Introduction to Criminology

Philippine Copyright 2013

by

Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.

and

ARMANDO A. ALVIOLA, PhD Crim., Educ. Mngt.

Author

JANNEL C. ALVIOLA, MEd

Editor

All Rights Reserved

 The text of this handbook, or any part thereof, may not be reproduced or transmitted
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ISBN No. 978-971-9617-20-4

Chapter 5

VICTIMOLOGY

Victimology is a branch of criminology which examines the role played by the victim
in a criminal incident. In simpler terms, it is the study of the victims of crime.

The criminal justice system spends the bulk of its time and energy trying to control
criminals. It was within this preoccupation of understanding criminal activity and identifying
the causes of criminal behavior that the victim was “rediscovered” in the 1940s. Interestingly,
the victim emerged not as an individual worthy of sympathy or compassion but as possible
partner or contributor to his or her own demise. Students of criminal behavior began to
look at the relationship between the victim and the offender in the hopes of better
understanding the genesis of the criminal act (Doerner & Lab, 2012).
Of course, there is no way that a victim should be blamed for becoming one. Every
individual has the right to live and to be spared from the risks and harms of a violent crime.
Yet, the fact remains that to understand the offender, one must first understand the victim.

It was the scientist Hans von Hentig, a victim of Nazi persecution, who focused
criminologists’ attention to the significance of the victim in criminal activity. His book The
Criminal and His Victim may be said to have founded victimology as a new branch of study.

Goals of Victimology

The study of victimology focuses on five goals:

1. To understand and measure the extent and nature of crime as victims perceive them

2. To assess the relative risk of victimization

3. To appreciate the nature and extent of losses, injuries, and damages experienced by
victims of crime

4. To study the relation between victim and offender

5. To investigate the social reaction of the family, community, and society toward the
victim of crime.

General Classes of Victims (Hans von Hentig)

1. The Young – weak by virtue of age and immaturity

2. The Female – often less physically powerful than the male

3. The Old – incapable of physical defense, and the object of confidence schemes

4. The Mentally Defective – unable to think clearly, e.g. the feeble-minded, the insane

5. The Immigrants – unsure of the rules of conduct in the surrounding society

6. The Minorities – Racial prejudice may lead to victimization or unequal treatment by the
agencies of justice.

7. The Dull Normals – the simple-minded person, the “born victims of swindlers”

Psychological Types of Victims (Hans von Hentig)

1. The Depressed – submissive by virtue of emotional condition

2. The Acquisitive or Greedy – always wanting more, looking for quick gains

3. The Wanton or Overly Sensual – ruled by passion and thoughtlessly seeking

pleasure, e.g. promiscuous persons

4. The Lonesome – similar to the acquisitive type of victim by virtue of wanting

companionships or affection
5. The Heartbroken – those suffering from heartaches and pain

6. The Tormentor – a victim who asked for it, often from his or her own family and friends

Victim Types (Benjamin Mendelsohn)

Another pioneer in the field of victimology was Benjamin Mendelsohn, a European

defense lawyer. In fact he has been referred to as the “father” of victimology, having coined
this term. Mendelsohn, just like von Hentig, was intrigued by the dynamics that take place
between victims and offenders. He came up with his own typology of victims with six
categories:

1. Completely Innocent Victim – There is no provocation or facilitating behavior.

2. Victim with Minor Guilt – Victim inadvertently places himself in a compromising

situation.

3. Victim as Guilty as Offender – Victim was engaging in vice crimes and was hurt, e.g.
suicide victim.

4. Victim More Guilty Than Offender – Victim provoked or instigated the causal act.

5. Most Guilty Victim – Victim started off as the offender and was hurt in turn.

6. Imaginary Victim – Victim pretends to be one due to a mental disorder.

THE NATURE OF VICTIMIZATION

Victim Characteristics
 Social and demographic characteristics distinguish victims and nonvictims. Among
them are age, gender, social status, marital status, race, and residence.

§ Age – Victim data reveal that young people face a much greater victimization risk than do
older persons.

