Complete Manual

Lab Manual
Transportation Engineering
Prepared By:
Engr. Muhammad Sohail Saleh
Checked By:
Engr. Wajeeha Qamar
Department of Civil Engineering

NFC Institute of Engineering & Fertilizer and Research,
Faisalabad
Table of Contents
Lab Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) ..................................................2
List of Equipments .........................................................................................3
Layout of Lab .................................................................................................6
Reducing Samples of Aggregate to Testing Size .........................................10
Gradation of Aggregate for Subbase, Base and Wearing Course................13
LOS Angeles Abrasion Test .........................................................................16
Impact Value of Aggregate ..........................................................................19
Elongation and Flakiness Index of Aggregate .............................................22
Angularity Number of aggregates ................................................................28
Skid Resistance Test using British Pendulum..............................................30
Penetration Test of Bitumen .........................................................................35
Flash and Fire Point of Bitumen ..................................................................38
Softening Point of Bitumen ..........................................................................42
Specific Gravity of Bitumen .......................................................................45
Specific Viscosity of Bitumen......................................................................48
Ductility Test of Bitumen .............................................................................51
Preparation of Asphalt Specimens Using Marshall Apparatus....................53
Bulk Specific Gravity of Asphalt .................................................................57
Maximum Specific Gravity of Asphalt ........................................................59
Marshall Flow and Stability Test .................................................................61
Determination of Optimum Binder Content ................................................66
1
Lab Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
 Lab will remain available for students from 08:15 – 15:30 Hrs. from Monday to
Friday.
 Student must wear lab coat and other safety gadgets before performing any
experiment.
 No eatables and drinkables are allowed in the Lab.
 No equipment can be taken out of the lab without prior permission of concerned
authority.
 Student must submit their student card to take any equipment out of lab
premises which will be returned on submission of that equipment.
 In the event of damage of any equipment by students, they will be
commensurately fined.
 Laboratory testing plan should be submitted to the Lab Engineer for any
research work approved by the Concerned Authority.
 The laboratory testing plan should be prepared in the light of the relevant
manuals, standards and research requirements.
 All the relevant manuals and standard must be read and understood before
carrying out any test(s).
 Safe and careful use of all the equipment is the sole responsibility of the person
carrying out the specific testing plan.
 All type of relevant safety and security requirements should be adhered to while
using the laboratory equipment and facilities. In this regard, all the power
switches, water and gas outlets should be turned off while leaving the
laboratory.
 All the running tests and procedures must not be left unattended and must
always be performed under the supervision of the person in charge of testing.
 In case of any incident, it must be immediately reported to the project
/laboratory in-charge irrespective of time of the day.
 Students are directed to reorganize and place the equipment on completion of
practical as before their use.
 Students must submit their student card with lab staff while doing thesis/project
work in lab, which will be returned when lab staff approves lab to be in neat and
clean order.
 After completion the thesis or project work, dispose the material in consultation
with lab staff.
 Cooperate with the Lab Staff.
2
List of Equipments
Item Name Quantity
Grade Penetration of Bitumen Test Apparatus

Digital Penetrometer 1
Penetrometer Cup 2
Penetrometer Needle 1
Marshal Stability and Flow of Asphalt

Marshal Stability Machine 1
Marshal Mold 4 in. dia 3
Flow Meter 2
Specific Gravity and Absorption test Apparatus

Buoyancy Stand 1
Buoyancy Water tank 1
Digital Balance with under hook 1
Wire Basket 1
Sample Holder 1
LOS Angeles Abrasion Apparatus of Aggregate

Los Angles Abrasion Machine 1
Abrasive charge steel balls 12
Impact Value of Aggregate Apparatus

Impact Value Machine 1
Impact Value Measuring mold 1
Tamping Rod 2
Flash and Fire Point of Bitumen Apparatus

Flash and Fire Point Apparatus 1
Cleave Land Cup 1
Sieves Set for Coarse Aggregates

3-inch Size Sieve (12-inch dia) 1
2.5-inch Size Sieve (12-inch dia) 1

3
1.5-inch Size Sieve (12-inch dia) 1
3/4-inch Size Sieve (12-inch dia) 2
#4 Sieve (12-inch dia) 1
Sieves Set for Fine Aggregates

Pan (12-inch dia) 1
Stone Polishing of Aggregate 1
Steel Cylinder (37.68 inch3) 1
Sample Ejector 1
Water Bath 1
Mechanical Marshal Compactor 1
Digital Balance 1
Length Gauge 1
Thickness Gauge 1
Allied Accessories
Thermometer 360 2
Thermometer 100 1
Scoop Large 1
4
100 ml Glass Flask 1
1000 ml Plastic Flask 1
Mixing Tray 24*36*3 1
Electric Power Extension 1
Safety Gadgets
Asphalt Gloves 2
Rubber Gloves 3
Ear Buds 6
Googles 1
Helmet 1
Apron 1
Lab Furniture
Student Benches 4
Teacher Table (24in * 48in) 1
Teacher Chair 1
White Board 1
5
Layout of Lab
6
Description of lab Apparatus
1. Specific Gravity Apparatus:
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a
reference substance; equivalently, it is the ratio of the mass of a substance
to the mass of a reference substance for the same given volume. Used with
a suitable electronic balance for specific gravity determination of fresh
and hardened concrete and aggregates. A purpose-built robust frame
designed to support the electronic balance. The lower part of the frame
incorporates a moving platform, which carries the water container
allowing the test specimens to be weighted in both air and water. The
balance is not included and must select conforming to the weighing range
required.
2. Set of Sieves:
A sieve, or sifter, is a device for separating wanted elements from
unwanted material or for characterizing the particle size distribution of a
sample, typically using a woven screen such as a mesh or net or metal.
The word "sift" derives from "sieve".
3. Length Gauge:
Length Gauge (Elongation Index BS), is used for determining the
elongation index of aggregates. The particle is elongated when its
length (longest dimension) is more than 1.8 of the mid-size of the sieve
fraction. The aggregate to be classified is separated into six sieve
fractions from 6.3 to 50 mm, and each fraction is examined separately.

4. Thickness Gauge:
It is used to determine if aggregate particles are to be considered flaky,
i.e. their thickness is less than 0.6 of their nominal size.
5. Angularity Number Test:-
This test is also carried out for determining shape of the aggregates. Based
upon shape the aggregates may be classified as Rounded, Angular or Flaky.
Angular particles possess well defined edges formed at the intersection of
roughly planer faces and are commonly formed in aggregates prepared by
crushing of rocks.
6. Flash and Fire Point Apparatus:
It is used for determining the flash & fire point of petroleum products. The
flash point test can be summarized as a procedure in which a test specimen
is introduced into a temperature-controlled test cup and an ignition source
is applied to the vapors produced by the test specimen. The aim of the test
is to determine whether the vapor/air mixture is flammable or at what
temperature the vapor/air mixture is flammable.
7
7. Digital Penetrometer Apparatus:
This apparatus is used for penetration test on a wide variety of materials. It
consists of a head support mounted on a vertical rod which can be adjusted for
height. A rack and pinion and pointer assembly provide fine adjustment of
needle tip to sample and in corporate a slipping clutch mechanism which make
reading of penetration and subsequent resetting a sample and accurate operation.
8. Ring & Ball Apparatus:
Ring and Ball Test Set is used for determining the softening point of
bituminous materials by ring and ball method. The apparatus is supplied
complete with a Hot Plate with Magnetic Stirring System, Ring Holder and
Assembly, 2 x Ball Centering Guides, 2 x 9.5 mm dia. Steel Balls, 2 x Brass
Rings, 1 x 600 ml Glass Vessel (Beaker) and max. 110°C Glass thermometer.
If required, a max. 250°C glass thermometer TGT- 1315, ASTM 15C or 16C
thermometer should be ordered separately.
9. Heater:
Make your laboratory heating equipment needs more efficient and safer with
Spectrum's selection of laboratory heaters including hot plates, hot plates with
magnetic stirrers, dry block heaters. It is used to melt or heat the material like
asphalt which we can use in our testing purpose.
10. Asphalt mixer:
It is used for asphalt mixing. The terms "asphalt (or asphaltic) concrete",
"bituminous asphalt concrete", and "bituminous mixture" are typically used only
in engineering and construction documents, which define concrete as any
composite material composed of mineral aggregate adhered with a binder. The
abbreviation "AC" is sometimes used for "asphalt concrete" but can also denote
"asphalt content" or "asphalt cement", referring to the liquid asphalt portion of the
composite material.
11. Digital Balance:
The digital mass balances are very sensitive instruments used for weighing
substances.
12. Marshal Stability Machine:
The test is applicable to hot mix designs using bitumen and aggregates up to a
maximum size of 25mm. In this method, the resistance to plastic deformation of
cylindrical specimen of bituminous mixture is measured when the same is loaded
at periphery at 5 cm per min. This test procedure is used in designing and
evaluating bituminous paving mixes. The marshal stability of mix is defined as a
maximum load carried by a compacted specimen at a standard test temperature of
60ºC. The flow value is deformation the marshal test specimen under goes during
the loading up to the maximum load, 0.25 mm units.
13. Water Bath:

A water bath is laboratory equipment made from a container filled with
heated water. It is used to incubate samples in water at a constant temperature
over a long period of time. It is also used to enable certain chemical reactions
to occur at high temperature
8
14. Mechanical Marshal Compactor:
A compactor is a machine or mechanism used to reduce the size of material
such as waste material or bio mass through compaction. It is used to compact
the material.
15. Sample Ejector:

The sample ejector designed for both lab and field use. It extracts
soil samples from 4″ and 6″ compaction molds. The ejection force generates by
means of a 3-ton capacity, hand operated hydraulic jack.
16. Polishing stone machine:

Rock polishing is a lapidary process whereby rough stone is polished and
smoothed by hand or using simple machines to produce attractive stones. The
most common means is tumble polishing, but a vibratory finishing process can be
used instead.
17. Aggregate Impact Value:

The property of a material to resist impact is known as toughness. Due to
movement of vehicles on the road the aggregates are subjected to impact resulting
in their breaking down into smaller pieces. The aggregates should therefore have
enough toughness to resist their disintegration due to impact. This characteristic is
measured by impact value test. The aggregate impact value is a measure of
resistance to sudden impact or shock, which may differ from its resistance to
gradually applied compressive load.
18. LOS Angeles Abrasion Apparatus:

Resistance to abrasion of aggregate is determined in laboratory by Los
Angeles test machine. The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to
produce abrasive action by use of standard steel balls which when mixed
with aggregates and rotated in a drum for specific number of revolutions
also causes impact on aggregates.
9
Reducing Samples of Aggregate to Testing Size
Designation: (ASTMC702/C702M – 11, AASHTO T 248)
Scope:
This practice covers three methods for the reduction of large samples of aggregate to the appropriate
size for testing employing techniques that are intended to minimize variations in measured
characteristics between the test samples so selected and the large sample.
Significance and Use:

Specifications for aggregates require sampling portions of the material for testing. Other factors
being equal, larger samples will tend to be more representative of the total supply. This practice
provides procedures for reducing the large sample obtained in the field or produced in the laboratory
to a convenient size for conducting a number of tests to describe the material and measure its quality
in a manner that the smaller test sample portion is most likely to be a representation of the larger
sample, and thus of the total supply. Failure to carefully follow the procedures in this practice could
result in providing a no representative sample to be used in subsequent testing. The individual test
methods provide for minimum amount of material to be tested.
Under certain circumstances, reduction in size of the large sample prior to testing is not
recommended. Substantial differences between the selected test samples sometimes cannot be
avoided, as for example, in the case of an aggregate having relatively few large size particles in the
sample. The laws of chance dictate that these few particles may be unequally distributed among the
reduced size test samples. Similarly, if the test sample is being examined for certain contaminants
occurring as a few discrete fragments in only small percentages, caution should be used in
interpreting results from the reduced size test sample. Chance inclusion or exclusion of only one or
two particles in the selected test sample may importantly influence interpretation of the
characteristics of the original sample. In these cases, the entire original sample should be tested.
Method A—Quartering
Procedure:
 Apparatus shall consist of as straight - edges coop, shovel, or trowel; a broom or brush; and a
canvas blanket approximately 2 by 2.5 m [6 by 8 ft].
 Place the original sample on a hard, clean, level surface where there will be neither loss of
material nor the accidental addition of foreign material.
 Mix the material thoroughly by turning the entire sample over three times. With the last turning,
shovel the entire sample into a conical pile by depositing each shovelful on top of the preceding
one.
 Carefully flatten the conical pile to a uniform thickness and diameter by pressing down the apex
with a shovel so that each quarter sector of the resulting pile will contain the material originally
in it.
 The diameter should be approximately four to eight times the thickness.
10
 Divide the flattened mass into four equal quarters with a shovel or trowel and remove two
diagonally opposite quarters, including all fine material, and brush the cleared spaces clean.
Successively mix and quarter the remaining material until the sample is reduced to the desired
size (Fig. 3).
Method C—Miniature Stockpile (Damp Fine Aggregate Only)

Procedure:
 Apparatus shall consist of a straight-edged scoop, shovel, or trowel for mixing the aggregate, and
either a small sampling thief, small scoop, or spoon for sampling
 Place the original sample of damp fine aggregate on a hard clean, level surface where there will
be neither loss of material nor the accidental addition of foreign material.
 Mix the material thoroughly by turning the entire sample over three times.
 With the last turning, shovel the entire sample into a conical pile by depositing each shovelful on
top of the preceding one.
11
 If desired, flatten the conical pile to a uniform thickness and diameter by pressing down the apex
with a shovel so that each quarter sector of the resulting pile will contain the material originally
in it.
 Obtain a sample for each test by selecting at least five increments of material at random locations
from the miniature stockpile.
Method C—Mechanical Splitter

