Business Writing Skills

Table of Contents

Page

Unit One

The Basic Business Letter 1

Unit Two
19
Email Writing

Unit Three
26
Memo Writing

Unit Four
31

Writing Business Reports

Unit Five
69

Revision in Business

Writing

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 Unit One

The Basic Business Letter

Parts of a business letter

Date

The date line is used to indicate the date the letter was written. However,
if your letter is completed over a number of days, use the date it was
finished in the date line. When writing to companies within the United
States, use the American date format. (The United States-based
convention for formatting a date places the month before the day. For
example: June 11, 2001. ) Write out the month, day and year two inches
from the top of the page. Depending which format you are using for your
letter, either left justify the date or center it horizontally.

Sender’s Address

Including the address of the sender is optional. If you choose to include it,
place the address one line below the date. Do not write the sender‟s name
or title, as it is included in the letter‟s closing. Include only the street
address, city and zip code. Another option is to include the sender‟s
address directly after the closing signature.

Inside Address

The inside address is the recipient‟s address. It is always best to write to

a specific individual at the firm to which you are writing. If you do not
have the person‟s name, do some research by calling the company or
speaking with employees from the company. Include a personal title such
as Ms., Mrs., Mr., or Dr. Follow a woman‟s preference in being addressed
as Miss, Mrs., or Ms. If you are unsure of a woman‟s preference in being
addressed, use Ms. If there is a possibility that the person to whom you
are writing is a Dr. or has some other title, use that title. Usually, people
will not mind being addressed by a higher title than they actually possess.
To write the address, use the U.S. Post Office Format. For international
addresses, type the name of the country in all-capital letters on the last
line. The inside address begins one line below the sender‟s address or one
inch below the date. It should be left justified, no matter which format
you are using.

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Salutation

Use the same name as the inside address, including the personal title. If
you know the person and typically address them by their first name, it is
acceptable to use only the first name in the salutation (i.e., Dear Lucy:).
In all other cases, however, use the personal title and full name followed
by a colon. Leave one line blank after the salutation.

If you don‟t know a reader‟s gender, use a nonsexist salutation, such as

"To Whom it May Concern." It is also acceptable to use the full name in a
salutation if you cannot determine gender. For example, you might write
Dear Chris Harmon: if you were unsure of Chris's gender.

Body

For block and modified block formats, single space and left justify each
paragraph within the body of the letter. Leave a blank line between each
paragraph. When writing a business letter, be careful to remember that
conciseness is very important. In the first paragraph, consider a friendly
opening and then a statement of the main point. The next paragraph
should begin justifying the importance of the main point. In the next few
paragraphs, continue justification with background information and
supporting details. The closing paragraph should restate the purpose of
the letter and, in some cases, request some type of action.

Closing

The closing begins at the same horizontal point as your date and one line
after the last body paragraph. Capitalize the first word only (i.e., Thank
you) and leave four lines between the closing and the sender‟s name for a
signature. If a colon follows the salutation, a comma should follow the
closing; otherwise, there is no punctuation after the closing.

Enclosures

If you have enclosed any documents along with the letter, such as a
resume, you indicate this simply by typing Enclosures one line below the
closing. As an option, you may list the name of each document you are
including in the envelope. For instance, if you have included many
documents and need to insure that the recipient is aware of each
document, it may be a good idea to list the names.

Typist initials

Typist initials are used to indicate the person who typed the letter. If you
typed the letter yourself, omit the typist initials.

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 A note about format and font
When writing business letters, you must pay special attention to the
format and font used. The most common layout of a business letter is
known as block format. Using this format, the entire letter is left justified
and single spaced except for a double space between paragraphs. Another
widely utilized format is known as modified block format. In this type, the
body of the letter is left justified and single-spaced. However, the date
and closing are in alignment in the center of the page. The final, and least
used, style is semi-block. It is much like the modified block style except
that each paragraph is indented instead of left justified.

The following table shows examples of the different formats.

March 16, 2001 March 16, 2001 March 16, 2001

Ernie English Ernie English Ernie English

1234 Writing Lab Lane 1234 Writing Lab Lane 1234 Writing Lab Lane
Write City, IN 12345 Write City, IN 12345 Write City, IN 12345

Dear Mr. English: Dear Mr. English: Dear Mr. English:

The first paragraph of a typical
business letter is used to state
the main point of the letter.
Begin with a friendly opening;
then quickly transition into the
purpose of your letter. Use a
couple of sentences to explain
the purpose, but do not go in to
detail until the next paragraph.
Beginning with the second
paragraph, state the supporting
details to justify your purpose.
These may take the form of
background information,
statistics or first-hand accounts.
A few short paragraphs within the
body of the letter should be
enough to support your
reasoning.
The first paragraph of a
typical business letter is
used to state the main point
of the letter. Begin with a
friendly opening; then
quickly transition into the
purpose of your letter. Use a
couple of sentences to
explain the purpose, but do
not go in to detail until the
next paragraph.
Beginning with the second
paragraph, state the
supporting details to justify
your purpose. These may
take the form of background
information, statistics or
first-hand accounts. A few
short paragraphs within the
body of the letter should be
The first paragraph of
a typical business letter is
used to state the main
point of the letter. Begin
with a friendly opening;
then quickly transition
into the purpose of your
letter. Use a couple of
sentences to explain the
purpose, but do not go in
to detail until the next
paragraph.
Beginning with the
second paragraph, state
the supporting details to
justify your purpose.
These may take the form
of background
information, statistics or
first-hand accounts. A few

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Finally, in the closing paragraph,
briefly restate your purpose and
why it is important. If the
purpose of your letter is
employment related, consider
ending your letter with your
contact information. However, if
the purpose is informational,
think about closing with gratitude
for the reader‟s time.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
123 Winner‟s Road
New Employee Town, PA 12345
enough to support your
reasoning.
Finally, in the closing
paragraph, briefly restate
your purpose and why it is
important. If the purpose of
your letter is employment
related, consider ending
your letter with your contact
information. However, if the
purpose is informational,
think about closing with
gratitude for the reader‟s
time.
Sincerely,
short paragraphs within
the body of the letter
should be enough to
support your reasoning.
Finally, in the closing
paragraph, briefly restate
your purpose and why it
is important. If the
purpose of your letter is
employment related,
consider ending your
letter with your contact
information. However, if
the purpose is
informational, think about
closing with gratitude for
the reader‟s time.

Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
Lucy Letter

Block Format Modified Block Format Semi-block format

If your computer is equipped with Microsoft Office 2000, the Letter Wizard
can be used to take much of the guesswork out of formatting business
letters. To access the Letter Wizard, click on the Tools menu and then
choose Letter Wizard. The Wizard will present the three styles mentioned
here and input the date, sender address and recipient address into the
selected format. Letter Wizard should only be used if you have a basic
understand of how to write a business letter. Its templates are not
applicable in every setting. Therefore, you should consult a business
writing handbook if you have any questions or doubt the accuracy of the
Letter Wizard.