§ Gender – Except for the crimes of rape and sexual assault, males are more likely than
females to suffer violent crime. Men are twice as likely as women to experience aggravated
assault and robbery. Women, however, are six times more likely than men to be victims of
rape or sexual assault.

When men are the victims of violent crime, the perpetrator is a stranger; women are much
more likely to be attacked by a relative than are men. About two-thirds of all attacks against
women are committed by a husband, boyfriend, family member, or acquaintance.

§ Social Status – People in the lowest income categories are much more likely to become
crime victims than those who are more affluent. Poor individuals are most likely the victims
of crime because they live in crime-prone areas, such as the slums and urban areas.
Although the poor are more likely to suffer violent crimes, the wealthy are more likely to be
targets of personal theft crimes, such as pocket picking and purse (bag) snatching.

§ Marital Status – Divorced and never-married males and females are victimized more often
than married people. Widows and widowers have the lowest victimization risk.

§ Race – In the U.S., African Americans (Blacks) are more likely than whites to be victims of
violent crime.

§ Residence – Urban residents are more likely than rural or sub-urban residents to become
victims of crime.

Types of Characteristics That Increase the Potential for Victimization

 Three types of characteristics increase the potential for victimization: (Finkelhor and
Asigian, 1996)

1. Target vulnerability. Victims’ physical weakness or psychological distress renders

them incapable of resisting or deterring crime and makes them easy targets.

2. Target gratifiability. Some victims have some quality, possession, skill, or attribute
that an offender wants to obtain, use, have access to, or manipulate. Having
attractive possessions, such as leather coat, may make one vulnerable to predatory
crime.

3. Target antagonism. Some characteristics increase risk because they arouse anger,
jealousy, or destructive impulses in potential offenders. Being gay or effeminate, for
example, may bring on undeserved attacks in the street; being argumentative and
alcoholic may provoke assault.

Who Fear Crime?

Surveys reveal some of the differences in the public’s fear of crime. Among these
differences are the following:

§ Gender – Females are more fearful than males.

§ Race/Ethnicity – Nonwhites are more fearful than whites.

§ Age – People 30 years old and older are slightly more fearful than people less than 30
years old.

§ Religion – Jews are more fearful than Protestants or Catholics.

§ Community – People living in urban areas are more fearful than people living in rural
areas.

§ Region – Easterners and Southerners are more fearful than Westerners and
Midwesterners.

§ Education – The higher the level of education of a person, the lower is the person’s fear
for crime.

§ Income – Fear of crime victimization declines with increasing family income.

Theories of Victimization

For many years criminological theories focused on the actions of the criminal
offender; the role of the victim was virtually ignored. In contrast, modern victimization
theories already acknowledge that the victim is not a passive target in crime, but someone
whose behavior can influence his or her own fate.

1. Victim Precipitation Theory – According to this view, some people may actually
initiate the confrontation that eventually leads to their injury or death. Victim
precipitation can be either active or passive. Active precipitation occurs when victims
act provocatively, use threats or fighting words, or even attack first. Passive
precipitation, on the other hand, occurs when the victim exhibits some personal
characteristics that unknowingly threaten or encourage the attacker. The crime can
occur because of personal conflict – for example, when two people compete over a
job, promotion, love interest, or some other scarce and in demand commodity.

2. Lifestyle Theory – According to this theory, people may become crime victims
because their lifestyle increases their exposure to criminal offenders. Victimization
 risk is increased by such behaviors as associating with young men, going out in
public places late at night, and living in an urban area. Conversely, one’s chances of
victimization can be reduced by staying home at night, moving to a rural area,
staying out of public places, earning more money, and getting married. People who
have high-risk lifestyles – drinking, taking drugs, and getting involved in crime –
maintain a much greater chance of victimization. For example, young runaways are at
high risk for victimization; the more time they are exposed to street life, the greater
their risk of becoming crime victims.

During an investigation, victims are classified in three general categories that describe the
level of risk their lifestyle represents in relation to the violent crime that has been
committed. The importance of understanding this in an investigation is directly related back
to the level of risk to the offender during the commission of the crime. This information is
important to the investigation to better understand the sophistication or possible pathology
of the offender.

