIGNIFICANT
BEING in the world. Thus, the starting point of understanding man is man himself.
o Thus, they understood man or the human person from an ANTHROPOCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE –
man-centered approach.
PLATO
BODY SOUL
• Material (Physical) • Immaterial (Spiritual)
• Subject to change and • Unchanging and Infinite
destruction/corruption • Authentic part or the bearer of identity
• Prison cell of the soul • Independent of the body or self-
• Dependent on the soul for its subsisting
functions and operations • Created by the gods with an originally
• Passive (waiting to be acted upon by good nature, but some violated its
the soul) good nature. Thus, the gods punished
those souls by imprisoning them in a
limited body.
• Active (Acts upon the body)
• The soul for Plato has TRIPARTITE
FUNCTIONS: (1) Rational/Logical –
represented by the head. Always tends
towards what is good and true; (2)
Emotional/Spirited – represented by
the chest. Easily obeys the directives
of the rational part; (3) Appetitive –
represented by the stomach. It is
responsible for man’s desire for
pleasure and material possessions.
Hence, it is responsible for man’s
selfishness since it does not always
obey the rational part of the soul.
• For Plato, the rational part of the soul
must always be in control over the
emotional and appetitive parts of the
soul.
• Therefore, for Plato, if a person allows
his reason to properly guide his
passion/emotions and appetite,
he/she will have a well-balanced
personality.
ARISTOTLE
• For Aristotle, the body and the soul are SUBSTANTIALLY UNITED. Meaning, they are indispensable from
each other, that is, a human person is not just the body nor it is just the soul, but a human person is a
substantially united body and soul.
• For Aristotle, ANYTHING THAT HAS LIFE HAS A SOUL. Therefore, since we observe that Plants, Animals,
and Human Beings are the only creatures that has life, Aristotle inferred that THERE ARE THREE TYPES
OF SOULS.
• Three Types of Souls:
o Vegetative Soul – Plants
▪ Responsible for plants’ GROWTH, NOURISHMENT, AND REPRODUCTION.
o Sentient Soul – Animals
▪ Responsible for animals’ SENSES, INSTINCT, and APPETITE.
o Rational Soul – Human Beings
▪ Responsible for man’s INTELLECT and WILL
• For Aristotle, there is a direct relation or connection between the MIND and the SOUL. This connection
between the mind and soul is the source of man’s CONSCIOUSNESS and SELF-AWARENESS.
BODY SOUL
• Made up of matter and combination of • The principle of Life or the soul gives
primary elements. life to the body

ST. AUGUSTINE
• Bishop of Hippo, in Tagaste, Africa
• God created the world and the immortal soul
• Soul is embodied in a Material Substance.
• He is a Neo-Platonist. Therefore, Augustine believed in the soul’s immortality and existence even without
the body.
• For him, the soul is the real person in man. The soul allows for an authentic person.
• The soul animates the body to perform its functions.
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
• Doctor of the Church
• Influenced by Aristotle
• For him, philosophy and theology are not conflicting disciplines but COMPLEMENTARY for the search for
TRUTH.
• The body and the soul are dependent on each other, that is, without the soul, the body will not have its
FORM, and without the body, the soul cannot have knowledge since the soul is ORGANIC.
• Therefore, the soul gives life and understanding, gives special physical features to the body, and
responsible for man’s intellect and will, which are the HIGHEST HUMAN FACULTIES, that are geared
towards the CONTEMPLATION OF GOD. This contemplation of God is attained in the union and eternal
fellowship with God, a.k.a. BEATIFIC VISION, which is God’s gift for those who follow his precepts.
RENE DESCARTES
• He is a RATIONALIST, meaning, he believed in the MIND’S SUPREMACY OVER THE BODY that is dubitable
in terms of its existence or the existence of the body is uncertain because our senses deceive us
sometimes or we do not know if we are awake or we are just dreaming.
• He used the method called METHODIC DOUBT. He wanted to search for the most certain foundation of
knowledge which is the only thing that can never be doubted, which is the THINKING SELF (“Cogito ergo
sum” or “I think, therefore, I am.”). A person cannot doubt that he/she is doubting.
• He believed, like Plato, that the human mind can withstand the destruction of the human body.
 • Man is AUTONOMOUS (or SELF-GOVERNING) from a divine being.
JOHN LOCKE
• He is an EMPIRICIST, meaning, he believed in the SUPREMACY OF EXPERIENCE in GIVING US
KNOWLEDGE. “Nothing comes into the mind without passing through the senses.”
• THERE IS NO INNATE KNOWLEDGE.
• The mind, at birth, is TABULA RASA, meaning, A BLANK SLATE. Then, SENSE-EXPERIENCE shall provide
knowledge to the mind.
• THEREFORE, the soul begins to know when it begins to perceive.
• For Locke, the relationship of the body and soul is: “The soul’s task is to think and interpret what the
physical body perceives.”
• Hence, for Locke, HUMAN KNOWLEDGE IS LIMITED UPON EXPERIENCE.
• THEREFORE, HUMAN NATURE (thinking, feeling, acting) DISTINGUISH US FROM OTHER BEINGS AND
MAKES US HUMAN PERSONS.
THE HUMAN BODY
To speak of the human body connotes the idea of finitude. If you recall, we mentioned that the body of
a human being is a material thing. Anything that is material is subject to corruption or destruction. Being
embodied means human beings have certain limitations. Because of his/her body, a person becomes
constrained by time and space. Such bodily existence is oriented towards an impending death (Babor, 2001).
Take notice of your physicality. Everything you see on your body is called accidents: your skin color, size,
shape, height, weight, etc. These accidental characteristics are sometimes the basis of recognizing (or
misrecognizing) the dignity and value of persons. Identifying a person based on his/her accidental features can
have either positive or negative effects. For instance, in any basketball league, teams are categorized and
bracketed, not just according to geographical locations, skills, and abilities but also according to the players’
body size and height. For this reason, those countries that have taller players would always have a higher chance
of becoming champions.
It may be well to note that the colonial mentality that most Filipinos imbibed is one of the problems of
the continued patronage of anything foreign. For instance, many Filipinos aim to look and sound like the people
from the West. Some would even spend a lot of money just to undergo various cosmetic surgeries due to
dissatisfaction with their natural physical features. These are just a few of the many things that foreground the
idea that human beings face a lot of physical limitations.
Given these physical constraints, human beings have the ability to transcend. In other words, these
limitations could also provide the motivation and purpose to strive harder in realizing one's potentials and
possibilities. Being embodied, therefore, is not a hindrance to develop and advance. We can always improve the
intangible limitations of this life.
THE POSSIBILITY FOR TRANSCENDENCE
The act of surpassing our limitations is called “transcendence”. This is another essential trait that makes
man special from all other existing beings. How and when does man experience such transcendence? To
transcend is to go beyond the ordinary. For instance, Filipinos' love for music enables them to sing passionately,
not minding if they are out of tune or off-beat. Though they are aware that they could not hit a single note no
matter how hard they tried, their passion and love for music keep them singing. Moreover, we often experience
hunger, fatigue, thirst, loneliness, emptiness, and many others. These bodily tendencies can be overcome
through a proper exercise of reason. We carry within ourselves the possibility of transcending our limits by
exerting enough effort and perseverance. Through transcendence, a person is able to acknowledge his/her
limitations, identify possibilities for development, and change him/herself for the better (Garcia, 2018).