Another important factor in the readability of a letter is the chosen font.

The generally accepted font is Times New Roman, size 12, although other fonts
such as Arial may be used. When choosing a font, always consider your
audience. If you are writing to a conservative company, you may want to
use Times New Roman. However, if you are writing to a more liberal
company, you have a little more freedom when choosing fonts.

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As far as punctuation after the salutation and closing is concerned, the
standard is to use a colon after the salutation (never a comma) and a
comma after the closing. There is also a less accepted format, known as
open punctuation, in which punctuation is excluded after the salutation
and the closing.

Business Letters: Accentuating the Positives

Your letters will be more successful if you focus on positive wording rather
than negative, simply because most people respond more favorably to
positive ideas than negative ones. Words that affect your reader positively
are likely to produce the response you desire in letter-writing situations. A
positive emphasis will persuade the reader and create goodwill. In
contrast, negative words may generate resistance and other unfavorable
reactions. You should therefore be careful to avoid words with negative
connotations. These words either deny--for example, NO, DO NOT,
REFUSE, and STOP--or convey unhappy or unpleasant associations--for
example, UNFORTUNATELY, UNABLE TO, CANNOT, MISTAKE, PROBLEM,
ERROR, DAMAGE, LOSS, and FAILURE.

When you need to present negative information, soften its effects by

superimposing a positive picture on a negative one.

1) Stress what something IS rather than what it IS NOT.

2) Emphasize what the firm or product CAN and WILL DO rather than
what it CANNOT.

3) open with ACTION rather than APOLOGY or EXPLANATION.

4) avoid words which convey UNPLEASANT FACTS.

Compare the examples below. Which would be more likely to elicit

positive reader response?

Negative Positive

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In response to your question about
In response to your question about
how many coats of Chem-Treat are
how many coats of Chem-Treat are
needed to cover new surfaces: I
needed to cover new surfaces: One
regret to report that usually two are
gallon is usually enough for one-coat
required. For such surfaces you
coverage of 500 square feet of
should figure about 200 square feet
previously painted surface. For the
per gallon for a good heavy coating
best results on new surfaces, you
that will give you five years or more
will want to apply two coats.
of beautiful protection.
Penquot sheets are woven186
Penquot sheets are not the skimpy, threads to the square inch for
loosely woven sheets ordinarily durability and, even after 3-inch
found in this price class. hems, measure a generous 72 by
108 inches.
To keep down packaging costs and
We cannot ship in lots of less than
to help customers save on shipping
12.
costs, we ship in lots of 12 or more.

In addition, you should reemphasize the positive through embedded

position and effective use of space.

Embedded Position

Place GOOD NEWS in positions of high emphasis: at the beginnings and

endings of paragraphs, letters, and even sentences.

Place BAD NEWS in secondary positions: in the center of paragraphs,

letters, and, if possible, sentences.

Effective Use Of Space

Give more space to GOOD NEWS and less to BAD NEWS.

Evaluate the examples below to determine whether or not they present

negative information favorably.

1. To make the Roanoke more stable than other lamps of this size, our
designers put six claw feet instead of the usual four on the base and thus
eliminated the need for weighting. Claw feet, as you know, are
characteristic of 18th-century design.

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2. No special training programs are normally offered other than that of
the College Graduate in Training rotational training period. We do not
expect our employees to continue their education, but we do have an
excellent tuition refund program to assist in this regard (see Working with
General Motors, page 8). Where an advanced degree is essential,
individuals are recruited with those particular advanced degrees. Both
Butler and IUPUI offer courses leading to an MBA degree.

3. With our rigid quality standards, corrections of Adidas merchandise run

less than .02 percent of our total line. Because of an oversight in our
stitching department, a damaged needle was inadvertently used and
caused the threads to come loose in these particular bags. Since we now
have a check on all our machine needles before work each day, you can
be assured that the stitching on our Adidas carrying bags will last the
lifetime of the bags. Thank you for calling our attention to the loose
stitching.

4. We are sorry that we cannot furnish the club chairs by August 16.

5. I have no experience other than clerking in my father's grocery store.

6. ABC Dog Biscuits will help keep your dog from getting sick.

Sales Letters: Four Point Action Closing

Securing Action

Having convinced your reader that your product or service is worth the
price, you want to get action before the reader has a change of mind ,
before forgetfulness defeats you, before the money goes for something
else--before any of the things that could happen do happen. Therefore, a
good persuasive closing is essential.

A good action closing--or clincher--should include the following four points:

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1) clearly state what action you wish the reader to take. 2) make that
action easy through facilitating devices and careful wording. 3) date the
action--if possible and appropriate. 4) provide a reader benefit as
stimulus for action.

1) Clearly State What Action You Wish The Reader To

Take

Should the reader order your product or service? Call your office to set up
an appointment? Fill out a form? Visit a local dealership or store to see a
demonstration? Invite the visit of a sales representative? On finishing
your letter, your reader should know just exactly what you want done
and how it should be done.

At times, you may have to name two actions and ask the reader to take
one or the other. If you possibly can, avoid doing so. Some people faced
with a choice resolve their dilemma by doing nothing.

2) Make That Action Easy Through Facilitating Devices

And Careful Wording

Facilitating devices: order blanks, order cards, and postcards or

envelopes already addressed and requiring no postage--remove some of
the work in taking action. Also, your phone number (with area code and
extension) are useful if you want the reader to call you. Finally, state your
office hours and location if you want the reader to come to see you in
person. References to these facilitating devices--preferably directing the
reader to use them--reassure the reader that what you are asking is
simple and requires little time and effort.

Careful wording: through careful wording, you can also emphasize that
what you are asking the reader to do is simple. "Write and let us know
your choice" suggests more work than "Check your color choice on the
enclosed card." "Jot down," "just check," "simply initial" are also
examples of wording that suggest ease and rapidity in doing something.
Such wording helps reduce reader reluctance to take action.

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3) Date The Action--If Possible And Appropriate

Name the date whenever you need the reader's response by a certain
time. Tactfully tell the reader why you need it then--perhaps to meet the
deadline for a sale.

4) Provide A Reader Benefit As Stimulus For Action

Always mention some benefit(s) the reader will gain by prompt action.
Such a reminder of the desirability of your product or service--some-
times called a clincher--comes appropriately at the ending of your letter.
It not only provides motivation for the reader, but it also has decided
psychological value as well because it emphasizes service attitude--rather
than the greed stressed if you end with dollars and cents talk or the
mechanics of ordering.

You should always include elements 1, 2, and 4 of the four point action
closing when you are writing a letter relating to sales. You should use
dated action, item 3, ONLY when it is appropriate for your writing
situation.

Some examples of closing paragraphs follow. Determine whether or not

they include all elements of the four point action closing needed for a
tactful, yet persuasive letter ending.