§ High-Risk Victims – Victims in this group have a lifestyle that makes them a higher risk
for being a victim of a violent crime. The most obvious high risk victim is the
prostitute. Prostitutes place themselves at risk every single time they go to work. They are
of high risk because they get into a stranger's car, go to secluded areas with
strangers, and for the most part, attempt to conceal their actions for legal
reasons. Offenders often rely on all these factors and specifically target prostitutes because
such conditions lower their chances of becoming suspects in the crime. Therefore, in this
example, the prostitute is a high risk victim creating a lower risk to the offender.

§ Moderate-Risk Victims – Victims that fall into this category are lower risk victims, but for
some reason were in a situation that placed them in a greater level of risk. A person that is
stranded on a dark, secluded highway due to a flat tire and accepts a ride from a stranger
and is then victimized, would be a good example of this type of victim level risk.

§ Low-Risk Victims – The lifestyle of these individuals would normally not place them in
any degree of risk for becoming a victim of a violent crime. These individuals stay out of
trouble, do not have peers that are criminal, are aware of their surroundings, and attempt to
take precautions so as not to be victimized. They lock the doors, do not use drugs, and do
not go into areas that are dark and secluded.

The chart that follows shows variables that should be considered when gathering
information on a victim.
Gender/Age Interpersonal Relationships: Life Insurance? Lifestyle: Habits,
Social, Sexual, Family Frequented Locations,
Economic Status
Risk Level How would the victim react to an Mental Stability Physical Handicaps
attack? Passive/Aggressive?
Future Plans Employment/Income Personality Previous Victimization
Family/Marital Friends: Number & Type – Education Alcohol/Drug Use
Status Enemies
Normal Dress Mode of Transportation Medical History Criminal Justice
Style System History
Leisure Activities/ Dating/Sexual Habits Reputation Likes/Dislikes/Fears

Hobbies
Source: http://www.deviantcrimes.com/victimology.html

After all the information has been gathered, a timeline of events leading up to the crime
should be created in order to better understand how this specific individual became a victim
of a violent crime.

3. Deviant Place Theory – According to this theory, victims do not encourage crime
but are victim-prone because they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas
where they have the greatest risk of coming into contact with criminal offenders.

4. Routine Activity Theory – This theory was first articulated by Lawrence

Cohen and Marcus Felson. They concluded that the volume and distribution of
predatory crime (violent crimes against a person and crimes in which an offender
attempts to steal an object directly) are closely related to the interaction of three
variables that reflect the routine activities:

§ The availability of suitable targets, such as homes containing easily saleable goods

▪ The absence of capable guardians, such as police, homeowners, neighbors,

friends, and relatives
▪ The presence of motivated offenders, such as a large number of unemployed
teenagers
Psychological Effects of Victimization

Research in America suggested that crime victims can suffer any of the following
reactions: (Kahn, 1984 as cited by Ainsworth, 2000)

§ depression (Posttraumatic Stress Disorder);

§ anxiety;

§ paranoia;

§ loss of control;

§ shame;

§ embarrassment

§ vulnerability;

§ helplessness;

§ humiliation;

§ anger;

§ shock;

§ feelings of inequity;

§ increased awareness of mortality;

§ tension; and

§ fear.

Other effects of crime to victims include loss, suffering, fear (fear for others), Obsessive-
compulsive Disorder (extreme preoccupation with certain thoughts and compulsive
performance of certain behaviors), and antisocial behavior. Also, there is growing evidence
that people who are crime victims also seem more likely to commit crime themselves.
Services Provided to Victims

Being at their most vulnerable state after the crime experience, the victims are in need
of some support to easily cope. Some of the services provided to them include:

§ Assistance to victims who report crimes

§ Responding at the scene of crime in order to provide crisis counseling

§ Providing 24-hour telephone hot-line service to victims and witnesses

§ Making emergency monetary aid available to victims

§ Providing victims with referral services to appropriate agencies

§ Helping victims obtain the return of property

§ Assisting victims and witnesses throughout their court appearances