Mechanical Splitter shall have an even number of
equal width chutes, but not less than a total of eight
for coarse aggregate, or twelve for fine aggregate,
which discharge alternately to each side of the splitter.
For coarse aggregate and mixed aggregate, the
minimum width of the individual chutes shall be
approximately 50 % larger than the largest particles in
the sample to be split. For dry fine aggregate in which
the entire sample will pass the 9.5-mm (3⁄8-in.) sieve,
a splitter having chutes 12.5 to 20 mm [1⁄2 to 3⁄4 in.]
wide shall be used.
The splitter shall be equipped with two receptacles to hold the two halves of the sample following
splitting. It shall also be equipped with a hopper or straight edged pan which has a width equal to or
slightly less than the over-all width of the assembly of chutes, by which the sample may be fed at a
controlled rate to the chutes. The splitter and accessory equipment shall be so designed that the
sample will flow smoothly without restriction or loss of material (see Fig. 1 and Fig. 2).
Procedure:
 Place the original sample in the hopper or pan and uniformly distribute it from edge to edge, so
that when it is introduced into the chutes, approximately equal amounts will flow through each
chute.
 Introduce the sample at a rate to allow it to flow freely through the chutes and into the
receptacles below.
 Reintroduce the portion of the sample in one of the receptacles into the splitter as many times as
necessary to reduce the sample to the size specified for the intended test.
 Reserve the portion of material collected in the other receptacle for reduction in size for other
tests, when required.
12
Gradation of Aggregate for Subbase, Base and Wearing
Course
Designation: (ASTM D 2940 – 03)
Scope:
This specification covers quality-controlled graded aggregates that, when hauled to and properly
spread and compacted on a prepared grade to appropriate density standards, may be expected to
provide adequate stability and load support for use as highway or airport bases or subbases
General Requirements:
 Coarse aggregate retained on the 4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve shall consist of durable particles of
crushed stone, gravel, or slag capable of withstanding the effects of handling, spreading, and
compacting without degradation productive of deleterious fines. Of the particles which are
retained on a 9.5-mm (3⁄8-in.) sieve, at least 75% shall have two or more fractured faces.
 NOTE 2—No standard ASTM method is recognized to be capable of measuring the quality, or
tendency of coarse aggregate to degrade to the extent that deleterious fines may be produced.
Some local jurisdictions have developed tests believed to be of value in this respect. The
purchaser of material under this specification is advised to investigate the availability and
reliability of such tests in order to specify quality requirements appropriate to his local area.
 The fractured particle requirement of 3.1 is modified when specified in the contract documents,
providing for the use of another method for measuring interparticle friction which has been
correlated with good field performance.
 Fine aggregate passing the 4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve shall normally consist of fines from the
operation of crushing the coarse aggregate. Where available and suitable, addition of natural sand
or finer mineral matter, or both, is not prohibited.
 The fraction of the final mixture that passes the 75-µm (No. 200) sieve shall not exceed 60 % of
the fraction passing the 600-µm (No. 30) sieve. The fraction passing the 425-µm (No. 40) sieve
shall have a liquid limit no greater than 25 and shall have a plasticity index no greater than 4. The
sand equivalent value of the fine aggregate shall be no lower than 35. For material to be used as a
subbase at a greater depth than probable frost penetration, the plasticity index and sand
equivalent requirements are modified to a maximum of 6 and a minimum of 30, respectively.
 The gradation of the final composite mixture shall conform to an approved job mix formula,
within the design range prescribed by Table 1, subject to the appropriate tolerances, and to the
acceptance criteria described in Section 4.
 The job mix formula shall be established prior to the beginning of the work and shall not be
changed without the approval of the engineer or his authorized representative.
 NOTE 3—The job mix formula should be selected with due consideration to the footnotes
appended to Table 1. In general, a plotted graph of the fine aggregate portion should be
reasonably parallel to a plot of the nearest grading limit of the design range.
 Aggregates that contain components subject to hydration, such as steel slags, shall be obtained
from sources approved by the engineer on the basis of either a satisfactory performance record,
or of aging or other treatment known to reduce potential expansion to a satisfactory level, or of
13
expansion values not greater than 0.50 % at seven days when tested in accordance with Test
Method D 4792.
Sampling:
 Sample each unit, or batch selected, to be tested for compliance with the above requirements in
accordance with Practice D 75. A batch shall be defined as the amount of material required to fill
at least one normal sized haul truck.
 Base acceptance decisions upon average results obtained on samples from at least three units or
batches picked at random from each lot. A lot shall be defined as not more than 3000 metric tons
(approximately 3300 tons) or a full day’s production for delivery to a given project.
 In the case of grading, test each sample separately. Average values of all sieve size
determinations for a given lot shall comply with the job mix formula within the permissible
tolerances shown. Results of individual batch determinations shall conform to the job mix
formula with the tolerances of Table 1, and an additional tolerance of 2 percentage points for all
sizes other than 75-µm (No. 200) sieve; noncompliance shall necessitate that the entire lot be
resampled or rejected.
 In case of requirements other than grading, the sampling frequency and lot size shall be
designated by the specifying agency. Make at least three determinations to represent a lot. Base
acceptance or rejection on the average of all determinations for a lot.
14
NHA Wearing course Base Subbase
Specifications-
1998 Percent Passing Percent Passing Percent Passing
Mm Inch A B A B A B
60 2½ -- -- -- -- 100 --
50 2 -- -- 100 100 90-100 100
25 1 100 -- 70-95 75-95 50-80 55-85
19 ¾ 90-100 100 30-65 40-75 -- 40-70
12.5 ½ -- 75-90 25-55 30-60 -- --
9.5 3/8 56-70 60-80 15-40 20-50 -- --
4.75 #4 35-50 40-60 25-55 30-60 35-70 30-60
2.38 #8 23-35 20-40 -- -- -- --
2.0 #10 -- -- 15-40 20-50 -- 20-50
1.18 #16 5-12 5-15 -- -- -- --
0.425 #40 -- -- 8-20 12-25 -- 10-30
0.075 #200 2-8 3-8 2-8 5-10 2-8 5-15
15
LOS Angeles Abrasion Test
Designation: (ASTM C 535 & AASHTO T-96)
Scope:
This test is to determine the hardness of road aggregate. Aggregate used in road construction should
be strong enough to resist the wear due the heavy traffic load. If the aggregate has high abrasion
value the stability of road pavement is likely to be adversely affected. Aggregates with distinctly
different origins should be expected to perform differently in this test machine. This test is used to
assess the hardness of the aggregate used in road construction. The road aggregate is subjected to
wearing action by the moving traffic and therefore resistance to wear or hardness is an essential
property of the aggregate. The aggregate should be hard enough to resist abrasion due to traffic.
Los Angeles Abrasion test is used to find out the percentage wear due to relative rubbing action
between aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charges. Pounding action of these balls also exists
while conducting the test. The test is considered more dependable as rubbing and pounding action
simulate field conditions.
Larger the LAA value, softer will be the aggregate and vice versa. If we have two samples to be
used in the wearing surface having LAA value of 0% & 10%, then we should use the one having
LAA value of 10% (note this is true only for wearing surface and the opposite is true for sub-grade,
sub-base and base course). This is because, even though 0% will provide a good hard surface but its
coefficient of friction will be too high, and it will severely damage the tires.
Abrasion:
It is defined as the, “resistance of a material against wear, scratching or degradation.”
Pounding Action:
Striking action of an object on a surface for a short instant of time is called the pounding effect.
Apparatus:
 Los Angeles Abrasion machine – consists of a hollow steel cylinder closed at both ends, having
inside diameter of 28’’ and inside length of 20’’. The cylinder is mounted on stub shafts in such a
way that it rotates about horizontal axis at 30-33 rpm.
 An opening in the cylinder with a dust tight cover is provided for the introduction of test sample.
A steel shelf extending full length of the cylinder and projecting 3.5’’ inward is mounted on
interior surface of the cylinder.
 Sieves confirming to ASTM Standards.
 Balance
 Oven (maintaining a uniform temperature of 230 ±9°F)
16
Sample Preparation:
 The disturbed representative test sample shall consist of clean washed aggregate that has been
oven-dried to constant mass at a temperature of 230 ±9° F.
 Separate the sample into individual size fractions by sieving and recombine to the grading of
Table that most nearly corresponds to the range of sizes in the aggregate as furnished for testing.
 The sample mass shall be recorded to the nearest 1 g.
17
Table: Charge for Selected Methods and Sample Grading
Sieve Size (Inch) Mass of Indicated Sizes, g.

Passing Retained 1 2 3 A B C D
3.0 2.5 2500 ±50
2.5 2.0 2500 ±50
2.0 1.5 5000 ±50 5000 ±50
1.5 1.0 5000 ±25 5000 ±25 1250 ±25
1.0 3/4 5000 ±25 1250 ±25
3/4 1/2 1250 ±25 2500 ±10
1/2 3/8 1250 ±25 2500 ±10
3/8 1/4 2500 ±10
1/4 #4 2500 ±10
#4 #8 5000 ±10
Number of Balls 12 12 12 12 11 8 6
Procedure:
 The test sample should be thoroughly washed and oven dried and is taken according to gradation
in tables.
 The test sample and abrasive charges shall be placed in the Los Angeles abrasion machine and
the machine is rotated at a speed of 30 to 33 Rpm for 500 revolutions for test method AASHTO
T 96; 1000 revolutions for test method ASTM C 535.
 After the prescribed number of revolutions, the material shall be discharged carefully from the
machine and shall be sieved on 1.7mm (#12) sieve.
 Wash the material coarser than the No. 12 sieve, dry to constant mass at 230 ±9 0F, and record
mass to the nearest 1 g.
Observation and Calculation:

Total weight of sample before test = W1 (gm)
Weight of sample passing sieve #12 = W2 (gm)
(Or W2 =original sample mass –final sample mass)
Abrasion value of Aggregate = W2x100/W1 (%)
Specification:
ASHTO T 96, recommendations are that:
 Base Course has a percent wear of 40% or less.
 Sub-base Course the requirement is 50% or less.
 Wearing Coarse = Less than 30 (%)
18
Impact Value of Aggregate
Designation: (BS: 812 & IS: 383)
Scope:
The aggregate impact value gives a relative measure of the
resistance of an aggregate to “sudden shock or impact”, which in
some aggregates differs from its resistance to a slowly applied
compressive load. Toughness is the property of material to resist
impact due to traffic loads. The road stones are subjected to the
pounding action or impact and there is possibility of aggregate stone
breaking into smaller pieces. The road aggregate should therefore
be tough enough to resist fracture under impact.
Apparatus:
An impact testing machine of the general form and complying with
the followings:
 Total mass not more than 60 kg or less than 45 kg. The machine shall have a circular metal base
weighing between 22 kg and 30 kg., with a plane lower surface of not less than 300 mm diameter
and shall be supported on a level and plane concrete or stone block or floor at least 450 mm
thick. The machine shall be prevented from rocking either by fixing it to the block or floor or by
supporting it on a level and plane metal plate cost into the surface of the block or floor.
 A cylinder steel cup having an internal diameter of 102 mm and an internal depth of 50 mm. The
walls shall be not less than 6 mm thick and the inner surfaces shall be case hardened. The cup
shall be rigidly fastened at the center of the base and be easily removed for emptying.
 A metal hammer weighing 13.75 ±0.25 Kg the lower end of which shall be cylindrical in shape,
100.00 mm diameter and 50 mm long, with a 1.5 mm chamfer at the lower edge, and case
hardened. The hammer shall slide freely between vertical guides so arranged that the lower
(cylindrical) part of the hammer is above and concentric with the cup. The hammer is provided
with a locking arrangement.
 Means or raising the hammer and allowing it to fall freely between the vertical guides from a
height of 380+5 mm on to the test sample in the cup, and means for adjusting the height of fall
within 5 mm.
 e) Means for supporting the hammer whilst fastening or removing the cup.
 BS test sieves of aperture size 14.0 mm, 10.0 mm and 2.36 mm for a standard test.
 A cylindrical metal measure of enough rigidity to retain its form under rough usage and with an
internal diameter of 75 ± 1 mm and an internal depth of 50± 1 mm.
 A straight metal tamping rod of circular cross section, 10 mm diameter, 230 mm long, rounded at
one edge.
 A balance of capacity not less than 500 gm, and accurate to 0.1 gm.
NOTE: Some means for automatically recording the number of blows is desirable.
19
Sample Preparation:
 The material for the standard test shall consist of aggregate passing a 14.0 mm BS test sieve and
retained on a 10.00 mm BS test sieve and shall be thoroughly separated on these sieves before
testing.
 The quantity of aggregate sieved out shall be enough for two tests. The aggregate shall be tested
in a surface dry condition. If dried by heating, the period of drying shall not exceed 4 h, the
temperature shall not exceed 1100c and the samples shall be cooled to room temperature before
testing.
 The measure shall be filled about one third full of the aggregate by means of a scoop, the
aggregate being discharged from a height not exceeding 50mm above the top of the container.
 The aggregate shall then be tamped with 25 blows of the rounded end of the tamping rod, each
blows being given by allowing the tamping rod to fall freely from a height of about 50 mm above
the surface of the aggregate and the blows being evenly distributed over the surface.
 A further similar quantity of aggregate shall be added in the same manner and a further tamping
of 25 times and the surplus aggregate removed by rolling the tamping rod across, and in contact
with, the top of the container, any aggregate which impedes its progress being removed by hand
and aggregate being added to fill any obvious depressions.
20
 The net mass of aggregates in the measure shall be recorded (mass A) and the same mass used
for the second test.
Procedure:
 Rest the impact machine, without wedging or packing, upon the level plate, black or floor, so
that it is rigid, and the hammer guide columns are vertical.
 Fix the cup firmly in position on the base of the machine and place the whole of the test sample
in it and compact by a single tamping of 25 strokes of the taming rod as above.
 Adjust the height of the hammer so that its lower face is 380 5 mm above the upper surface of
the aggregate in the cup and then allow it to fall freely on to the aggregate.
 Subject the test sample to a total of 15 such blows, each being delivered act an interval of not less
than 1 s. No adjustment for hammer height is required after the first blow.
 Then remove the crushed aggregate by holding the cup over a clean tray and hammering on the
outside with a suitable rubber mallet until the sample particle s are sufficiently disturbed to
enable the mass of the sample to fall freely on to the tray.
 Transfer fine particles adhering to the inside of the cup and the underside of the hammer to the
tray by means of a stiff bristle brush.
 Sieve the whole of the sample in the tray, for the standard test, on the 2.36 mm BS test sieve
until no further significant amount in 1 min.
 Weigh the fraction passing and retained on the sieve to an accurately of 0.1 gm ( mass B and
mass C respectively) and if the total mass B+C is less than the initial mass ( mass A) by more
than 1 gm, discard the result and make afresh test.
 Repeat the whole procedure starting from the beginning using a second sample of the same mass
as the first sample.
 Results are reported as percentage fines passing 2.36 mm sieve.