1. Mr. J. B. Nickle, our Memphis representative, will be glad to call at a

time convenient for you. Fill out and mail the enclosed postcard, and he
will come to your home and explain how your Stair Traveler can make
your daily living more pleasurable.

2. You can begin to enjoy the unusual reception of a famous Foremost set
by placing your order now.

3. Call our toll-free number, or mail the enclosed postcard indicating a

day and time convenient for our representative to visit you. He'll give you
a list of SIB users in the Lafayette area and explain additional advantages

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of using Superior's Ice Breaker. You can then order your winter's supply
and join more than 150,000 apartment and industrial firms who have
used SIB for ice-free parking lots.

4. If you have any technical questions concerning our products, please

call us toll free at (800) 555-9525 and ask for Technical Service. Our staff
will be pleased to lend whatever assistance they can.

5. We are enclosing an order blank and postage paid envelope for your
convenience.

Appendix A

Letter Samples
Model for an Acceptance Letter

May 10, 2001

Ernie English
1234 Writing Lab Lane
Write City, IN 12345

The acceptance letter is a simple and pleasant letter to write. In the first
paragraph, thank the company for the offer and directly accept the
position.

Next, restate the contract provisions as you understand them. These are
points that you and your contact at the company have discussed in
relation to your employment. They may include salary, location, benefits,
or any other items. Restate any instructions you were given in their

11
acceptance letter to you. These might include the date that you will begin
working, the salary discussed, or the hours you would be working. It is
extremely important to restate these details because they provide
documentation of an understanding between you and the company before
an actual contract is signed.

Finally, end with a statement of your happiness at the opportunity to join

the company. Be thankful and courteous, watching your tone so as not to
sound too overconfident.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter
123 Winner‟s Road
New Employee Town, PA 12345

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Cover Letter Model

Write to a specific person, ideally to the person conducting the

interview or hiring for the position.

Date

First and Last Name

Their position/title
Company Name
Address
Address
City, State, Zip-code

Dear Ms./Mr./Dr. Last Name,

The first paragraph of your cover letter should get the reader's attention,
stimulate interest, and be appropriate for the job you are seeking. You should
make your goal clear to readers, and preview the rest of your letter. It is also
appropriate to mention where you learned of the job opening.

Focus on your two or three strongest qualifications for a position in your

cover letter. Even only one strong qualification is enough to discuss in a cover
letter. Each qualification you discuss should be placed in its own paragraph,
and your letter as a whole should not exceed one typed page.

Each body paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that highlights one
qualification. This qualification should be illustrated with specific details, and
you should demonstrate how this qualification will benefit the employer. Ask
the reader to refer to your resume, if possible.

Your conclusion should ask for a personal interview (be flexible regarding a
date and time for the interview), be specific about how the interviewer should
contact you, and include a thank you.

Sincerely,

Your Signature
Your Name

Enclosure: resume

13
Follow-up to an Interview Letter Model

April 2, 2001

Ernie English
1234 Writing Lab Lane
Write City, IN 12345

Dear Mr. English:

The purpose of the follow-up to an interview is to convey your

thankfulness at being given an interview. In the opening paragraph, thank
the interviewer for their time. Thank them for allowing you to learn about
the position and the company.

In the body of your letter, present a personal analysis of your interview

and visit. It is important to avoid clichés and generalizations such as, "My
visit to your company was very informational and interesting." Write
about your impressions of the company and your review of the interview
proceedings. You may also want to point out any new information that
you learned about the company during your visit. If there is any new
information about your education or work experience that you believe
would be increase your chance of getting the position, present those as
well.

In your conclusion it is important to be positive and reflect goodwill. The

letter‟s intent is to show the interviewer that you are thorough, courteous,
efficient and, most importantly, that you are sincerely interested in the
job. It is likely that sending this letter will set you apart from the crowd.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter
123 Winner‟s Road
New Employee Town, PA 12345

Model for Writing an Inquiry about a Cover Letter and Resume

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March 16, 2001

Ernie English
1234 Writing Lab Lane
Write City, IN 12345

Dear Mr. English:

This document should loosely reflect your cover letter. In this opening
paragraph, restate the position for which you applied, and state that you
are still interested. You may also wish to include a forecasting statement.
This is a brief sentence explaining why you feel qualified to fill the position
at hand.

In the second paragraph, briefly restate the qualifications listed in your

cover letter. Since brevity is always important in employment related
letters, remember to include only your most recent and relevant
qualifications. In order to avoid restating your resume, give situational
examples of your qualifications. If there have been any new additions to
your resume, add those as well. Here too, avoid simply restating your
resume since it will be included with your letter.

Finally, in the closing paragraph, restate your contact information and

when you are available. Close the letter so that the employer knows that
you are still sincerely interested in the job.
Sincerely,

Lucy Letter
123 Winner‟s Road
New Employee Town, PA 12345

Model for Writing a Rejection of a Job Offer

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May 10, 2001

Ernie English
1234 Writing Lab Lane
Write City, IN 12345

Dear Mr. English:

The purpose of this letter is to reject a job offer presented to you by a

company. It is important to be polite, while at the same time firmly
rejecting the offer. In the opening paragraph, thank the employer for
the offer. Convey that although you appreciated the offer, you are
unable to accept the position. You may also wish to use an indirect
approach, by stating the reasons for your refusal before rejecting the
offer.

You should then give the employer the reasons for your refusal. The
rejection of an offer is somewhat unimportant to the applicant, but it is
extremely important to the employer. It allows the company to formally
move on to the next applicant. More importantly, it tells the employer
how to make the offer more appealing for the next applicant. After all,
how can they be expected to fix a problem if they don‟t know what it is?
After you have stated your reasons for rejecting their offer, politely
refuse the offer (if you haven‟t already done so).

End your letter with a sense of goodwill. This is important because you
may wish to apply for a position with the company at a later date. Also,
be sure to thank them for the time they invested while working with
you.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter
123 Winner‟s Road
New Employee Town, PA 12345

Model for Writing a Reference Request Letter

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February 10, 2001

Louie Lab
1234 University St.
University City, IN 12345

Dear Mr. Lab:

You will need to write a reference request letter before you create a
reference sheet to distribute to potential employers. It is meant to give
the reference some warning that an employer may be contacting them. It
also insures that they have the most up-to-date information about your
qualifications and education. In the first paragraph, your primary goal is
to reintroduce yourself to your potential reference. Simply give a quick
review of the relationship and situations the two of you shared. This
opening should be courteous and polite. Provide a little information about
yourself. This is especially important if you have not spoken with your
potential reference in some time. State your field of study, year in school,
and/or career aspirations.

Next, you should formally ask to use this person as a reference. Briefly
discuss the position for which you are applying and how the reference will
be used. Will it be utilized as an addition to your resume or presented at
the interview? This information will give your reference a better
understanding of the information that would be expected from them if an
employer contacted them.