Weight of aggregate passing 14mm and retained on 10mm sieve =W1= gm
Weight of fines passing 2.36mm sieve =W2= gm
Impact value of aggregate =W2 / W1X100 (%)
Specification:
 >10 % Exceptionally strong
 10 % to 20 % Strong
 20 % to 30 % Satisfactory for road construction
21
Elongation and Flakiness Index of Aggregate
Designation: (ASTM D 4791- 99)
Scope:
This test method covers the determination of the percentages
of flaky and elongated particles, and in case of gravel
determine by its Angularity No. Rounded aggregate is
preferred in concrete pavements for their higher workability
and crushing, Angular shape aggregates in flexible pavement
for their better interlocking and friction. Flaky and Elongated
particles are considered as a source of weakness. The degree
of packing of particles of one size depends upon their shape.
Flaky and Elongated particles lower the workability of
concrete mixes due to high ratio of surface area to volume.
For concrete, the presence of Flaky and Elongated particles is
considered undesirable as they may cause inherent weakness with possibilities of breaking down
under heavy loads.
Rounded Particles:
Rounded Aggregates are preferred in concrete roads (rigid pavements). As it increases the
workability of concrete mixes due to reduce friction.
Angular Particles:
Angular shape of the particles is desirable in granular base course (flexible pavement) due to better
interlocking and increased stability.
Flaky Particles:
A flaky particle is the one whose least dimension (thickness) is less than 0.6 times the mean size.
These are the materials of which the thickness is small as compared to the other two dimensions.
Limit of flaky particles in the mixes is 30%. If the flaky particles are greater than 30% then the
aggregate is considered undesirable for the intended use.
Flakiness Index:
It is the percentage by weight of flaky particles in a sample. The Flakiness Index is calculated by
expressing the weight of Flaky particles as a percentage of the total weight of the sample
Elongated Particles:
These are the particles having length considerably larger than the other two dimensions and it is the
particle whose greater dimension is 1.8 times its mean size. Limit of elongated particles in the mixes
is 45%. Thus, if the elongated particles are greater than 45%, then the aggregate is considered
undesirable for the intended use.
Elongation Index:
It is the percentage by weight of elongated particles in a sample. The Elongated index is calculated
by expressing the weight of Elongated particles as percentage of total weight of the sample.
22
Apparatus:
 Flaky gauges
 Elongation gauges
 Set of sieves
 Balance
 Scoop
 Oven
Procedure:
 The sample for this test shall be taken in accordance with the appropriate minimum mass given
in Table below:
 If determination by mass is required, oven dries the sample to constant mass at a temperature
(105 c). If determination is by particle count, drying is not necessary.
 The given sample is sieved through square opening sieves; the retained particles are weighed and
denoted as W1, W2, W3 ------------Wn.
 The sample is placed in separate plates, passing and retained sieve size for each fraction is
written on the plate.
 The sample is passed by its least dimension through the corresponding opening of the flaky
sieves. Weigh separately and record as F1, F2, F3--------------Fn.
 Collect all the material passing and retained and pass through the Elongation gauge, retained
material on elongation gauge are weighted and recorded as E1, E2-------En.
23
Size of sieves Weight of Weight of Weight of
fraction Flaky Elongated
Passing Sieves Retained Sieve
(gm) Particles Particle
(In) (mm) (in) (mm)
(gm) (gm)
2-1/2 63.0 2 50.0 W1= F1= E1=
2 50.0 1-1/2 37.5 W2= F2= E2=
1-1/2 37.5 1 28.0 W3= F3= E3=
1 28.0 ¾ 20.0 W4= F4= E4=
¾ 20.0 ½ 14.0 W5= F5= E5=
½ 14.0 3/8 10.0 W6= F6= E6=
3/8 10.0 #4 6.3 W7= F7= E7=
Total W= F= E=
Flakiness Index = F x 100/ W= %

Elongation Index = E x 100/W= %
Specifications:
 Flakiness Index = < 15 %
 Elongation Index = < 15 %
24
Specific Gravity & Absorption Test of Coarse Aggregate
Designation: (AASHTO T: 85-88 & ASTM C 127-88)
Scope:
Specific Gravity is the ratio of the weight of a given volume of
aggregate to the weight of an equal volume of water at a
temperature of 73.4°F (23°C). A material, whose unit weight of
solids equals the unit weight of water, has a specific gravity of 1.0.
Apparent Specific Gravity is the ratio of the weight in air of a unit
volume of the impermeable portion of aggregate (does not include
the permeable pores in aggregate) to the weight in air of an equal
volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature.
The knowledge of the specific gravity is important for the concrete
technologist to determine the properties of concrete made from such aggregates. It is used for the
calculation of the volume occupied by the aggregates in various mixes and generally it ranges from
2.5 to 3.The pores at the surface of the particles affect the bond between the aggregate and the
cement paste thus influences the concrete strength. Smaller the number of pores, higher will be the
specific gravity hence more will be the bond strength and more concrete strength.
Water absorption is a measure of porosity of aggregates and its resistance to frost action. Higher
water absorption means more pores hence aggregate will be the considered as weak. Water
absorption value ranges from 0.1 – 2.0% for aggregate normally used in roads surfaces. Aggregates
with water absorption up to 4.0% are acceptable in base course.
Specific Gravity:
It is defined as ratio of weight of solid to the weight of an equal volume of gas free distilled water
(no dissolved air/impurities) at a stated temperature.
Water Absorption:
It is the ratio of weight of water absorbed to the weight of dry sample expressed as a percentage. It
will not include the amount of water adhering to the surface of the particles.
Saturated Surface Dry (S.S.D.) Condition:

It is the condition related with the aggregate particles in which the permeable pores of the aggregate
particles are filled with water but without free water on the surface of the particles.
Oven Dried Specific Gravity:

It is the ratio of the oven dried density of the aggregate to the density of the gas free distilled water at
a standard temperature (i.e. 4 oC).
Saturated Surface Dry Specific Gravity:

It is the ratio of the saturated surface dry density of the aggregate to the density of the gas free
distilled water at a standard temperature (i.e. 4 oC).
25
Apparent Specific Gravity:
It is the ratio of the apparent density of the aggregate to the density of the gas free distilled water at a
standard temperature (i.e. 4 oC).
Apparatus:
 A balance having a capacity of at least 5500g sensitive to 1 g or less.
 A wire mesh basket made of 2.36 mm mesh, and of enough capacity for samples weighing up to
5500 g.
 Immersion tank of enough size to allow the wire mesh basket to be completely immersed. The
immersion tank and balance shall be arranged in a manner that will allow weighing the wire
mesh basket and test sample while immersed.
 Corrosion-resistant containers with a capacity of approximately 8 L.
Procedure:
 Take representative sample. Reject all material passing #4, weight of sample to be used for
the test would depend upon the nominal maximum size as given in table below.
Nominal (mm) 12.5 19 25 37.5 50 63 75 90

Maximum
Size (in.) ½ ¾ 1 1½ 2 2½ 3 3½
Maximum
2 3 4 5 8 12 18 25
Sample Wt. (Kg)
 Place sample in 8 L container, cover with water at a

temperature of 15 to 25°C, and soak for a minimum period of
15 h.
 Transfer the sample to the wire basket and rinse clean with
fresh water.
 Suspend the wire basket from the balance immersing the
basket and sample completely in water and weigh to the
nearest gram.
 Transfer the sample onto a large absorbent cloth and remove
all visible films of water. Surface water can be removed by
rolling the sample gently with a towel. Weigh the sample to
the nearest gram and record the mass as “Mass of saturated
surface-dry sample in air.” Avoid loss of absorbed water by
drying the sample to surface dry condition as rapidly as possible and then weighing
immediately.
 3.6 Transfer the sample to a suitable container and dry to constant mass at 110 ± 5°C.
 Cool to room temperature and weigh and Record the mass as “Oven-dry mass.”
26
Oven Dried Bulk Specific Gravity Sd = A / (B – C)
Saturated Surface Dry Bulk Specific Gravity Ss = B / (B – C)
Apparent Specific Gravity Sa = A / (A – C)
Water Absorption, WA = [(B – A) / A] x 100
Where,
A = mass oven dry
B = mass SSD
C = mass under water
Specification
 Specific Gravity varies from 2.5 to 3.0
 Absorption varies from 0.1 to 2.0 %
27
Angularity Number of aggregates
Designation: ( IS: 2386 (Part I) – 1963)
Scope:
This test is also carried out for determining shape of the aggregates. Based upon shape the aggregates
may be classified as Rounded, Angular or Flaky. Angular particles possess well defined edges
formed at the intersection of roughly planer faces and are commonly formed in aggregates prepared
by crushing of rocks. Angularity in general is the absence of rounding of particles of an aggregate.
This test is performed to determine the angularity number i.e. the absence of roundedness or the
degree of angularity of the aggregate specimen.
The degree of packing of particles of single sized aggregate depends upon the angularity of
aggregate. The angularity of the aggregate can be estimated from the properties of voids in a sample
of aggregate compacted in a specified manner. The angularity number ranges from 0 for a highly
rounded aggregate to about 11 for freshly crushed angular aggregates. Higher the angularity number,
more angular and less workable is the concrete mix. In cement concrete roads (rigid pavements)
rounded aggregates are preferred because of better workability and higher strength. In bituminous or
water bound macadam construction (like flexible pavements), angular aggregates with high
angularity number are preferred because of high stability due to better interlocking and friction.
Higher the angularity number, more angular and less workable is the concrete mix.
Angularity:
It is the absence of roundness. An aggregate particle, which is more rounded, is less angular and vice
versa.
Angularity Number:
Angularity number of an aggregate is the amount (to the higher whole number) by which the
percentage of voids in it after compacting in a prescribed manner exceeds 33.
Where, “33” is the percentage of volume of voids, in a perfectly rounded aggregate. “67” is the
percentage of volume of solids in a perfectly rounded aggregate.
Apparatus:
 A metal cylinder of about 3-liter capacity.
 Temping rod of circular cross-section, 16mm Φ, 60cm in
length. Rounded at one end.
 A metal scoop.
 A weighing balance.
 Set of sieves
 Oven
Procedure
 This procedure is for aggregate size ¾ to No.4. If aggregate is coarser than ¾, a cylinder of large
capacity shall be required but amount of compacting effort or energy should be proportional to
the volume of the cylinder.
28
 10 Kg of the sample is taken for the test. The material should be oven dried.
 The aggregate is compacted in three layers, each layer being given 100 blows using the standard
tamping rod at a rate of 2 blows/second by lifting the rod 5 cm above the surface of the
aggregate and then allowing it to fall freely.
 The blows are uniformly distributed over the surface of the aggregate. After compacting the third
layer, the cylinder is filled to overflowing and excess material is removed off with temping rod
as a straight edge.
 The aggregate with cylinder is then weighed. Three separate determinations are made and mean
weight of the aggregate in the cylinder is calculated.
Method – 1:
 Add measured quantity of water in the compacted aggregate till all the voids are filled and water
appears to the surface.
 Volume of water added is approximately equal to the volume of voids in the compacted
aggregate.
Volume of Water Added
Angularity Number   100  33
Total Volume
Method – 2:
100 W
where, Angularity Number  67 
CGs
W = mean weight of the aggregate filling
cylinder.
C = Weight/Volume of water that can completely fill the cylinder
(= 3 liters = 3000 ml – in our lab)
Gs = Specific Gravity of the aggregate.
Notes:
 Method – 1 determines the angularity number from the solids point of view.
 Method – 2 determines the angularity number from the voids point of view.

WEIGHT (gm) Volume of Angularity
Water Number
Added
Empty Cylinder + Cylinder Aggregate Method Method
Cylinder Aggregate + Agg. + (ml) #1 #2
Water
Specification:
 The value of angularity number generally lies between 0 & 11
 In road construction angularity number of 7 – 10 is generally preferred.
29
Skid Resistance Test using British Pendulum
Designation:(ASTM E303 - 93(2018)
Scope:
Friction between vehicle and road surface plays a vital role in determining the Maximum operating
speed and the distance required in safely stopping the vehicles. Road pavements are designed to
provide reasonably high coefficient of friction but with the movement of traffic, the aggregates in the
wearing coarse of the road get polished resulting in reduction of the frictional or skid resistance of
the road. Skid Resistance. British Pendulum Tester is used to measure the frictional resistance of
road at sections which appear to be potentially slippery and unsafe against skidding. British
Pendulum Tester is used for field and laboratory tests.
Skid Resistance Tester:

The British Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester is an impact type pendulum used to measure the
energy loss when a rubber slider edge is propelled over a test surface. The values measured represent
the frictional properties and are expressed as BPN (British Pendulum Number).
Skidding Skid Resistance:

In skidding phenomenon, the distance travelled by wheel on the road is more than the circumferential
movement. When brakes are applied, wheels get locked and still if the vehicle moves ahead,
longitudinal skidding is said to occur. Skid Resistance
Slipping:
In slipping, the distance traveled by wheel on the road is less than the circumferential movement. If
the wheels of the vehicle are rotating but the vehicle is not moving forward, then slipping is said to
occur.
Measurement of Texture Depth:

It is also necessary to record the surface texture of the road surface tested. This is measured by Sand
Patch Method. A known volume of fine sand of uniform particle size is poured on the road and
spread to form a patch of a regular shape so that its area couldn’t be measured. Sand should be
spread in such a manner that all “valleys” are filled to level of “peaks”. Then the texture depth can be
computed by using the formula;
30
TEXTURE DEPTH = VOLUME OF SAND / AREA OF PATCH
ROAD SURFACE TEXTURE TEXTURE DEPTH
Coarse/Open Texture ≥ 0.02”
Medium Texture 0.02” – 0.01”
Fine Texture ≤ 0.01”
More the texture depth better is the road surface, but a high value of texture depth also increases the
chances of severe injuries. Skid Resistance
Factors Affecting Skidding Resistance:

Condition of Tires – Vehicles having smooth tires would have slightly lower skidding resistance.
Effect of Road Temperature – Skidding resistance of wet roads is higher in winter than in summer.
Skidding resistance of roads is at its lowest between April and September. So roads with satisfactory
values in winter may prove slippery during summer. Skid Resistance
31
Effect of Water – Skidding resistance is lower on wet than on dry pavements. Skid Resistance
Type of aggregate: sand stones and granites are more resistant to polishing action than limestone.
 Higher the skid-resistance results, better is the road surface but a high value of skid-resistance
also increases the chances of severe injuries.
Apparatus:
Parts:
 Slider – Slider assembly consists of an aluminum backing plate to which a rubber strip 3’’ x 1’’ x
¼’’ is bonded.
 Leveling screws
 Scale
 Drag pointer
 Locking and control knobs
 Frictional rings
32
Accessories:
 Contact path gauge – shall consist of a thin ruler suitably marked for measuring contact path
length between (4 7/8’’ and 5’’).
 Water container
 Surface thermometer and
 Brush
Reparation of Apparatus
 Leveling – apparatus is levelled using 3 levelling screws until the bubble is centered in the spirit
level.
 Zero adjustment – raise the pendulum mechanism by loosening locking knob, till it swings free
of test surface. Tighten the knob. Place pendulum in release position and drag pointer in
horizontal position and drag pointer in horizontal position. Execute a free swing and note the
pointer reading. If reading is not zero; make adjustment by friction ring until pendulum swing
carries the pointer to zero. Skid Resistance
 Slide length adjustment – with pendulum hanging free, place spacer under adjusting screw of
lifting handle and allow pendulum to move slowly to the left until the edge of the slider touches
the surface. Place gauge beside slider and parallel to the direction of swing to verify the length of
contact path which should be between (4 7/8’’ and 5’’) on flat surfaces as measured from trailing
edge to trailing edge of the rubber slider. Skid Resistance
 Place pendulum in release position and rotate drag pointer counter clockwise until it comes to
original position. Inspect the road and choose the section to be tested. Set the apparatus so that
the slider swings in the direction of traffic.
Procedure:
 Apply enough water to cover the test area thoroughly. Execute one swing but don’t record
reading.
 Make four more swings, rewetting the test area each time and record the results. The readings
should not differ by more than 3 units. Skid Resistance
 Report the individual values as B.P.N. also note down the age, condition, texture and location of
test area.
STANDARD OF
‘SKID
SKIDDING
CATEGORY TYPE OF SITE RESISTANCE’ ON
RESISTANCE
WET SURFACE
REPRESENTED
Most difficult sites such as;
i)- Roundabouts ‘Good’: fulfilling the
ii)- Bends with radius less requirements even of fast
than 500 ft on derestricted traffic, and making it most
A Above 65
roads. unlikely that the road will
iii)- Gradients, 1 in 20 or be the scene of repeated
steeper, of length greater accidents.
than 100 yd.
33
iv)- Approach to traffic
lights on derestricted roads.
General requirements, i.e. ‘Generally Satisfactory’:
roads and conditions not meeting all but the most
B* Above 55
covered by categories A & difficult conditions
C. encountered on the roads.
Easy sites, e.g. straight roads,
with easy gradients and
curves, without junctions,
‘Satisfactory only in
C* and free from any features, Above 45
favorable circumstances.’
such as mixed traffic,
especially liable to create
conditions of emergency.
D All sites Below 45 ‘Potentially Slippery’
* On smooth-looking or fine-textured roads in these categories, vehicles having smooth tyres may
not find skid-resistance adequate. For such road accident studies should also be made to ensure that
there are no indications of difficulties due to skidding under wet conditions.
Observations & Calculations:

Texture Depth Skid Resistance:
Volume of Texture Depth
Dimensions of AREA
Group Sand
Patch (cm x cm) (cm2) (cm) (inches)
(ml = cm3)
1
2
British Pendulum Number:
Surface Skid-
Distance Distance Mean
Group Date Texture Resistance
from (m) (BPN)
(in) (BPN)
1
2
34
Penetration Test of Bitumen
Designation: ( ASTM D5-06)
Scope:
This test is used to determine the penetration grade of bitumen. The behavior of bituminous materials
varies significantly with change in temperature. It is therefore important to use the appropriate grade
of bitumen that is best suitable for the climatic conditions of the project area. The penetration of
bitumen is defined as the distance in tenths of millimeter that a standard needle vertically penetrates
in a sample of bitumen under known conditions of loading, time and temperature. (A load of 100
grams applied for 5seconds at 25C is standardized for the test). A small penetration value indicates
that the bitumen is hard, while the high penetration value indicates that the bitumen is soft.
The penetration test is used as a measure of consistency. Higher values of penetration indicate softer
consistency. The test is widely used all over the world for classifying bituminous materials into
different grades. Depending upon the climatic conditions and type of construction, bitumen of
different penetration grade is used. Commonly used grades are 30/40, 60/70 and 80/100. In warmer
regions, lower penetration grades are preferred and in colder regions bitumen with higher penetration
values are used. The test is not intended to estimate consistency of softer materials like cut back
which are usually graded by viscosity test.
Penetration:
Consistency of a bituminous material expressed as the distance in
tenths of a millimeter that a standard needle vertically penetrates a
sample of the material under known conditions of loading, time, and
temperature.
Sources of Bitumen:
Bitumen is generally obtained from the following three sources;
 Naturally occurring (in West Indies).
 Extracted from Limestone and Sandstone (procedure adopted in USA).
 From Oil Refineries i.e. Attock Oil Refinery (ARL), Karachi Oil Refinery (KRL).
Properties of Bitumen:
 Bitumen is both flammable and combustible.
 Bitumen becomes volatile at higher temperatures.
 The working temperature of the bitumen must be at least 100°C below
the flash point.
 By repeated heating and cooling of bitumen, more and more volatiles
will be ejected, and the properties of bitumen will be altered.
Apparatus:
Penetration Apparatus — Any apparatus that permits the needle holder (spindle) to move
vertically without measurable friction and can indicate the depth of penetration to the nearest 0.1
mm, will be acceptable. The weight of the spindle shall be 47.5 ± 0.05 gram. The total weight of the
35
needle and spindle assembly shall be 50.0 ±0.05 grams. Weights of 50 ± 0.05 grams and 100 ± 0.05
grams shall also be provided for total loads of 100 gram and 200 gram, as required for some
conditions of the test. The surface on which the sample container rests shall be flat and the axis of the
plunger shall be at approximately 90° to this surface. The spindle shall be easily detached for
checking its weight.
Penetration Needle — The needle shall be made from fully hardened and tapered stainless steel.
The standard needle shall be approximately 50 mm in length. The diameter of needle shall be 1.00 to
1.02 mm. It shall be symmetrically tapered at one end by grinding to a cone having an angle between
8.7° and 9.7° over the entire cone length. The cone should be coaxial with the straight body of the
needle. The truncated tip of the cone shall be within the diameter limits of 0.14 and 0.16 mm and
square to the needle axis within 2°. The needle shall he mounted in a non-corroding metal ferrule.
The exposed length of the standard needle shall be within the limits of 40 and 45 mm and the
exposed length of the long needle shall be 50 to 55 mm. The needle shall be rigidly mounted in the
ferrule. The weight of the ferrule needle assembly should be 2.50 ± 0.05 grams.
Sample Container — A metal or glass cylindrical, flat-bottom container of the following

dimensions shall be used.
PENETRATION DIAMETER (mm) INTERNAL DEPTH (mm)

< 200 55 35
Between 200 & 350 55 70
Water Bath — A bath having a capacity of at least 10 Liter and capable of maintaining a
temperature of 25 ± 0.1 °C or other temperature of test within 0.1 °C.
Timing Device — For hand operated Penetrometers any convenient timing device such as an
electric timer, a stop watch, or other spring activated device may be used provided it is graduated in
0.1 second or less and is accurate to within ± 0.1 second for a 60 second interval.
Thermometers — Calibrated liquid-in-glass thermometers of suitable range with subdivisions

and maximum scale error of 0.1 °C or any other thermometric device of equal accuracy, precision
and sensitivity shall be used.
Sample Preparation:
 Heat the sample with care, stirring when possible to prevent local overheating, until it has
become sufficiently fluid to pour. In no case should the temperature be raised to more than 90 °C
above expected softening point for petroleum asphalt (bitumen). Do not heat samples for more
than 30 minutes. Avoid incorporating bubbles into the sample.
 Pour the sample into the sample container to a depth such that, when cooled to the temperature of
test, the depth of the sample is at least 10 mm greater than the depth to which the needle is
expected to penetrate. Pour two separate portions for each variation in test conditions.
 Loosely cover each container as a protection against dust (covering with a lipped beaker) and
allow cooling in air at a temperature between 15° and 30 °C for 1 to 1.5 hours for the small
container and 1.5 to 2 hours for the taller.
36
Test Conditions:
Where the conditions of test are not specifically mentioned, the temperature, load, and time are
understood to be 25 °C, 100 gram, and 5 seconds, respectively. Other conditions may be used for
special testing, such as the following:
TEMPERATURE (oC) LOAD (gm.) TIME (Sec)

0 200 60
4 200 60
45 50 5
46.1 50 5
Procedure:
 Examine the needle holder and guide to establish the absence of water and other extraneous
materials.
 Clean a penetration needle with toluene or other suitable solvent, dry with a clean cloth, and
insert the needle into the penetrometer. Unless otherwise specified place the 50-gram weight
above the needle, making the total weight 100 ± 0.1 gram.
 Place the sample container in the transfer dish, cover the container completely with water with
the constant temperature bath and place the transfer dish on the stand of the penetrometer.
 Position the needle by slowly lowering it until its tip just contacts the surface of the sample.
 This is accomplished by bringing the actual needle tip into contact with its image reflected on the
surface of the sample from a properly placed source of light. Either note the reading of the
penetrometer dial or bring the pointer to zero.
 Quickly release the needle holder for the specified period and adjust the instrument to measure
the distance penetrated in tenths of a millimeter. If the container moves, ignore the result.
 Make at least three determinations at points on the surface of the sample not less than 10 mm
from the side of the container and not less than 10 mm apart. If the transfer dish is used, return
the sample and transfer dish to the constant temperature bath between determinations.
 Use a clean needle for each determination. If the penetration is greater than 200, use at least three
needles leaving them in the sample until the three determinations have been completed.
 Take at least three readings.
Calculation and Observation:

 Pouring temperature =
 Period of cooling in room = 1hour
 Room temperature =
 Water bath temperature = 25o C
Penetration in 10th of (mm)
Sr. No. Reading Reading Reading Grade
1.
2.
37
Flash and Fire Point of Bitumen
Designation: (AASHTO: T 48-89 and ASTM: D-92)
Scope:
Different bituminous material has quite different values of flash and fire point When the bitumen or
cut back is to be heated before mixing or application utmost care is taken to see that heating is
limited to a temperature will below the flash point. This flash-point and fire-point test method is a
dynamic method and depends on definite rates of temperature increases to control the precision of
the method. Bitumen is flammable liquids at high temperature and therefore, there is a risk of
catching fire if care is not exercised during construction. Its primary use is to define the critical
temperature at and above which suitable precautions should be taken to eliminate fire hazards during
its application.
Flash point measures the tendency of the sample to form a flammable mixture with air under
controlled laboratory conditions. It is only one of several properties that must be considered in
assessing the overall flammability hazard of a material. Flash point is used in shipping and safety
regulations to differentiate between ‘‘flammable’’ and ‘‘combustible’’ materials. Flash point can
indicate the possible presence of highly volatile and flammable materials in a relatively nonvolatile
or nonflammable material. Fire point measures the characteristics of the sample to support
combustion. Bituminous materials give rise to volatiles at high temperature, as they are basically the
hydrocarbons. These volatiles catch fire causing a flash, which is very hazardous.
During construction of bituminous pavements, the engineer may restrict the mixing or application
temperatures well within the limits. The test therefore gives indication of critical temperature at and
above which suitable precautions should be taken to eliminate fire hazards during use of asphalts. In
other words, heating should be limited to a temperature well below the flash point.
Flash Point:
Flash point is the lowest temperature corrected to a barometric pressure of 101.3 kPa (760 mm Hg),
at which application of a test flame causes the vapor of a specimen to ignite under specified
conditions of test. The material is deemed to have flashed when a large flame appears and
instantaneously propagates itself over the surface of the specimen.
Note: Occasionally, particularly near the actual flash point, the application of test flame will cause
the blue halo or an enlarged flame; this is not a flash and should be
ignored.
Fire Point:
It is the lowest temperature at which a specimen will sustain burning
for 5 seconds. A flammable material is the one, which form flames,
but does not sustain fire while a combustible material is the one,
which sustains fire/burning.
Apparatus:
Cleveland Cup Apparatus: It consists of test cup, heating plate,
test flame applicator, heater, thermometer support and heating plate
support, all conforming to the following requirements.
38
Test Cup: It is made of brass. The cup may be equipped with a handle
Heating Plate: A brass, cast iron, wrought iron, or steel plate with a center hole surrounded by an
area of plane depression, and a sheet of hard asbestos board which covers the metal plate except over
the area of plane depression in which the test cup is supported. The metal plate may be square
instead of round and have suitable extension for mounting the test flame applicator device and the
thermometer support. The metal bead is mounted on the plate so that it extends through and slightly
above a small hole in the asbestos board.
Test Flame Applicator: The device for applying the test flame may be of any suitable design, but
the tip shall be 1.6 to 5.0 mm in diameter at the end and the orifice shall have an approximate
diameter of 0.8 mm. The device for applying the test flame shall be so mounted to permit automatic
duplication of the sweep of the test flame, the radius of swing being not less than 150 mm and the
center of the orifice moving’ in a plane not more than 2.5 mm above the cup. A bead having a
diameter of 3.8 to 5.4 mm may be mounted in a convenient position on the apparatus so the size of
the test flame can be compared to it.
Heater: Heat may be supplied from any convenient source. The use of a gas burner or alcohol lamp
is permitted, but under no circumstances are products of combustion or free flame to be allowed to
come up around the cup. An electric heater controlled by a variable voltage transformer is preferred.
The source of heat shall be centered under the opening of the heating plate with no local
superheating.
Thermometer Support: A device which will hold the thermometer in the specified position
during a test and permits easy removal of the thermometer from the test cup upon completion of a
test.
Heating Plate Support: Any convenient support which will hold the heating plate level and
steady may be employed.
Shield: A shield having an area of 460mm2 and 610mm high and having an open front is used.
Thermometer: A thermometer having the required range
Sample Preparation:
 Support the apparatus on a level table. Shield the top of the apparatus from strong intensity of
light by any suitable means to permit ready detection of the flash point.
 Wash the test cup with an appropriate solvent to remove any oil or traces of gum or residue
remaining from a previous test. If any deposits of carbon are present, they should be removed
with steel wool.
 Flush the cup with cold water and dry for a few minutes over an open flame, on a hot plate, or in
an oven to remove the last traces of solvent and water. Cool the cup to at least 56 °C below the
expected flash point before using.
 Support the thermometer in a vertical position with the bottom of the bulb 6.4 mm from the
bottom of the cup and located at a point halfway between the center and side of the cup on the
diameter perpendicular to the line of the sweep of the test flame and on the side opposite to the
test flame burner arm.
39
Procedure:
 Fill the cup at any convenient temperature not exceeding 100 °C or above the softening point so
that the top of the meniscus is at the filling line.
 Remove the excess sample using a pipette or other suitable device; however, if there is sample on
the outside of the apparatus, empty, clean, and refill it. Destroy any air bubbles on the surface of
the sample.
 Lit the test flame and adjust it to a diameter of 3.8 to 5.4 mm.
 Apply heat initially so that the rate of temperature rise of the sample is 14 to 17 °C per minute.
When the sample temperature is approximately 56 °C below the anticipated flash point, decrease
the heat so that the rate of temperature rises for 28°C before the flash point is 5 to 6°C per
minute.
 Apply the test flame when the temperature read on the thermometer reaches each successive 2 °C
mark. Pass the test flame across the center of the cup, at right angles to the diameter, which
passes through the thermometer. With a smooth, continuous motion apply the flame either in a
straight line or along the circumference of a circle having a radius of at least 150 mm.
 The center of the test flame must move in a plane not more than 2.5 mm above the plane of the
upper edge of the cup passing in one direction first, then in the opposite direction the next lime.
The time consumed in passing the test flame across the cup shall be about one second (1 s.).
During the last 17 °C rise in temperature prior to the flash point, care must be taken to avoid
disturbing the vapors in the test cup by careless movements or bathing near the cup.
 Record as the observed flash point the temperature read on the thermometer when a flash appears
at any point on the surface of the material but does not confuse the true flash with the bluish halo
that sometimes surrounds the test flame.
 To determine the fire point, continue heating so, that the sample temperature increases at a rate of
5 to 6 °C. Continue the application of the test flame at 2°C intervals until the oil ignites and
continues to burn for at least 5 second. Record the temperature at the point as the fire point of the
oil.
Observations & Calculation:

Observe and record the barometric pressure at the time of the test. Record the corrected flash or fire
joint value, or both, to the nearest 5 °C or 2°C. When the pressure differs from 760 mm Hg, correct
the flash or fire point, or both, by means of the following equations:
Corrected flash or fire point, or both = C + 0.03 (760 — P)
Where,
 C = observed flash or fire point, or both, to the nearest 2 °C, ----------------------------
 P = Barometric pressure, mm Hg. ----------------------------
 Bitumen grade ----------------------------
 Type of equipment ----------------------------
 Rate of heating ------------------------------
40
Test Property Sample Number Mean
1 2 3
Flash point
Fire point
Variation from
Mean Value
Precautions:
 Do not breathe close to the apparatus as the fumes are injurious to health.
 Turn the fans off so that the fumes can be accumulated over the cup.
 Tip of the thermometer should not touch the bottom or sides of the cup.
 The operator must exercise and take appropriate safety precautions during the initial application
of the test flame, since samples containing low flash material may give an abnormally strong
flash when the test flame is first applied.
NHA Specifications:
Serial Bitumen Grade Flash Point Fire Point
1 40/50 2320C 2420C
2 60/70 2320C 2420C
3 80/100 2320C 2420C
4 120/150 2180C 2280C
41
Softening Point of Bitumen
Designation: (AASHTO T 53-89 & ASTM D 36 – 95, Reproved 2000)
Scope:
This method is useful in determining the consistency of bitumen as one
element in establishing the uniformity of shipments or sources of supply.
Softening point is the temperature at which the bituminous binders have
an equal viscosity (i.e. the consistency of all the grades will be same at
the softening point e.g. if two samples have softening points of 40 °C and
80 °C respectively, both will have the same consistency at their softening
point.).The test gives an idea of the temperature at which the bituminous
materials attain a certain viscosity. Bitumen with higher softening point
may be preferred in warmer places. Softening point should be higher than
the hottest day temperature, which is anticipated in that area otherwise
bitumen may sufficiently soften and result in bleeding and development
of ruts. This test method covers the determination of the softening point
of bitumen in the range from 30 to 157oC (86 to 315oF) using the ring-
and-ball apparatus immersed in distilled water (30 to 80oC), USP glycerin
(above 80 to 157oC), or ethylene glycol (30 to 110oC).
Softening Point:
The softening point is defined as the mean of the temperatures at which the bitumen disks soften and
sag downwards a distance of 25 mm under the weight of a steel ball.
Apparatus:
 Ring: A brass shouldered ring.
 Ball: A steel ball, 9.53 mm (3/8”) in diameter,
weighing between 3.45 and3.55 grams.
 Ball Centering Guide: A guide for centering the
ball and made of brass.
 Ring Holder Assembly: The rings shall be
supported on a brass ring holder. Rings shall be
supported in a horizontal position with the
bottoms of the rings 25 mm above the upper
surface of the bottom plate and a distance of at
least 13 mm and not more than 19 mm between
the bottom plate and the bottom of the bath. The
thermometer shall be suspended so that the bottom
of the bulb is level with the bottom of the rings
and within 13 mm of the rings but not touching
them.
 Brass Pouring Plate: A flat, smooth brass plate
approximately 75 by 50 mm that has been treated
to prevent the bituminous material from adhering
42
to it. A suitable treatment is to coat the plate just before use with a thin layer of a mixture of
glycerin and dextrin, talc, or china clay.
 Bath: A glass vessel, capable of being heated, not less than 85 mm in diameter and not less than
120 mm in depth from the bottom of the flare.
 Thermometers: having a range from -2 to +80°C.
Sample Preparation:
 Heat the sample with care to prevent local overheating, with constant stirring until it has become
sufficiently fluid to pour. In no case, however, shall the temperature be raised to more than 55°C
above the expected softening point for tar pitch, or to more than 110 °C above the expected
softening point for asphalt. Avoid incorporating air bubbles in the sample.
 Bring an asphalt sample to the pouring temperature in not more than 2 hrs. Bring coal tar pitch to
the desired pouring conditions in minimum time, not exceeding 30 min.
 Pour a slight excess of the heated sample into two rings, preheated to approximately the pouring
temperature. While being filled the rings shall rest on the brass pouring plate, previously treated
to prevent bituminous materials from adhering to it.
 Cool the specimen disks for a minimum of 30 min. In no case shall more than 240 min elapse
before completion of the test. Cool specimens that are soft at room temperature for at least 30
min at a minimum of 8 °C below the expected softening point.
 After cooling, cut the excess material off cleanly with a slightly heated knife or spatula. In case
the test is repeated, use a clean container and fresh sample to prepare the test specimen.
Procedure:
Materials Having Softening Points 80°C or Below:
 Assemble the apparatus with the rings, ASTM Thermometer 15 °C or I5 °F, and ball centering
guides in position and fill the bath with freshly boiled water to a depth of not less than 102mm
and not more than 108mm.
 Maintain the bath temperature at 5 ± 1°C for 15 min, placing the test container in ice water if
necessary. Using forceps, place a ball, previously adjusted to the bath temperature, in each ball-
centering guide.
 Apply heat in such a manner that the temperature of the liquid is raised 5°C/min. Avoid the effect
of drafts, using shields if necessary. (Rigid adherence to the prescribed rate of heating is essential
for reproducibility of results. Either a gas burner or electric heater may be used; however, the
latter must be of the low-lag, variable output type to maintain the necessary rate of heating.)
 The rate of rise of temperature shall be uniform and shall not be averaged over the period of the
test.
 The maximum permissible variation of any 1-mm period after the first 3 mm shall be ± 0.5°C.
Reject all tests in which the rate of rise does not fall within these limits.
 Record for each ring and ball the temperature shown by the thermometer at the instant the
specimen surrounding the ball touches the bottom plate.
 Make no correction for the emergent stem of the thermometer. If the difference between the
values obtained in the duplicate determinations exceeds 1°C repeat the test.
43
Materials Having Softening Points Above 80°C
 Follow the same procedure as described above, except use USP glycerin instead of water and use
ASTM Thermometer l6°C or 16°F. The starting temperature of the glycerin bath shall be 32°C.

 Bitumen Grade
 Period of air cooling =1 hour
Rate of heating Rate of heating
Time (Minute) Temperature ºC Time (Minute) Temperature ºC
0 5
1 6
2 7
3 8
4 9
44
Specific Gravity of Bitumen
Designation: (ASTM D 70-76.)
Scope:
Specific gravity of a bitumen binder is a fundamental property frequently required as an aid in
classing binders for use in paving jobs. Bitumen weights sometimes must be converted into volumes
for asphalt concrete mix design calculations for which a knowledge of specific gravity is essential.
Specific gravity is also used in identifying the source of bitumen binder. Bitumen binder has specific
gravity in the range of 0.97 to 1.02. In case bitumen contains mineral impurities, the specific gravity
will be higher. Thus, it is possible for a quantitative extraction of mineral impurity in bitumen.
Specific Gravity:
The specific gravity of semi-solid bituminous material, asphalt cements, and soft tar pitches shall be
expressed as the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the material at 25 °C to that of an equal
volume of water at the same temperature.
Apparatus:
 Pycnometer: glass, consisting of a cylindrical or conical vessel carefully ground to receive an
accurately fitting glass stopper 22 to 26 mm in diameter. The stopper shall be provided with a
hole 1.0 to 2.0 mm in diameter, centrally located in reference to the vertical axis. The top surface
of the stopper shall be smooth and substantially plane and the lower surface shall be concave in
order to allow all air to escape through the bore. The height of the concave section shall be 4.0 to
18.0 mm at the center. The stopper Pycnometer shall have a capacity of 24 to 30 ml and shall
weigh not more than 40 gram.
 Water bath: constant-temperature, capable of maintaining the temperature within 0.1 °C of the
test temperature.
 Thermometers: calibrated liquid-in-glass, total immersion type, of suitable range.
 Balance: a balance conforming to the requirements of AASHTO.
 Distilled water: freshly boiled and cooled distilled water shall he used to fill the Pycnometer and
the beaker
Specific Gravity Computation of Bituminous Material
A B C
45
Procedure:
 Heat the sample with care, stirring to prevent local overheating until the sample has become
sufficiently fluid to pour. While heating, keep in mind the following considerations;
 In no case should the temperature be raised to more than 56 °C above the expected
softening point for tar, or to more than 111°C above the expected softening point for
asphalt.
 Do not heat for more than 30 minutes over a flame or hot plate or for more than 2 hours in
an oven and avoid incorporating air bubbles in the sample.
 Thoroughly clean, dry, and weigh the Pycnometer to the nearest 1 mg. Designate this mass as
‘A’.
 Then fill the beaker with freshly boiled distilled water, placing the stopper loosely in the
Pycnometer. Place the Pycnometer in the beaker and press the stopper firmly in place. Return the
beaker to the water bath and allow the Pycnometer to remaining the water bath for a period of not
less than 30 minutes. Remove the Pycnometer, immediately dry the top of the stopper with one
stroke of a dry towel, then quickly dry the remaining outside area of the Pycnometer and weigh
to the nearest 1 mg. Designate the mass of the Pycnometer plus water as ‘B’.
 Pour enough sample into the clean, dry, warmed Pycnometer to fill it about three-fourths of its
capacity. Take precautions to keep the material from touching the sides of the Pycnometer above
the final level, and to prevent the inclusion of air bubbles. Allow the Pycnometer and its contents
to cool to ambient temperature for a period of not less than 40 minutes, and weigh with, the
stopper to the nearest 1 mg. Designate the mass of the Pycnometer plus sample as ‘C’.
46
 Remove the beaker from the water bath. Fill the Pycnometer containing the asphalt with freshly
boiled distilled water, placing the stopper loosely in the Pycnometer. Do not allow any air
bubbles to remain in the Pycnometer. Place the Pycnometer in the beaker and press the stopper
firmly in place. Return the beaker to the water bath. Allow the Pycnometer to remain in the water
bath for a period of not less than 30 minutes. Remove the Pycnometer from the bath. Dry and
weigh using the same technique and timing as that employed in # 2. Designate this mass of
Pycnometer plus sample plus water as ‘D’.
 The specific gravity bottle is weighted filled with the material (Weight ‘E’).

Calculate the specific gravity to the nearest third decimal as follows:
Specific gravity for Solids and semi-solids = ( )/( ) ( )
Specific gravity for Liquids = ( )/( )
Where,
A = mass of Pycnometer (+ stopper)
B = mass of Pycnometer filled with water.
C = mass of Pycnometer partially filled with asphalt, and
D = mass of Pycnometer + asphalt + water.
E = mass of Pycnometer + filled with the material (liquid)
Weights Specific Specific

gravity for gravity for
Pycnometer Pycnometer Pycnometer Pycnometer Liquids =
Pycnometer, Solids and
+ Water, + Asphalt, + Water + + filled with ( )/
(A) semi-solids
(B) (C) Asphalt, (D) liquid, (E) (
=( )/
(gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) ( ) ( )
47
Specific Viscosity of Bitumen
Designation: (ASTM D 1665-98)
Scope:
This test method is useful in characterizing
the consistency of tar and tar distillates by
measuring, their flow properties. It is
applicable to materials that are readily
liquid at temperature up to 100°C.
Viscosity in Engler’s degrees ≈ 1/4th of say
bolt furol viscosity (seconds). The degree
of fluidity at application temperature
greatly influences the strength
characteristics of resulting paving mixes.
High or low fluidity at mixing and
compaction has been observed to result in lower stability values. There is an optimum value of
fluidity or viscosity for mixing and compaction for each aggregate grading of the mix and bitumen
grade. At low Viscosity, the binder simply lubricates the aggregate particles instead of providing a
uniform film thickness for binding action. Similarly, high viscosity also resists the comp active effort
and the resulting mix will be heterogeneous in character exhibiting low stability values. Liquid
asphalt is used to save large amount of energy required to melt or make the asphalt workable.
ENGLER Specific Viscosity:

Engler specific viscosity is the ratio of time of flow for 50 ml of material in seconds using an Engler
viscometer at a selected temperature to the time of flow, in second, for an equal volume of water at
20°C. The usual temperatures for determination of specific viscosity for tar materials are 25°C, 40°C,
50°C, and 100°C, and generally the temperature is so selected that the specific viscosity is not more
than 45. Engler’s viscometer which is efflux tube was developed in Germany. The method is
basically empirical, but it is possible to relate efflux time to absolute viscosity using charts/tables
developed by Asphalt institute for this purpose.
Note: At a temperature more than 100°C, the water will boil. So, we cannot perform this test at a
temperature more than 100°C.
Apparatus:
 Engler Viscometer
 Cup: this is a gold-plated cylindrical brass vessel having an inner diameter of 106.0 ± 1.0 mm,
closed at the top by a double walled lid. To the rounded bottom is attached a metal—encase
tapered platinum efflux tube 20.0 ± 0.1 mm long with an inside diameter of 2.90 ± 0.1 mm at the
top and 2.80 ± 0.02 mm at the bottom.
 Three metal measuring points spaced equidistantly around the circumference of the cup. They
serve both for indicating when the instrument is level and for measuring the discharge of
material, which is approximately 250 ml.
 Jacket: the cup is surrounded by a jacket which holds water or other suitable liquid serving as a
constant temperature bath. It is provided with a thermometer clamp and stirring device.
48
 A tripod supports the apparatus and also carries a ring burner by means of which the bath is
heated. Adjustable legs on the tripod serve to level the instrument.
 Stopper: the efflux tube in the cup is closed or opened by the insertion or withdrawal of a tapered
hardwood stopper .The stopper shall be a smooth, round wooden rod 180 mm long 8 mm in
diameter.
 Receivers: Two types are required as follows:
 Testing Flask: 50 ml graduate calibrated at 20 °C
 Calibration Flask: for standardization purpose there shall be available a Kohlrausch flask,
with top enlarged above the graduation mark and calibrated to contain 200±0.1 ml at 20°C.
 Thermometers: ASTM Engler Thermometers 23 °C, 24 °C and 25 °C are required, and
conforming to the requirements for these thermometers.
 Timer: Stop watch or other timing device graduated in divisions of 0.1 seconds or less and
accurate to within 0.1 % when tested over a 60-minute period.
 Strainer: 300 mm ASTM sieves conforming to specification.
Sample Preparation:
 Stir the sample until it is homogeneous, using heat if necessary. Avoid inclusion of air bubbles,
loss of volatile or other effects, which may influence the viscosity.
 Strain a representative portion of the sample through the strainer to eliminate particles. Strain the
material directly into the viscometer if preferred.
Procedure:
 Thoroughly clean and dry the cup and outlet tube of the viscometer and insert the stopper. Fill
the outer bath and bring it to the required temperature of test. Maintain the temperature not more
than 1 oC high for tests at 25 °C, 40 °C, or 50 °C, and not more than 2 or 3 oC for tests at 100
°C,
 Pour the material into the cup until it exactly reaches the top of the three measuring points when
the instrument is level.
49
 Place the lid and inner thermometer into position and maintain the bath, with frequent agitation,
at such a temperature that the material in the viscometer cup remains at the test temperature.
Maintain these conditions for 3 minutes. Check the accuracy of the temperature reading by
holding the stopper firmly in position and rotating the cover at short intervals during the first 2
minutes, but do not disturb the material during the last minute. When these conditions have been
met, withdraw the stopper from the efflux tube, simultaneously start the timer.
 Determine the time in seconds for 50 ml of material to flow from the viscometer. Find time of
flow for the same quantity of distilled water at the same temperature.