Finally, close the letter with a sentence that assumes you have permission
to use the reference unless you hear otherwise. You may wish to include a
self-addressed stamped card so that the person may send you an answer.
Also, include a copy of your resume with the letter. This will provide
helpful information about your qualifications and allow the reference to
speak intelligently to potential employers. Thank the reference for
allowing you to use them in your job search and end with a friendly
closing.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter

123 Winner's Road

New Employee Town, PA 12345

Model for Writing a Request for Further Negotiations

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April 25, 2001

Ernie English
1234 Writing Lab Lane
Write City, IN 12345

Dear Mr. English:

A request for further negotiations letter is much like your acceptance or

rejection letter. The difference is that the request for further negotiations
shows that you would accept the offer contingent on the result of
negotiations. To begin the letter, thank the employer for the offer. Then
state your wish to discuss things further. You can do this in two ways: a
direct request for further negotiations or a conditional statement.

Next, it is important to stress the points of your contract that require

further discussion. List them all, so that the company can prepare their
responses once instead of in a number of letters such as this. Also, it may
be helpful for you to state the reasons for the discussion of each point.
This will give the employer a better understanding of your specific needs.
Depending on the type and number of points you are discussing, it may
be beneficial to format them in a list. This is sometimes an easier way to
read and organize the information than paragraph form.

In closing, it may be helpful to suggest that the employer contact you

with their initial reactions to your unresolved issues. List your contact
information and when you may be reached. Restate your general
appreciation for the offer and maintain a sense of goodwill.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter
123 Winner's Road
New Employee Town, PA 12345

18
Reply to a Rejection Model Letter

May 7, 2001

Ernie English
1234 Writing Lab Lane
Write City, IN 12345

Dear Mr. English:

Writing this letter is optional, but doing so is a good idea. It leaves the
door open for you to apply to the firm sometime in the future when your
qualifications have changed and is a way of maintaining a good
relationship with the company. In the opening, thank the company for
their time and consideration of your application and qualifications.

Use the body of your letter to discuss your positive impressions of the
company. You might mention interviews that you had with company
representatives, information you learned about the company during your
application process, and any specific people who were particularly helpful
or kind to you during the process.

Close the letter by mentioning the possibility of future contact with the
company. Remain optimistic and thankful that the company considered
your application.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter
123 Winner‟s Road
New Employee Town, PA 12345

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 Unit Two

Email Writing

Email Etiquette
What is email etiquette?

Email etiquette refers to a set of dos and don‟ts that are recommended by
business and communication experts in response to the growing concern
that people are not using their email effectively or appropriately.

Since email is part of the virtual world of communication, many people

communicate in their email messages the same way they do in virtual
chat rooms: with much less formality and sometimes too aggressively.
Email etiquette offers some guidelines that all writers can use to facilitate
better communication between themselves and their readers.

21
One overall point to remember is that an email message does not have
non-verbal expression to supplement what we are "saying." Most of the
time we make judgments about a person‟s motives and intentions based
on their tone of voice, gestures, and their proximity to us. When those
are absent it becomes more difficult to figure out what the message
sender means. It is much easier to offend or hurt someone in email and
that is why it is important to be as clear and concise as possible.

How do I know if I am using the correct etiquette?

There are a number of things to consider before clicking the "send" button
on your email.

 How should I format my email?

 To whom am I sending my email?
 Can I send attachments?
 How long should my email be?
 Am I flaming someone? (And what does "flaming" mean?)
 When should I not send an email?

How should I format my email?

You are most likely familiar with the general rules about formatting email
but here are some tips to keep in mind.

Be sure that your email is formatted to wrap your text after about 70
characters. This keeps the email from looking disjointed. When you do not
have a wrap around option for 70-80 characters then your email will
mostly likely look like this:

Dear John,

I am really interested in leasing

your apartment but I need just a little bit
more information. Do you
have
time to meet with me tomorrow afternoon
around three or so?

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Usually, settings for character length will be found in the "preferences"
option on the tool bar of your email client. Consult your help menu for
more information.

Here are some additional formatting tips to consider.

 Try to keep the email brief (preferably to one page) so that readers
do not have to scroll. ***
 Return emails in the same day that you would a phone call.
 Use capitalization and punctuation in the same way that you would
in any other document.
 Format your email to be sent in plain text rather than HTML
because some email clients may not read HTML.
 Write a salutation or greeting for each new subject email. ***
However, if you exchange several emails over the same topic (for
example, a meeting day and time) it is not necessary to include a
greeting because it is as though you are carrying on a conversation.
When we carry on conversations, we do not say hello each time we
speak.
 Be sure to write an appropriate and specific subject in the subject
line so that the recipient knows what to expect. For example: "April
22 production team meeting agenda" instead of "meeting."

To whom am I sending my email?

It is always important to know who will receive your email, including the
number of people you have on the mailing list. This helps you in two
ways. First, it helps you think about the tone of your writing

For example, while you still want to follow the traditional rules of writing,
emails that you send to your employer or professor may be more formal
and brief than to a colleague or classmate. You will need to decide
whether you need to use a person‟s title or if writing the first name is
appropriate.

22
Second, if you send an email to more than four people regularly you
should create mailing groups so that the recipients do not need to scroll
through names before they can get to the content of the email. It also
helps to keep some email addresses anonymous, as some perceive it as
rude for their names and email addresses to be posted for strangers to
see.

You will need to talk with the technical support in your office or use the
"help" option on your computer if you do not know how to create a
mailing group. A mailing group is a list of email addresses assigned to one
name (like, newfaculty@sla.purdue.edu). You want to use names that
make sense to you so that you can remember them. This is especially
helpful when you are managing several mailing group lists.

Emails are public documents, despite the fact that you may send an email
to someone privately. Therefore, only include those statements in email
that you can openly defend should your message be circulated or shown
to other parties. Using emoticons (smiley faces, winks, etc.), and other
virtual gestures may be appropriate in some cases, but not in all cases! It
is always essential to consider the type of relationship you have with the
receiver of your message before including virtual non-verbals. If your
relationship is more casual, then using the symbols is fine. If your
relationship is more formal, then it is best to refrain from using them.

Can I send attachments?

Yes, as long as you are sure that your recipient can receive them.
Sending attachments is a normal practice when you are submitting
documents for review or exchanging information in the workplace. Here
are some tips to consider before attaching a document.

 Title the document that you are attaching in a way that is easy for
the recipient to find once he or she downloads it to his or her files.
For example, if you are sending a document that is a goal
statement then title it "goalstatement.doc."

23
  In the content of your email, tell your recipient what type of
software was used to create the document, the year/version, and
the title of the attachment.
For example: "The file attached is called „goalstatement.doc‟ and it
is in MSWord 2000."

 Make sure that you do not send overly large attachments unless
you are sure that your recipient's Internet connection and email
client can handle them. For example, a user on a 56K dialup would
have to spend a long time downloading a 5M PowerPoint file,
whereas a co-worker on a fast work connection would have no
problem.

 Don't send unnecessary attachments -- if you've already presented

all of the relevant information in an email message, don't attach a
Word document repeating the same information.

How long should my email be?

In general, the email should be approximately one page printed or the

length of your computer screen before scrolling. However, there are times
when email messages need to be longer to convey important information.
Oftentimes organizations seeking to reduce their paper costs will use
email as their primary source of communication. Longer emails generally
consist of: Orientation schedules and information, memos, convention
information, newsletters, and policy changes.

When you need to write a long email try to include three essential
elements at the top of the email: (a) an executive summary at the top of
the document, (b) how soon a response is required from the recipient(s),
and (c) a table of contents.

An executive summary

This is a short summary of everything in the email document including

the main goal of the email or the "bottom line." *

24
For example: "Welcome to ZDF Company. This email contains important
information about your orientation week. You will find the five day
schedule, names of the speakers, the menu, hotel arrangements, and
testimonials from employees who previously participated."

Required response

Because your reader is most likely going to read the first few lines of your
document thoroughly and browse through the rest, if you need to have
him or her respond by a certain time with certain information, that should
be stated within the executive summary.

For example: "Please let me know by Wednesday whether you are

attending the meeting."

Table of contents

A table of contents allows the reader to pick and choose what sections of
the email are most relevant to him or her.* A person is most likely to
comply with your requests when you make it easy for him or her to
navigate your materials.

For example:

Table of Contents
- Five Day Schedule
- Speaker List
- Menu
- Registration Form
- Hotel Arrangements
- Travel Reimbursement Policy

Am I flaming someone? (And what does "flaming"

mean?)

25
Flaming is a virtual term for venting emotion online or sending
inflammatory emails. It is best to avoid flaming because it tends to create
more conflict and tension. Flames are virtual food fights and are
unproductive and injurious to the parties involved.

What you say cannot be taken back. Misinterpretations happen very easily
in neutral emails because there is a lack of nonverbal expression to cue
the recipient about your motives and intentions. You can imagine how
much misinterpretation can occur when you are expressing frustration
and/or anger.

Things to consider before venting in email:

 Would I say this to this person‟s face?

 Am I putting the receiver in awkward position?
 How would I feel if I got this email message?

Usually, by the time you consider the above questions you will be calm
enough to write your message with a different approach. Catching
someone by surprise in a flaming message is a quick way to alienate your
reader mainly because they will react with anger or embarrassment.

Below are some examples of flaming messages and then some

suggestions on ways to re-word them in more sensitive and thoughtful
ways.

Flame/inappropriate message Not a flame/appropriate

message

"This project really sucks and I cannot "This assignment came at a

believe that he is making us do this. tough time. I wasn‟t expecting so
I‟m sick and tired of all these dumb much work. I can‟t wait till the
assignments. He needs to get a life!" end of the semester."

"If you don‟t fix this problem then I "I‟m growing increasingly
am going to quit TOMORROW!!!!!!!! I frustrated by the current
am sick and tired of Martha‟s situation. Can we set up a time to
incompetence!!!" talk about this more?"

26
When should I not send an email?

There are many subjects that are too sensitive to discuss over email
mainly because misinterpretation could have serious consequences. Some
topics that should generally be resolved outside of email are:

 Disciplinary action
 Conflicts about grades or personal information
 Concerns about fellow classmates/workmates
 Complaints

When it appears that a dialogue has turned into a conflict, it is best to

suggest an end to the swapping of email and for you to talk or meet in
person. If you receive a flaming email try to respond in a short and simple
response. If that does not appease the flamer than make contact with him
or her outside the virtual realm.

Unit Three

Memo Writing
Memos have one purpose in life: "Memos solve problems."

Memos solve problems either by informing the reader about new

information, like policy changes, price increases, etc., or by persuading
the reader to take an action, such as attend a meeting, use less paper, or
change a current production procedure. Regardless of the specific goal,
memos are most effective when they connect the purpose of the writer
with the interests and needs of the reader. This handout will help you
solve you memo-writing problems by discussing what a memo is,
presenting some options for organizing memos, describing a the parts of
memos, and suggesting some hints that will make your memos more
effective.

What Is a Memo?

27
When you think of a memo, what do you think of? Is it a little piece of
paper with a cute letterhead that says something like:

"From the desk of ..." or "Don't forget ..." or "Reminders ..."

The message itself may be very simple--something like:

"Buy more paper clips" or "Meet with President at 2:30" or "Mom, we're
out of fudge pops."

While these memos are informative or persuasive, and may serve their
simple purposes, more complex memos are often needed in an office
setting. But don't let that worry you. Even though business memos may
be more formal and complicated, the intention in writing one is still the
same. You want to achieve your purpose with your reader effectively. This
handout will show you how.

Basic Memo Plans

Standard office memos can be approached in different ways to fit your

purpose. Here are three basic plans:

1. The direct plan, which is the most common, starts out by stating
the most important points first and then moves to supporting
details. This plan is useful for routine information and for relaying
news.
2. The indirect plan makes an appeal or spews out evidence first
and arrives at a conclusion based on these facts. This plan is best
used when you need to arouse your reader's interest before
describing some action that you want taken.
3. A combination approach can be used for the balanced plan. This
plan is particularly useful when relaying bad news, as it combines
information and persuasion.

Parts of a Memo

28
Standard memos are divided into segments to organize the information
and to help achieve the writer's purpose.

Heading Segment

The heading segment follows this general format:

TO: (readers' names and job titles)

FROM: (your name and job title)
DATE: (complete and current date)
SUBJECT: (what the memo is about, highlighted in some way)

Troubleshooting hints:

 Make sure you address the reader by his or her correct name and
job title. You might call the company president "Maxi" on the golf
course or in an informal note, but "Rita Maxwell, President" would
be more appropriate for a formal memo.
 Be specific and concise in your subject line. For example, "Rats"
as a subject line could mean anything from a production problem
to a personal frustration. Instead use something like, "Curtailing
Rat Extremity Parts in our Product."

Opening Segment

The purpose of a memo is usually found in the opening paragraphs and is

presented in three parts: the context and problem, the specific
assignment or task, and the purpose of the memo.

1. The context is the event, circumstance, or background of the

problem you are solving. You may use a paragraph to establish
the background and state the problem or simply the opening of a
sentence, such as, "In our effort to reduce rat parts in our
product...." Include only what your reader needs, but be sure it is
clear.

29
 2. In the task statement you should describe what you are doing to
help solve the problem. If the action was requested, your task
may be indicated by a sentence opening like, "You asked that I
look at...." If you want to explain your intentions, you might say,
"To determine the best method of controlling the percentage of
rat extremities, I will...."
3. Finally, the purpose statement of a memo gives your reason for
writing it and forecasts what is in the rest of the memo. This is
not the time to be shy. You want to come right out and tell your
reader the kind of information that's in store. For example, you
might say: "This memo presents a description of the current
situation, some proposed alternatives, and my
recommendations." If you plan to use headings for your memo
segments, you can refer to your major headings in this forecast
statement to provide a better guide for your reader.