Calculate the Engler specific viscosity by time of flow for 50 ml. of material at the selected
temperature by the lime of flow for the same quantity of distilled Water, according to the following
formula:
s for flow of 50 ml of liquid asphalt at t
Engler Specific Vis cos ity at t 
s for flow of 50 ml of distilled water at t
Where: t = selected temperature of test, oC.
TIME REQUIRED FOR FLOW OF 50ML ENGLER

GROUP SPECIFIC
Liquid Asphalt Distilled Water VISCOSITY
(sec) (sec) (°E)
50
Ductility Test of Bitumen
Designation: (ASTM D 113-86)
Scope:
This test method provides measure of tensile properties of bituminous materials and may be used to
measure ductility for specification requirements. Bituminous materials used in pavement
construction should possess enough ductility otherwise the pavement would crack due to temperature
or traffic stresses and may render the pavement pervious and damage the pavement structure. The
ductility value varies from 5 to over 100 cm’s. Several agencies have specified minimum ductility
values for various types of bitumen pavements. However, a ductility of 100 cm’s is specified
generally for bituminous construction. Roads expand at daytime while they contract at night. So, if
the bitumen is not adequately ductile cracking will occur. More than one grade may be used in the
same project. For example; we may use grade 80/100 on the main traffic lane and lower grades on
the arteries. The ductility of a bitumen specimen tells us about Tensile Strength of Bitumen and
Grade of Sample (Ductility grade).
Ductility:
The ductility of a bituminous material is defined as the distance in centimeters, to which it will
elongate before breaking when two ends of a briquet specimen of the material, are pulled apart at a
specified speed and a specified temperature. Unless otherwise specified, the test shall be made at a
temperature of 25 ± 0.5 °C and with a speed of 5 cm/min ± 5.0 %. At other temperatures the speed
should be specified. Ductility of asphalt depends upon the grade of asphalt, pouring temperature,
dimensions of briquet, test temperature, rate of pull and levelling of mold.
Apparatus:
 Mold: the mold is made of brass, the ends being known as clips, and the middle parts asides
of the mold.
 Water Bath: the water bath shall be maintained at the specified test temperature, varying not
more than 0.1 °C from this temperature. The volume of water shall be not less than10 liters, and
the specimen shall be immersed to a depth of not less than10 cm and shall be supported on a
perforated shelf not less than 5 cm from the bottom of the bath.
 Testing Machine: For pulling the briquette of bituminous material apart, any apparatus may be
used which is so constructed that the specimen will continuously be immersed in water, while the
two clips are pulled apart at a uniform speed, as specified, without undue vibration.
 Thermometer: A thermometer having a range -8 to 32 °C (18 – 89 °F)
Testing Condition:
 Attach the rings at each end of the clips to the pin or hooks in the testing machine and pull the
two clips apart at a uniform speed specified until the briquette ruptures.
 Measure the distance in centimeters through which the clips have been pulled to produce rupture.
 While the test is being made, the water in the tank of the testing machine shall cover the
specimen both above and below it by at least 2.5 cm and shall be kept continuously at the
temperature specified.
51
 If the bituminous material meets the surface of the water or the bottom of the bath, the test shall
not be considered normal.
 Adjust the specific gravity of the bath by the addition of either methyl alcohol or sodium chloride
so that the bituminous material neither comes to the surface of the water, nor touches the bottom
of the bath at any time during the test.
Procedure:
 Assemble the mold on a brass plate. Thoroughly coat the surface of the plate and interior
surfaces of the sides of the mold with a thin layer of a mixture of glycerin and china clay to
prevent the material under test from sticking.
 The plate upon which the mold is placed shall be perfectly flat and level so that the bottom
surface of the mold will be in contact throughout.
 Carefully heat the sample to prevent local overheating until it has become sufficiently fluid to
pour.
 Strain the molten sample through a # 50 sieve. After a thorough stirring, pour it into the mold. In
filling the mold, take care not to disarrange the parts and thus distort the briquette.
 Infilling pour the material in a thin stream hack and forth from end to end of the mold until the
mold is more than level full.
 Let the mold containing the material cool to room temperature for a period of from 30 to 40
minutes and then place it in the water bath maintained at the specified temperature of test for 30
minutes; then cut off the excess bitumen with a hot straight edged knife or spatula to make the
mold just level full.
 Place the brass plate and mold, with briquette specimen, in water bath and keep at the specified
temperature for a period of from 85 to 95 minutes. Then remove the briquette from the plate,
detach the sidepieces, and immediately test the briquette.

Grade of Bitumen =
Test Temperature =
Ductility value =
52
Preparation of Asphalt Specimens Using Marshall Apparatus
Designation: (ASTM D 6926 – 10)
Scope:
This practice covers preparation and compaction of 102 mm (4 in.) diameter by nominal 64 mm (2.5
in.) high cylindrical bituminous paving mixture specimens by means of the original manual Marshall
Method and subsequent variations of the method. This practice is intended for use with laboratory
and plant produced bituminous mixtures with aggregate up to 25 mm (1 in.) maximum size and for
compaction of asphalt pavement samples. There may or may not be a constant surcharge on top of
the hammer handle. Mechanical hammers are available that operate at (1) nominal 55 blows per
minute and (2) equal to or greater than 75 blows per minute. It is up to the user to establish the
speci c required number of blows to be used for compaction of the specimen in relation to the eld.
Compacted bituminous mixture specimens molded by this procedure are used for various physical
tests such as stability, ow, indirect tensile strength, fatigue, creep, and modulus. Density and voids
analysis are also conducted on specimens for mixture design and evaluation of eld compaction.
Apparatus:
Specimen Mold Assembly: Mold cylinders, base plates, and extension collars shall conform to the
details.
Specimen Extractor: The specimen extractor shall have a steel disk that
will enter the mold without binding and not be less than 100 mm (3.95 in.)
in diameter and 12.5 mm (1⁄2 in.) thick. The steel disk is used for extracting
compacted specimens from molds with the use of the mold collar. Any
suitable extraction device such as a hydraulic jack apparatus or a lever arm
device may be used, provided the specimens are not deformed during the
extraction process.
Compaction Hammers:
 Compaction Hammers with a Manually Held (Type 1) or Fixed (Type2)
Handle, either mechanically or hand operated, shall have a at, circular
compaction foot with spring loaded swivel and a 4.54±0.01 kg (10±0.02
lb) sliding mass with a free fall of 457.2±1.5 mm (18±0.06 in.).
 Compaction Hammers with a Fixed Hammer Handle, surcharge on top
of handle, constantly rotating base, and mechanically operated (Type 3)
shall have a slanted, circular tamping face and a 4.54±0.01 kg (10±0.02 lb) sliding weight with a
free fall of 457.2±1.5 mm (18±0.06 in.). A rotating mechanism is incorporated in the base. The
base rotation rate and hammer blow rate shall be 18 to 30 rpm and 64 6 4 blows per minute,
respectively
Compaction Pedestal: The compaction pedestal shall consist of a nominal 203.2 by 203.2 mm (8 by
8 in.) wooden post approximately 457 mm (18 in.) long capped with a steel plate approximately
304.8 by 304.8 mm (12 by 12 in.) and 25.4 mm (1 in.) thick. The wooden post shall be oak, yellow
pine, or other wood having an average dry density of 670 to 770 kg/m3 (42 to 48 lb/ft3). The wooden
post shall be secured by bolts through four angle brackets to a solid concrete slab. The steel cap shall
be rmly fastened to the post. The pedestal assembly shall be installed so that the post is plumb and
the cap is level.
53
Specimen Mold-Holder: With single hammer compactors, the holder shall be mounted on the
compaction pedestal to center the compaction mold over the center of the post. Specimen mold-
holders of multi-hammer compactors are not necessarily centered. The holders shall hold the
compaction mold, collar, and base plate securely in position during compaction of the specimen.
Ovens, Heating Pots or Hot Plates: Circulating air ovens or thermostatically controlled heating pot
and hot plates shall be provided for heating aggregates, bituminous material, specimen molds,
compaction hammers, and other equipment to within 3°C (5°F) of the required mixing and
compaction temperatures. Suitable shields, baffle plates, or sand baths shall be used on the surfaces
of the hot plates to minimize localized overheating.
Mixing Apparatus: Mechanical mixing is recommended. Any type of mechanical mixer may be
used provided the mix can be maintained at the required temperature and mixing will produce a well-
coated, homogeneous mixture of the required amount in the allowable time, and further provided that
essentially all the batch can be recovered. A metal pan or bowl of enough capacity for hand mixing
may also be used.
Miscellaneous Equipment:
 Containers for Heating Aggregates, at-bottom metal pans, or other suitable containers.
 Covered Containers for Heating Bituminous Material, either gill-type tins, beakers, pouring pots,
or saucepans may be used.
 Mixing Tools shall consist of a steel trowel (Mason’s pointing trowel with point rounded), spoon
or spatula, for spading and hand mixing.
 Calibrated Thermometers, for determining temperatures of aggregates, bitumen, and bituminous
mixtures. Armored-glass or dial-type thermometers with metal stems are recommended. A range
from 10 to 200°C (50 to 400°F) with sensitivity of 3°C (5°F) is required.
 Balance, readable to at least 0.1 g for batching mixtures.
 Gloves, for handling hot equipment
 Marking Crayons, for identifying specimens.
 Scoop, at bottom, for batching aggregates.
 Spoon, large, for placing the mixture in the specimen molds.
Test Specimens:
 Preparation of Aggregates: Dry aggregates to constant weight. Oven drying should be done at
105 to 110°C (221 to 230°F). After cooling, separate the aggregates by dry-sieving into the
desired size fractions.
 Recompacted Paving Mixtures: Materials obtained from an existing pavement shall be warmed
in covered containers in an oven to within 3°C (5°F) of the desired compaction temperature.
Heating should only be long enough to achieve desired compaction temperature. If the
compaction temperature for a speci c mixture is not known, experience has shown that these
mixes should be compacted at a temperature between 120°C (250°F) and 135°C (275°F). In
preparation for heating to compaction temperature the material should be warmed and worked
until a loose mixture condition is obtained. Any cut aggregate can be removed. Stability of
reheated and recompacted mixtures from existing pavements is likely to be higher than the
54
original mixture due to in service hardening of the binder. The reheating process will have only
minor in uence on binder hardening.
 Mixture Preparation: Specimens may be prepared from single batches or multiple batches
containing enough material for three or four specimens.
 Weigh into separate containers the amount of each aggregate size fraction required to
produce a batch that will result in one, two, three, or four compacted specimens 63.5±2.5
mm (2.5±0.1 in.) in height (about 1200, 2400, 3600 or 4800 g, respectively). Place
aggregate batches in containers on a hot plate or in an oven and heat to a temperature
above but not exceeding the mixing temperature established in 5.2 by more than 28°C
(50°F) for asphalt cement and tar mixes and 14°C (25°F) for cutback asphalt mixes.
Charge the mixing container with the heated aggregate and dry mix thoroughly
(approximately 5 s) with scoop or spoon. Form a crater in the dry blended aggregate and
weigh the required amount of bituminous material at mixing temperature into the mixture.
For mixes prepared with cutback asphalt, introduce the mixing blade in the mixing bowl
and determine the total weight of the mix components plus bowl and blade before
proceeding with mixing. Care must be exercised to prevent loss of the mix during mixing
and subsequent handling. Mix the aggregate and bituminous material rapidly until
thoroughly coated for approximately 60 s for single-specimen batches and approximately
120 s for multiple-specimen batches.
 Condition single batches in covered metal containers in an oven at a temperature 8°C
(15°F) to 11°C (20°F) above the compaction temperature for a minimum of 1 h and a
maximum of 2 h.
 For multiple batched sample, place the entire batch or sample on a clean non-absorptive
surface. Hand mix to ensure uniformity and quarter into appropriate sample size to
conform to specimen height requirements. For asphalt cements and tar mixtures, put the
samples into metal containers and cover. Place the covered metal containers in a
ventilated oven for a minimum of 1 h and a maximum of 2 h. Cure cutback asphalt
mixture in the mixing bowl in a ventilated oven maintained at approximately 11°C (20°F)
above the compaction temperature. Curing is to be continued in the mixing bowl until
precalculated weight of 50 % solvent loss or more has been obtained. The mix may be
stirred in the mixing bowl during curing to accelerate the solvent loss. However, care
should be exercised to prevent mix loss. Weigh the mix during curing in successive
intervals of 15 min initially and less than 10 min intervals as the weight of the mix at 50
% solvent loss is approached.
 Other bituminous or plant-produced materials may require special curing techniques.
Compaction of Specimens:
 Thoroughly clean the specimen mold assembly and the face of the compaction hammer and heat
them either in boiling water, in an oven, or on a hot plate to a temperature between 90 and 150°C
(200 and 300°F). Place a piece of nonabsorbent paper, cut to size, in the bottom of the mold
before the mixture is introduced. Place the mixture in the mold, spade the mixture vigorously
with a heated spatula or trowel 15 times around the perimeter and 10 times over the interior.
Place another piece of nonabsorbent paper cut of it on top of the mix. Temperature of the mixture
immediately prior to compaction shall be within the limits of the compaction temperature.
55
 Place the mold assembly on the compaction pedestal in the mold holder and apply the required
number of blows (Depending upon design traffic category (light, medium and heavy), the
compacted mix is expected to withstand 35, 50 and 75 blows respectively) applied with
compaction hammer to each end of the specimen.
 with the speci ed compaction hammer. Remove the base plate and collar and reverse and
reassemble the mold. Apply the same number of compactions blows to the face of the reversed
specimen. After compaction, remove the collar and base plate. Allow the specimen to cool
sufficiently to prevent damage and extract the specimen from the mold. Cooling specimens in the
mold can be facilitated by immersion in cold water. To facilitate extraction, the mold and
specimen can be brie y immersed in a hot water bath to heat the metal mold and reduce
specimen distortion. Carefully transfer specimens to a smooth, at surface and allow to cool at
room temperature (this may be overnight). A fan can be used to facilitate cooling.
 When compaction is accomplished with a manually held and operated hammer, hold the
axis of the compaction hammer by hand, as nearly perpendicular as possible to the base of
the mold assembly during compaction. In this original Marshall procedure, no mechanical
device of any kind shall be used to restrict the handle of the hammer in the vertical
position during compaction.
Report:
The report shall include at least the following information:
 Sample identi cation (number, laboratory mixed, or plant mixed, and so forth),
 Type of bituminous material, source, and content,
 Type(s) of aggregate, source, and grading,
 Type and time of curing prior to compaction,
 Type of hammer (that is, manually held or xed and mechanically or manually operated hammer
and at or slanted foot),
 Number of blows/sides,
 Mixing temperature,
 Compaction temperature, and
 Type and time of cooling.
56
Bulk Specific Gravity of Asphalt
Designation: (ASTM D 2726 – 05a)
Scope:
This test method covers the determination of bulk speci c gravity and density of specimens of
compacted bituminous mixtures. This test method should not be used with samples that contain open
or interconnecting voids or absorb more than 2 % of water by volume, or both. The values stated in
SI units are to be regarded as the standard. The values given in parentheses are for information only.
This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It
is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices
and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
The results obtained from this test method can be used to determine the unit weight of compacted
dense bituminous mixtures and in conjunction with Test Method D 3203, to obtain percent air voids.
These values in turn may be used in determining the relative degree of compaction. Since speci c
gravity has no units, it must be converted to density in order to do calculations that require units.
This conversion is made by multiplying the speci c gravity at a given temperature by the density of
water at the same temperature
Bulk Density:
The mass of a metre cubed (or foot cubed) of the material at 25°C (77°F).
Bulk Speci c Gravity:

The ratio of the mass of a given volume of material at 25°C to the mass of
an equal volume of water at the same temperature.
Apparatus:
 Balance with ample capacity, and with sufficient sensitivity to enable
bulk speci c gravities of the specimens to be calculated to at least four signi cant gures, that is,
to at least three decimal places. It shall be equipped with a suitable apparatus to permit weighing
the specimen while suspended in water. To avoid erroneous readings by undue displacement of
water, use wire or sh line of the smallest practical size to suspend the specimen and holder. Do
not use chains, strings, or sash cords. The balance shall conform to Speci cation D 4753 as a
Class GP2 balance.
 Water Bath, capable of maintaining a temperature of 25 6 1°C(77±1.8°F) for immersing the
specimen in water while suspended, equipped with an over ow outlet for maintaining a constant
water level. The use of an over ow outlet is mandatory.
Test Specimens:
 Size of Specimens: It is recommended that the diameter of cyclindrically molded or cored
specimens, or the length of the sides of sawed specimens, be at least equal to four times the
maximum size of the aggregate; and that the thickness of specimens be at least one and one half
times the maximum size of the aggregate.
 Care shall be taken to avoid distortion, bending, or cracking of specimens during and after
removal from pavements or mold. Specimens shall be stored in a safe, cool place.
57
 Specimens shall be free of foreign materials such as seal coat, tack coat, foundation material,
soil, paper, or foil. When any of these materials are visually evident, they shall be removed by.
 If desired, specimens may be separated from other pavement layers by sawing or other
satisfactory means.
Procedure:
For Cores and for Other Specimens that May Contain Moisture or Solvent:
 Only specimens that are known to be thoroughly dry (that is, laboratory-prepared dried
specimens), are to be tested.All others are assumed to contain moisture or solvent and are to be
tested. The sequence of testing is: in water, saturated-surface dry, dry.
 Mass of Specimen in Water: Completely submerge the specimen in the water bath at
25±1°C (77±1.8°F) for 3 to 5 min then determine the mass by weighing in water.
Designate this mass as C. If the temperature of the specimen differs from the temperature
of the water bath by more than 2°C (3.6°F), the specimen shall be immersed in the water
bath for 10 to 15 min, instead of 3 to 5 min.
 Mass of Saturated Surface-Dry Specimen in Air: Surface dry the specimen by blotting
quickly with a damp cloth towel and then determine the mass by weighing in air.
Designate this mass as B.
 After determining the mass in water and in a saturated surface dry condition, thoroughly
dry the specimen to a constant mass at 110±5°C (230±9°F). Allow the specimen to cool
and weigh in air. Designate this mass as A. Other methods may be used to dry the
specimen as long as a constant mass is achieved (mass repeats within 0.1 %).
For Laboratory-Prepared Thoroughly Dry Specimens:
 Mass of Dry Specimen in Air: Determine the mass by weighing the specimen after it has
been standing in air at room temperature for at least 1 h. Designate this mass as A.
 Mass of Saturated Surface-Dry Specimen in Air: Surface dry the specimen by blotting
quickly with a damp cloth towel and then determine the mass by weighing in air.
Designate this mass as B.

 Calculate the bulk speci c gravity of the specimen as follows:
Bulk sp gr =A/B-C
Where,
A = mass of the dry specimen in air, g,
(B C) = mass of the volume of water for the volume of the specimen at 25°C,
B = mass of the saturated surface-dry specimen in air, g, and
C = mass of the specimen in water, g.
 Calculate the density of the specimen as follows:
Density = Bulk sp gr x997.0 ~ (or 62.24)
Where,
997.0 = density of water in kg/m3 at 25°C (0.9970 g/cm3)
 Calculate the percent water absorbed by the specimen (on volume basis) as follows:
Percent water absorbed by volume =B-A/B-Cx100
58
Maximum Specific Gravity of Asphalt
Designation: (ASTM D2041)
Scope:
The method described is used to determine the theoretical maximum specific gravity of un-
compacted asphalt-aggregate mixes using a vacuum saturation technique. The value of theoretical
maximum specific gravity is used to determine the air void content of Marshall Compaction
specimens. Specific gravity as determined by this method is the ratio of the mass of a given volume
of material at 25o C to the mass of an equal volume of water at the same temperature. Specific
gravity is unit less.
Apparatus:
 Equipment Required:
 Glass, plastic or metal container having a minimum capacity of 1000 ml and capable of
withstanding a full vacuum.
 Cover for the container with suitable vacuum connection assembly fitted with a rubber
gasket and release valve assembly for use with the previously mentioned container.
 Oven capable of 50o C to 150o C
 Scale with .01 g accuracy and equipped with a suitable suspension apparatus and holder
to permit weighing the sample and container in a temperature-controlled water bath.
 Vacuum pump or water aspirator, capable of evacuating air from the container to a
residual pressure of 4.0 kPa or less.
 Manometer or vacuum gauge suitable for measuring the specified vacuum.
 A container filled with distilled water at 25o C suitable for immersion of the suspended
glass, plastic or metal container and desired sample. A temperature-controlled water bath
is recommended.
 A suitable trap installed in the vacuum line is recommended to prevent water from
entering the vacuum pump.
 Use of a plastic twist-cock valve in the line adjacent to the flask will minimize loss of
water during shaking and provide quick disconnection in case of foaming or malfunction.
 For use with glass containers, a rubber or resilient plastic mat is required as a safety
precaution to avoid impact on a hard surface while under vacuum.
 Material Required:
 Laboratory Samples: asphalt cement of the
same grade and from the manufacturer as
used for the field work shall be mixed in
known proportions with the aggregates
combined to meet the stockpile average
gradation. An asphalt mix sample size against
nominal maximum size are as in below table.
59
 Distilled water
Procedure:
 Weigh the glass, plastic or metal container in air and in water to determine the tare weight for
each case.
 Cool the asphalt mix to room temperature, place in the container and weigh. Add enough distilled
water at 25o C to cover the asphalt mix sample.
 Place the cover on the container and apply a partial vacuum, 4 kPa or less absolute pressure for 5
to 15 minutes.
 Lean mixes require less, and rich mixes may require more time or agitation, or both. In general,
the minimum time to dispel all the free air is best. Additional time may induce error due to water
getting under the bituminous coating.
 Agitate the container and contents either continuously by mechanical device or manually by
vigorous shaking at intervals of about two minutes.
 Vacuum should be applied and released gradually by means of the release valve assembly.
 Immediately after removal of entrapped air, remove cover and suspend the bowl and contents in
the water bath and determine the weight after ten minutes of immersion.