Troubleshooting hints:

 Include only as much information as is needed by the decision-

makers in the context, but be convincing that a real problem
exists. Do no ramble on with insignificant details.
 If you are having trouble putting the task into words, consider
whether you have clarified the situation. You may need to do
more planning before you're ready to write your memo.
 Make sure your purpose-statement forecast divides your subject
into the most important topics that the decision-maker needs.

Summary Segment

If your memo is longer than a page, you may want to include a separate
summary segment. This segment provides a brief statement of the key
recommendations you have reached. These will help your reader
understand the key points of the memo immediately. This segment may

31
also include references to methods and sources you have used in your
research, but remember to keep it brief.

You can help your reader understand your memo better by using
headings for the summary and the discussion segments that follow it. Try
to write headings that are short but that clarify the content of the
segment. For example, instead of using "Summary" for your heading, try
"New Rat-Part Elimination System," which is much more specific. The
major headings you choose here are the ones that will appear in your
purpose-statement forecast.

Troubleshooting hint:

You may want to wait until after the report is drafted and all conclusions
and recommendations have been decided before writing the summary.

Discussion Segments

The discussion segments are the parts in which you get to include all the
juicy details that support your ideas. Keep these two things in mind:

1. Begin with the information that is most important. This may

mean that you will start with key findings or recommendations.
2. Here you want to think of an inverted pyramid. Start with your
most general information and move to your specific or supporting
facts. (Be sure to use the same format when including details:
strongest--->weakest.)

Troubleshooting hints:

 For easy reading, put important points or details into lists rather
than paragraphs when possible.
 Be careful to make lists parallel in grammatical form.

Closing Segment

Now you're almost done. After the reader has absorbed all of your
information, you want to close with a courteous ending that states what
action you want your reader to take. Make sure you consider how the
reader will benefit from the desired actions and how you can make those
actions easier. For example, you might say, "I will be glad to discuss this

31
recommendation with you during our Tuesday trip to the spa and follow
through on any decisions you make."

Necessary Attachments

Make sure you document your findings or provide detailed information

whenever necessary. You can do this by attaching lists, graphs, tables,
etc. at the end of your memo. Be sure to refer to your attachments in
your memo and add a notation about what is attached below your closing,
like this:

Attached: Several Complaints about Product, January - June 1997

Good luck on your memo. If you look at this handout closely, you will see that,
except for the heading segment, it follows the guidelines and hints presented
here. These hints will also help you make your memo more successful.

Unit Four

Writing Business Reports

Business reports are required in disciplines such as accounting, finance,
management, marketing and commerce. Often the type of assignment set
is a practical learning task requiring you to apply the theories you have
been studying to real world (or realistic) situations; for example, in the
field of accounting and finance you may be asked to analyse a company‟s
financial data and to write a report detailing you findings; in the field of
marketing you may be asked to research and develop a marketing
campaign for a product and to write a report presenting the proposal to
the company; in the field of management you may be asked to report on
the management structure of a company and make recommendations for
its improvement. Learning how to report on financial information,
marketing and management strategies and issues to others is an
important component of business writing skills.

32
Your aim of writing the report will most probably guide you as to the type
of information that should be included in your report and the steps you
should follow.

Business reports will obviously differ according to the specific question

and task they seek to answer. It is important, however, to be clear what
the overall purpose of your report is: is it to inform, to make a proposal,
or to solve a problem?

In business, the information provided in reports needs to be easy to find,

and written in such a way that the client can understand it. This is one
reason why reports are divided into sections clearly labelled with headings
and sub-headings. Technical information which would clutter the body of
the report is placed in the appendix.

The structure of a report and the purpose and contents of each section is
shown below.

TITLE PAGE report title

your name
submission date

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY overview of subject matter

methods of analysis
findings
recommendations

TABLE OF CONTENTS list of numbered sections in report

and their page numbers

INTRODUCTION terms of reference

outline of report‟s structure

BODY headings and sub-headings which

reflect the contents of each
section. Includes information on

33
 method of data collection (if
applicable), the findings of the
report and discussion of findings in
light of theory

CONCLUSION states the major inferences that

can be drawn from the discussion
makes recommendations

REFERENCE LIST list of reference material consulted

during research for report

APPENDIX information that supports your

analysis but is not essential to its
explanation

Executive summary

The executive summary provides the reader with an overview of the

report‟s essential information. It is designed to be read by people who will
not have time to read the whole report or are deciding if this is
necessary; therefore, in your executive summary you need to say as
much as possible in the fewest words (Weaver & Weaver, 1977). The
executive summary should briefly outline the subject matter, the
background problem, the scope of the investigation, the method(s) of
analysis, the important findings arguments and important issues raised in
the discussion, the conclusion and recommendations. The executive
summary should not just be an outline of the points to be covered in the
report with no detail of the analysis that has taken place or conclusions
that have been reached.

The executive summary stands as an overview at the front of the report

but it is also designed to be read alone without the accompanying report
(this would often occur in the workplace); therefore, you need to make
sure it is self sufficient and can be understood in isolation. It is usually

34
written last (so that it accurately reflects the content of the report) and is
usually about two hundred to three hundred words long (i.e. not more
than a page).

Table of contents

In a report longer than several pages a table of contents should be

included as it assists the reader to locate information quickly. It also gives
the reader a schematic overview of the structure and contents of the
report.
A table of contents should include all section headings and subheadings:

worded exactly as they appear in the report

numbered exactly as they appear in the report

with their page numbers.

The table of contents should be on its own page.

As well as a table of contents, you may wish to include:

List of Figures (optional, separate page)

This list is used mainly for reports containing numerous figures. It
includes the figure number, caption and page number, ordered as they
appear in the text.

List of Tables (optional, separate page)

This list is used mainly for reports containing numerous tables. It includes
the table number, caption and page number, ordered as they appear in
the text.

List of appendices (optional, separate page)

This list is used mainly for reports containing numerous appendices. It
includes the appendix letter (each separate appendix should be lettered

35
i.e. Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.), its title and page number, ordered as
they appear at the end of the report.

Nomenclature (optional)
Where symbols are used extensively, a list of symbols and definitions
should appear at the beginning of the report. If there is no list, symbols
should be defined in the text when first used.

Introduction

The introduction presents:

the background to the issue (i.e. why was the report commissioned),

the objective or purpose of the report

a definition of the research problem/topic

a definition of the report‟s terms of reference (the what, where, and when
of the research problem/ topic)

an outline of the report‟s structure

an overview of the report‟s sections and their relationship to the research

problem

an outline and justification of the scope of the report (the boundaries the
report is working within)

a description of the range of sources used (i.e. personal investigation,

interviews, statistics and questionnaires)

acknowledgment of any valuable assistance received in the preparation of

the report

While there will be some duplication in the contents of the executive

summary and the introduction, the purpose of the executive summary is
to provide a summary of the findings of each section of the report. The
36
purpose of the introduction, however, is to outline what the report will
cover and how these issues address the research problem.

Body of the report

The body section expands and develops the material in a logical and
coherent manner, reflecting the structure outlined in the Introduction. It
contains a description of the findings and a discussion of them. It should
also relate the findings to any theory of relevance. The following
questions are examples of some of the types of questions the body of
your report should seek to answer:

What were the most significant findings or factors involved in the topic/
problem?

Did the findings support the theory?

Have you found some disagreement with the theory?

Did you uncover any unexpected or new issues that need to be considered?

This section is usually the longest part of the report. The material must be
presented logically. The type of headings you use to organize the
information in the body of your report will depend on the purpose of the
report you are preparing. Make sure the headings and sub-headings you
choose are informative. The following general structures are just
examples of ways it may be appropriate to structure your report.

Type 1: Findings/ Discussion

• Sub-heading 1
• Statement of issue 1
• findings
• discussion of whether it supports or contrasts with theory
• discussion of significance to theory/ practice

37
 • Sub-heading 2
• Statement of issue 2
• findings
• discussion of whether it supports or contrasts with theory
• discussion of significance to theory/ practice

Type 2: Findings
• Sub-heading 1
• Statement of issue 1
• findings

• Sub-heading 2
• statement of issue 2
• findings

Discussion
• Issue 1
• discussion of whether it supports or contrasts with theory
• discussion of significance to theory/ practice

• Issue 2
• discussion of whether it supports or contrasts with theory
• discussion of significance to theory/ practice

If your report requires any collection or analysis of data, it would

generally contain a method section in the body of the report briefly
describing how the data was collected: literature search, web pages,
interviews, financial and other business reports, etc. Details of types of
calculations or analysis undertaken would also be detailed.

The body of a report will also probably contain supporting evidence such
as tables, graphs or figures. Only include those that are essential for

38
 reader understanding, the rest can be placed in an appendix that is
referred to in the text; for example,

Appendix C contains the YoY predicted growth in shareholder accounts for

the company.

Using headings in your report

Headings should be clearly, logically and accurately labelled since they

reveal the organization of the report and permit quick reference to
specific information. They also make the report easy to read.

Headings should be specific and descriptive NOT vague and general.

Sometimes a main heading will be general but the specificity is developed
through subheadings. Given the need for specificity, headings would tend
to be more like an abbreviated sentence rather than a single word. A
good rule of thumb is that the heading should be "long enough to be an
inclusive label but short enough to be immediately clear". You should also
try to make headings grammatically and logically consistent; for example,
if your main heading was

Types Of Schemas

and your subheadings under this section were:

Schemas for scenes

Schemas for events
Schemas for stories
Problems and their schemas

it would be much better to change the final subheading to

Schemas for problems

so that consistency in your headings is maintained.

39
Also avoid using headings that are catchy rather than informative; for
example, the following subheadings, although catchy and cute, detract
from the serious informative intent of the following report.

4. Key products and services of the McDonald's corporation

The following outline of McDonald's key products and services will thoroughly examine all
aspects of consumer buyer behaviour …..

4.1 The Big Mac: two all beef patties, special sauce, lettuce,
cheese, pickles and onions on a sesame seed bun!

The Big Mac hamburger brand was introduced to the McDonalds's product range in 1968
and has worldwide recognition. The longevity, popularity and recognisability of this
product impact on consumer buying behaviour in several ways…..

4.2 McFlurry: just like a snowstorm in your mouth!

The McFlurry is a relatively new item to the McDonald's product range and as such it is
relevant to analyse several different aspects of consumer buyer behaviour such as …..

Using figures such as diagrams, tables, graphs, charts or maps can be a

very useful way to show and emphasize information in your report. They
can be used to compile data in an orderly way or to amplify a point and
are a useful tool to help your readers understand complex or numerous
data.

Figures essential to the report should be smoothly and correctly

integrated and should be explained and referred to in the main body of
the report. A useful way to do this is to lead into the figure by telling the
reader what to focus on in the figure and then lead out of the figure
perhaps by linking the important point that was illustrated to the next
salient point; for example:

41
Figures that are supportive rather than essential to your explanation can
be placed in the appendix section so that the continuity of your writing is
not broken up. If a figure such as a table of data is essential for
understanding but is very lengthy, you may wish to include an excerpt of
the most relevant part of the figure in the text and the full figure in an
appendix.

The inclusion of tables and figures does not absolve you from making
your report coherent. Regardless of whether the figures are integrated
into the text or are in an appendix, it is important that you do discuss the
information represented in the diagrams, tables, graphs, charts and maps
and not just let them 'speak for themselves'. A good rule of thumb is to

41
produce text and figures that can both stand alone: the text should be
readable without figures, and vice versa. In your discussion of the
information represented in the figures you should highlight information
which you consider significant, point out trends or relationships or
compare data presented in separate figures; for example,

The Keeling plant's production capacity was reached in May this year. In contrast, the
Hergort plant has not yet reached 75% of its production capacity (see Table 13).

Make sure the figure is worthwhile. If the text is crystal clear without the
insertion of a figure there is no point including it, despite how good it may
look. If the text does not make sense without the insertion of the figure,
you are expecting the figure to do your job for you. In fact, the figure is
not meant to make your point but to illustrate, emphasize and
supplement it.

Information that is not essential to explain your findings, but that

supports your analysis (especially repetitive or lengthy information),
validates your conclusions or pursues a related point should be placed in
an appendix (plural appendices). Sometimes excerpts from this
supporting information (i.e. part of the data set) will be placed in the
body of the report but the complete set of information ( i.e. all of the data
set) will be included in the appendix. Examples of information that could
be included in an appendix include figures/tables/charts/graphs of results,
statistics, questionnaires, transcripts of interviews, pictures, lengthy
derivations of equations, maps, drawings, letters, specification or data
sheets, computer program information.

There is no limit to what can be placed in the appendix providing it is

relevant and reference is made to it in the report. The appendix is not a
catch net for all the semi-interesting or related information you have
gathered through your research for your report: the information included
in the appendix must bear directly relate to the research problem or the
report's purpose. It must be a useful tool for the reader.

42
Each separate appendix should be lettered (Appendix A, Appendix B,
Appendix B1, Appendix B2, Appendix C, etc). The order they are
presented in is dictated by the order they are mentioned in the text of the
report. It is essential to refer to each appendix within the text of the
report; for example,

For the manufacturer's specification, see Appendix B

or

Appendix C contains the YoY shareholder account growth rates. The rates are high. The increasing growth rate of
accounts will significantly affect the valuation of the company.

Conclusion

The conclusion summarizes the major inferences that can be drawn from
the information presented in the report. It answers the questions raised
by the original research problem or stated purpose of the report and
states the conclusions reached. Finally, the conclusion of your report
should also attempt to show „what it all means‟: the significance of the
findings reported and their impact.