Theoretical Maximum Specific Gravity = A/(A+D-E)
Where, A = Weight of the dry sample in air (g)
D = Weight of the Container filled with water (g)
E = Weight of the Container filled with Sample and water (g)
Specific gravity of the asphalt mix shall be reported to three decimal places at 25o C.
60
Marshall Flow and Stability Test
Designation: (ASTM D 6927 – 05e1,AASHTO: T166-88, T245-90, T269-90, T228-90, T 84-88
& 85-88)
Scope:
This test covers the measurement of stability and flow of cylindrical specimen of bituminous
pavement mixture loaded on lateral surface by means of marshal machine. This test method covers
measurement of resistance to plastic flow of 102 mm (4 in.) cylindrical specimens of bituminous
paving mixture loaded in a direction perpendicular to the cylindrical axis by means of the Marshall
apparatus. This test method is for use with dense graded bituminous mixtures prepared with asphalt
cement (modified and unmodified), cutback asphalt, tar, and tar-rubber with maximum size
aggregate up to 25 mm (1 in.) in size (passing 25 mm (1 in.) sieve).
Marshall stability and flow values along with density; air voids in the
total mix, voids in the mineral aggregate, or voids filled with asphalt,
or both, filled with asphalt are used for laboratory mix design and
evaluation of bituminous mixtures. In addition, Marshall stability and
flow can be used to monitor the plant process of producing bituminous
mixture. Marshall stability and flow may also be used to relatively
evaluate different mixes and the effects of conditioning such as with
water. Marshall stability and flow are bituminous mixture
characteristics determined from tests of compacted specimens of a
specified geometry.
Typically, Marshall stability is the peak resistance load obtained during a constant rate of
deformation loading sequence. However, depending on the composition and behavior of the mixture,
a less defined type of failure has been observed, as illustrated in Fig. 1. As an alternative method,
Marshall stability can also be defined as the load obtained, when the rate of loading increase begins
to decrease, such that the curve starts to become horizontal, as shown in the bottom graph of Fig. 1.
The magnitude of Marshall Stability varies with aggregate type and grading and bitumen type, grade
and amount. Various agencies have criteria for Marshall stability
Marshall flow is a measure of deformation (elastic plus plastic) of the bituminous mix determined
during the stability test. In both types of failure, the Marshall flow is the total sample deformation
from the point where the projected tangent of the linear part of the curve intersects the x-axis
(deformation) to the point where the curve starts to become horizontal. As shown in Fig. 1, this latter
point usually corresponds to the peak stability; however, as an alternative when the failure condition
is not clearly defined, it can be selected as the point on the curve which is six (0.01 in.) flow points
(or 1.5 mm) to the right of the tangent line. There is no ideal value but there are acceptable limits. If
flow at the selected optimum binder content is above the upper limit, the mix is considered too
plastic or unstable and if below the lower limit, it is considered too brittle.
The Marshall stability and flow test results are applicable to dense-graded bituminous mixtures with
maximum size aggregate up to 25 mm (1 in.) in size. For the purpose of mix design, Marshall
stability and flow test results should consist of the average of a minimum of three specimens at each
increment of binder content where the binder content varies in one-half percent increments over a
range of binder content. The binder content range is generally selected on the basis of experience and
historical testing data of the component materials but may involve trial and error to include the
61
desirable range of mix properties. Dense-graded mixtures will generally show a peak in stability
within the range of binder contents tested. Stability, flow, density, air voids, and voids filled with
asphalt binder, may be plotted against binder content to allow selection of an optimum binder content
for the mixture. The above test properties may also be weighted differently to reflect a mix design
philosophy. In addition, a mixture design may be required to meet minimum voids in the mineral
aggregate based on nominal maximum aggregate size in the mixture.
Field laboratory Marshall stability and flow tests on specimens made with plant-produced
bituminous mix may vary significantly from laboratory design values because of differences in plant
mixing versus laboratory mixing. This includes mixing efficiency and aging. Significant differences
in Marshall stability and flow from one set of tests to another or from an average value of several
sets of data or specimens, prepared from plant produced mix may indicate poor sampling, incorrect
testing technique, change of grading, change of binder content, or a malfunction in the plant process.
The source of the variation should be resolved, and the problem corrected.
Specimens will most often be prepared using Practice ASTM D 6926 but may be prepared using
other types of compaction procedures if specimens satisfy geometry requirements. Other types of
compaction may cause specimens to have different stress strain characteristics than specimens
prepared by Marshall impact compaction. Marshall stability and flow may also be determined using
field cores from in situ pavement for information or evaluation. However, these results may not
compare with results from laboratory-prepared specimens and shall not be used for specification or
acceptance purposes. One source of error in testing field cores arises when the side of the core is not
smooth or perpendicular to the core faces. Such conditions can create stress concentrations in loading
and low Marshall stability.
Apparatus:
Breaking Head: The testing head (Fig. 2) shall consist of upper and lower cylindrical segments of
cast gray or ductile iron, cast steel, or annealed steel tubing. The lower segment shall be mounted on
a base having two perpendicular guide rods or posts (minimum 12.5 mm (1⁄2 in.) in diameter)
extending upwards. Guide sleeves in the upper segment shall direct the two segments together
62
without appreciable binding or loose motion on the guide rods. A circular testing head with an inside
bevel having dimensions other than specified in Fig. 2 has been shown to give results different from
the standard testing head.
Compression Loading Machine: The compression loading machine may consist of a screw jack
mounted in a testing frame and shall be designed to load at a uniform vertical movement of 50 6 5
mm/min. (2.00 6 0.15 in./min). A mechanical or hydraulic compression testing machine may also be
used provided the rate of loading can be maintained at 50 6 5 mm/min (2.00 6 0.15 in./min).
Load Measuring Device: As a minimum, a calibrated nominal 20 kN (5000 lb) ring dynamometer
with a dial indicator to measure ring deflection for applied loads is required. The 20 kN (5000 lb)
ring shall have a minimum sensitivity of 50 N (10 lb). The dial indicator should be graduated in
increments of 0.0025 mm (0.0001 in.) or finer. The ring dynamometer should be attached to the
testing frame and an adapter should be provided to transmit load to the breaking head. The ring
dynamometer assembly may be replaced with a load cell connected to a loaded formation recorder or
computer provided capacity and sensitivity meet above requirements.
NOTE 1: A higher capacity ring dynamometer may be required for high-stability mixes. These
include mixes with harsh, crushed aggregate and dense gradation, as well as mixes made with very
stiff binders.
Flowmeter: The Marshall flowmeter consists of a guide sleeve and a gage. The activating pin of the
gage shall slide inside the guide sleeve with minimal friction and the guide sleeve shall slide freely
63
over the guide post of the breaking head. These points of frictional resistance shall be checked
before tests. Graduations of the flowmeter gage shall be increments of 0.25 mm (0.01 in.) or finer.
Instead of a flowmeter, other devices such as an indicator dial or linear variable differential
transducer (LVDT) connected to a load deformation recorder or computer may be used. These
alternate devices should be capable of indicating or displaying flow (deformation) to the required
sensitivity. These devices must be designed to measure and record the same relative movement
between the top of the guide post and the upper breaking head.
Water Bath: The water bath shall be deep enough to maintain the water level a minimum of 30 mm
(1.25 in.) above the top of specimens. The bath shall be thermostatically controlled to maintain the
specified test temperature 61°C (2°F) at any point in the tank. The tank shall have a perforated false
bottom or be equipped with a shelf for supporting specimens 50 mm (2 in.) above the bottom of the
bath and be equipped with a mechanical water circulator.
Oven: An oven capable of maintaining the specified test temperature 61°C (2°F).
Air Bath: The air bath for mixtures containing cutback asphalt binder shall be thermostatically
controlled and shall maintain the air temperature at 25 6 1°C (77 6 2°F).
Procedure:
 A minimum of three specimens of a given mixture shall be tested. The specimens should have
the same aggregate type, quality, and grading; the same mineral filler type and quantity; and the
same binder source, grade and amount. In addition, the specimens should have the same
preparation, that is, temperatures, cooling, and compaction.
 Specimens should be cooled to room temperature after compaction. During cooling they should
be placed on a smooth, flat surface. Bulk specific gravity of each specimen shall be determined
by Test Methods D 2726, D 1188, or D 6752. The bulk specific gravities of replicate specimens
for each binder content shall agree within 60.020 of the mean as noted in Practice D 6926.
 Measure specimen thickness according to Test Method D 3549.
 Specimens can be conditioned for testing as soon as they reach ambient room temperature.
Testing shall be completed within 24 h after compaction. Bring specimens prepared with asphalt
cement, tar, or tar-rubber to the specified temperature by immersion in the water bath 30 to 40
min, or placement in the oven for 120 to 130 min. Maintain the bath or oven temperature at 60 6
1°C (140 6 2°F) for asphalt cement, 49 6 1°C (120 6 2°F) for tar-rubber specimens, and 38 6 1°C
(100 6 2°F) for tar specimens. Bring specimens prepared with cutback asphalt to temperature by
placing them in the air bath for 120 to 130 min. Maintain the air bath temperature at 25 6 1°C (77
6 2°F).
NOTE 2: Temperature variation will affect test results. A dummy specimen with a thermocouple can
be used to monitor temperature.
 Thoroughly clean the guide rods and inside surfaces of the test head segments prior to conducting
the test. Lubricate guide rods so that the upper test head segment slides freely over them. The
testing head shall be at a temperature of 20 t water with a towel) and place in the lower segment
of the testing head. Place the upper segment of the testing head on the specimen and place the
complete assembly in position in the loading machine. If used, place the flowmeter in position
over one of the guide rods and adjust the flowmeter to zero while holding the sleeve firmly
against the upper segment of the testing head. Hold the flowmeter sleeve firmly against the upper
segment of the testing head while the test load is being applied.
64
 The elapsed time from removal of the test specimens from the water bath to the final load
determination shall not exceed 30 s. Apply load to the specimen by means of the constant rate of
movement of the loading jack or loading machine head of 50 6 5 mm/min (2.00 6 0.15 in./min)
until
 the dial gage releases or the load begins to decrease.
 In Method A, release the flowmeter sleeve or note the micrometer dial reading, where used, the
instant when the load decreases, or in Method B, stop the test when the load cell indicates that the
incremental rate of loading, which is driving the constant rate of deformation, has begun to
decrease. The Marshall flow is the total sample deformation from the point where the projected
tangent of the linear part of the curve intersects the x-axis (deformation) to the point where the
curve starts to become horizontal. As shown in Fig. 1, the termination of flow usually
corresponds to the peak stability; however, as an alternative when the failure condition is not
clearly defined, it can be selected as the point on the curve which is six (0.01 in.) flow points (or
1.5 mm) to the right of the tangent line. The flow value is usually recorded in units of 0.25 mm
(0.01 in.); for example, 0.12 in. is recorded as a flow of 12. The Marshall Stability is defined as
the load corresponding to the flow. This procedure may require two people to conduct the test
and record the data, depending on the type of equipment and the arrangement of dial indicators.
Depending on chart speed, Marshall flow may be read directly from the load-deformation chart
or be determined after converting the chart reading with an appropriate factor
Observation & Calculation:

Laboratory molded specimens shall satisfy the thickness requirement of 63.5 6 2.5 mm (2.50 6 0.10
in.). Specimens within the thickness tolerance may be corrected based on specimen volume or
thickness. Stabilities determined on field cores with large variation in volume or thickness shall also
be corrected. However, results with larger corrections should be used with caution. Correction
factors (correlation ratios) are given in Table 1. The correlation ratio is used in the following manner.
A= B x C
where:
A = Corrected stability,
B = Measure of stability (load), and
C = Correlation ratio from Table given below:
Specimen Bitumen content Stability value (Kg) Flow value 0.25/0.1

No. percent mm units
Measured Corrected
1.
2.
3.
Average
65
Stability Correction Ratio:
Volume of Approximate Correctio Volume of Approximate Correction
specimen thickness of n ratio specimen thickness of ratio
Cm3 specimen mm Cm3 specimen mm
200 to 213 25.4 5.56 393 to 405 49.2 1.56
214 to 215 27.0 5.0 406 to 420 50.8 1.47
226 to 237 28.6 4.55 421 to 431 52.4 1.39
238 to 250 30.2 4.17 432 to 443 54.0 1.32
251 to 264 31.8 385 444 to 456 55.6 1.25
265 to 276 33.3 3.5 457 to 470 57.2 1.19
277 to 289 34.9 3.33 471 to 482 58.7 1.14
290 to 301 36.5 3.03 483 to 495 60.3 1.09
302 to 316 38.1 2.76 496 to 508 61.9 1.04
317 to 328 39.7 2.5 509 to 522 63.5 1.0
329 to 340 41.3 2.27 523 to 535 64.0 0.96
341 to 353 42.9 2.08 536 to 546 65.1 0.93
354 to 367 44.4 1.92 547 to 559 66.7 0.89
368 to 379 46.0 1.79 560 to 573 68.3 0.86
380 to 392 47.6 1.67 574 to 585 71.4 0.83
Specification for Wearing Coarse:

I. Stability 1000kg Min
II. Flow 2-----4mm
III. Loss of Stability 20% of max
Marshal Test Graphs:
66
Determination of Optimum Binder Content
Designation: (ASTM D 3203 – 05 for air voids)
Scope:
This test method covers determination of the percent air voids in compacted dense and open
bituminous paving mixtures. The percent of air voids in a bituminous mixture is used as one of the
criteria in the design methods and for evaluation of the compaction imparted in bituminous paving
projects.
AIR VOIDS (Va)

It is used to find the degree of compactness because compaction reduces the volume of air in Hot
Min Asphalt. Air void is calculated by comparing a test specimen’s bulk specific gravity (Gmb) with
its theoretical maximum specific gravity (Gmm) and assuming the difference is due to air. To
calculate Air Voids using the following equations
Voids in mineral aggregate (VMA)

The total volume of voids in the aggregate mix (when there is no bitumen) is called Voids in Mineral
Aggregates (VMA). In other words, VMA is the volume of intergranular void space between the
aggregate particles of a compacted paving mixture. It includes the air voids and the volume of
bitumen not absorbed into the aggregate. VMA is expressed as a percentage of the total volume of
the mix.
Voids Filled with Bitumen (VFB)

VFB is the voids in the mineral aggregate frame work filled with bitumen binder. This represents the
volume of the effective bitumen content. It can also be described as the percent of the volume of the
VMA that is filled with bitumen. VFB is inversely related to air voids and hence as air voids
decreases, the VFB increases.
67
Procedure:
 For dense bituminous paving mixtures, determine the bulk specific gravity of the compacted
mixture.
 Determine the theoretical maximum specific gravity on a comparable bituminous mixture to
avoid the influence of differences in gradation, asphalt content, and so forth.
 For open bituminous mixtures, determine the density of a regularly shaped specimen of
compacted mixture from its dry mass (in grams) and its volume (in cubic centimeters).
 Obtain the height of the specimens. Measure the diameter of the specimen at four locations and
average Calculate the volume of the specimen based on the average height and diameter
measurement. Convert the density to bulk specific gravity by dividing by 0.99707 g/cm3 or 997
kg/m3, the density of water at 25°C (77°F).
 Determine the theoretical maximum specific gravity on a comparable bituminous mixture to
avoid the influence of differences in gradation, asphalt content, etc.
 For borderline cases, a bituminous paving mixture shall be designated an open bituminous paving
mixture if the calculated percent air voids, based on either 6.1 or 6.2, is 10 % or more.
 For referee purposes, determine both the bulk specific gravity and the theoretical maximum
specific gravity on aliquot portions of the same sample of compacted bituminous paving mixture
Design Bitumen Content:

When determining the design bitumen content for a blend or gradation of aggregates by Marshall
Method, a series of test specimens is prepared for a range of different bitumen contents so that the
test data curves show well-defined relationships. Bitumen content can be estimated from following
sources:
 Experience
 Using filler-to-bitumen ratio guideline ( ranges 06 to 1.2 )
 Computational Formula
P = 0.035a + 0.045b + K c + F
Where
P = Approximate mix bitumen content, percentage by weight of total mix
a = Percentage of mineral aggregate retained on sieve No.10 in whole no.
b = Percentage of mineral aggregate passing sieve No.10 and retained on sieve No.200
c = Percentage of mineral aggregate passing sieve No.200
K = 0.15, 11-15% passing sieve No.200.
= 0.18, 6-10% passing sieve No.200
=0.20, 5% passing sieve No.200
F = 0 to 2%, based on the absorption of light and heavy aggregates. F = 0.7 incase no data is
available.
68
Specimen Binder GMB GMM Air Voids VFA VMA
Percentage
Graphs:
Specification for Wearing Coarse:

 P.A.V 3-----5 %
 V.M.A 14min
 V.F.B 65----75 %
69

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Lab Manual

Department of Civil Engineering

List of Equipments .........................................................................................3

Layout of Lab .................................................................................................6

Reducing Samples of Aggregate to Testing Size .........................................10

Gradation of Aggregate for Subbase, Base and Wearing Course................13

LOS Angeles Abrasion Test .........................................................................16

Impact Value of Aggregate ..........................................................................19

Elongation and Flakiness Index of Aggregate .............................................22

Angularity Number of aggregates ................................................................28

Skid Resistance Test using British Pendulum..............................................30

Penetration Test of Bitumen .........................................................................35

Flash and Fire Point of Bitumen ..................................................................38

Softening Point of Bitumen ..........................................................................42

Specific Gravity of Bitumen .......................................................................45

Specific Viscosity of Bitumen......................................................................48

Ductility Test of Bitumen .............................................................................51

Preparation of Asphalt Specimens Using Marshall Apparatus....................53

Bulk Specific Gravity of Asphalt .................................................................57

Maximum Specific Gravity of Asphalt ........................................................59

Marshall Flow and Stability Test .................................................................61

Determination of Optimum Binder Content ................................................66

Grade Penetration of Bitumen Test Apparatus

Marshal Stability and Flow of Asphalt

Marshal Mold 4 in. dia 3

Specific Gravity and Absorption test Apparatus

Buoyancy Water tank 1

Digital Balance with under hook 1

LOS Angeles Abrasion Apparatus of Aggregate

Abrasive charge steel balls 12

Impact Value of Aggregate Apparatus

Impact Value Measuring mold 1

Flash and Fire Point of Bitumen Apparatus

Cleave Land Cup 1

Sieves Set for Coarse Aggregates

2.5-inch Size Sieve (12-inch dia) 1

1.5-inch Size Sieve (12-inch dia) 1

1-inch Size Sieve (12-inch dia) 1

3/4-inch Size Sieve (12-inch dia) 2

1/2-inch Size Sieve (12-inch dia) 2

3/8-inch Size Sieve (12-inch dia) 1

1/4-inch Size Sieve (12-inch dia) 1

#4 Sieve (12-inch dia) 1

Sieves Set for Fine Aggregates

#8 Sieve (12-inch dia) 1

#12 Sieve (12-inch dia) 1

#30 Sieve (8-inch dia) 1

Pan (12-inch dia) 1

Stone Polishing of Aggregate 1

Steel Cylinder (37.68 inch3) 1

Steel Cylinder (94.2 inch3) 1

Steel Cylinder (153.47 inch3) 1

Steel Cylinder (239.03 inch3) 1

Mechanical Marshal Compactor 1

1000 ml Plastic Flask 1

Mixing Tray 24*36*3 1

Mixing Tray 18*18*3 2

Mixing Tray 12*12*3 1

Mixing Tray 18*30*3 2

Electric Power Extension 1

Teacher Table (24in * 48in) 1

fractions from 6.3 to 50 mm, and each fraction is examined separately.

13. Water Bath:

15. Sample Ejector:

Mixing Tray 24363 1

Mixing Tray 18183 2

Mixing Tray 12123 1

Mixing Tray 18303 2