The conclusion/s presented in a report must be related to, resulting from

and justified by the material which appears in the report. The conclusion
must not introduce any new material. It should report on all the
conclusions that the evidence dictates as it is NOT the job of a conclusion
to “gloss over conclusions that are puzzling, unpleasant, incomplete or
don‟t seem to fit into your scheme”. Doing this would indicate writer bias
and mean your conclusion may mislead the reader.

In the workplace, conclusions are quite often read by managers before

the main text of the report and hence, should summarize the main points
clearly. This section also may include:

reference to original aim(s) and objective(s) of report,

application(s) of results,

43
limitations and advantages of the findings,

objective opinion, evaluation or judgement of the evidence

Quite often the present tense is used in the conclusion; for example, “The
healthy lifestyles concept analyzed in this report is a good candidate for
next phase of the marketing campaign for Choice chocolate”.

The conclusions may be ordered in several ways. The main conclusion

may be stated first and then any other conclusions in decreasing order of
importance. Alternatively, it may be better to organize the conclusions in
the same order as the body section was organised. Another strategy
would be to present the positive conclusions together and then the
negative conclusions. The organizational strategy you use may vary; the
important thing is that the organization of your conclusion is logical.

The conclusion must arise from the evidence discussed in the body of the
report. It should not, therefore, subjectively tell the reader what to do:
this job is performed by the recommendations section.
(NOTE: Sometimes the conclusion and recommendations can be
presented together in one section but they should be presented in
separately labelled subsections).

It is essential to include a reference list or bibliography of the reference

material you consulted during your research for the report. A
bibliography is a list of all the reference material you consulted during
your research for the report while a reference list is a list of all the
references cited in the text of your report, listed in alphabetical order at
the end of the report. Each reference in the reference list needs to contain
all of the bibliographic information from a source. You should also check
with your lecturer or tutor for any Faculty guidelines on referencing
formats.

Throughout the text of your report you will also need to provide
references when you have included an idea in your report which is not

44
 your own original idea. You don't need to reference an idea, however, if it
is common knowledge (i.e. enzymes are proteins) or if it has been
established by you in your experiment (i.e. in scientific reports reporting
on an experiment). A reference is the bracketed or footnoted piece of
information within the text of your writing that provides an
acknowledgment that you are using someone else's ideas. There are
several systems of referencing such as the Harvard or author-date
system, footnotes or endnotes. Different faculties, departments and even
lecturers will generally have preferences about how you should reference
and you should seek these out before submitting your assignment.

Reference List1

To provide full details of your source information you should provide a

reference list or bibliography at the end of your assignment. A reference
list refers to all the books, articles and web sites that you actually
referred to in your assignment. A bibliography refers to all the material
you read in preparation for your assignment, even those you did not
provide direct or indirect quotations from. Your lecturer or tutor will
instruct you on whether your assignments require a reference list or a
bibliography. The reference list or bibliography must be set out in the
particular format required by your discipline or department. Below is an
example of a reference list that would be attached to the end of your
assignment.

Gould, S.J. 1977, Ontogeny and Phylogeny. book titles and journal
Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press. names are in are in italics.
(If handwriting your
Lovejoy, C.O. 1980, 'The origin of man', Science,
assignment, use
vol. 211, pp.340-350.
underlining).

45
 Savage-Rumbaugh, E.S. 1986, Ape Language: hanging indents: in these
From conditioned response to symbol. New examples hanging indents
York: Columbia University Press. have been used; however,
this is not an essential
requirement.

Wolpoff, M.H., Zhi, W.X. & Thorne, A.G. 1984, Article and chapter
'Modern homo sapiens origins: A general theory titles are in plain text
of hominid evolution involving the fossil within single quotation
evidence from South-East Asia'. In F.H. Smith marks.
& F. Spencer. (Eds.) The Origins of modern
humans New York: Alan R. Liss Inc.

In a reference list,

sources are listed alphabetically by the surname of the author

when reference is made to more than one work by and author/s, list them
chronologically, ending with the most recent work.

1 Reference: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1995, Style Manual: For Authors, Editors
and Printers, 5th edn., Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.

The Harvard or Author-Date or System of

Referencing

The Harvard System of referencing incorporates information on:

the author of the material cited,

the date of publication

and where necessary, the page number(s).

46
 This information is placed in a bracket within the sentence of the idea you
are discussing. This information allows the reader to look up the full
bibliographic information from the attached reference list.

Harvard style references can be given in three ways:

The rationale of the free market is essentially opposed to the collective

nature of unionism in the labour market (Ewer, Smith and Keane, 1991:
1).

Notice the reference comes before the punctuation ending the sentence,
in this case, a full stop.

OR

Ewer, Smith and Keane state that the rationale of the free market is
essentially opposed to the collective nature of unionism in the labour
market (1991: 1).

OR

Ewer, Smith and Keane (1991: 1) state that the rationale of the free market
is essentially opposed to the collective nature of unionism in the labour
market.

The way you decide to refer will depend upon factors such as the
authority of the source and whether you wish to focus on the idea rather
than the author.

When to include page numbers?

No Page Numbers: When you wish to use an author's central idea or

argument, for example, you must cite the author's name and the year of

47
publication, but you may leave out page numbers as the original text will
have referred to that central idea many times within the text. This will be
the case where you summarize the central argument of an entire article.

Page Numbers: When you refer to just one idea of many in a publication,
however, you must include page numbers. This allows your reader in
follow-up reading to find what might be a quite small piece of information
inside what could be a large article or book. This is often the case with
direct quotations or paraphrased sentences/ paragraphs/ sub-sections of
an article.

Look at the paragraph below to see how a writer has referenced source
material of different kinds.

The work of van Lawick-Goodall (1971), Name and year only (refers to
Kortlandt and van Zon (1968), and Wright main idea of the source).
(1972) shows that present-day
chimpanzees, orangutans and macaque
monkeys are capable of using simple tools

48
and bipedal locomotion. Wright (1972: Page number included as the
305) concluded after tool using text refers to only one idea
experiments with a captive orangutan, that from the source.
manipulative disability is not a factor which
would have prevented Australopithecines
from mastering the fundamentals of tool
technology. However, while there is an
unquestionable validity in comparing the
behaviour of present-day apes with early
hominids, it is important to note that, as
Howells (1973: 53) says, "a Pantroglodyte
is not and cannot be the ancestor of man. Direct quote, so a page
He cannot be an ancestor of anything but number MUST be included.
future chimpanzees". However, the modern
chimpanzee shows a type of intelligence
closer to that of man than is found in any
other present-day mammal. van Lawick-
Goodall argues that:
... the chimpanzee is, nevertheless, a A quote longer than three lines
creature of immense significance to the is indented (quotation marks
understanding of man ... He has the ability are not included but the page
to solve quite complex problems, he can number is).
use and make tools for a variety of
purposes (1971: 244-245).

1 Reference: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1995, Style Manual: For Authors, Editors
and Printers, 5th edn., Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.

Direct Quotation

A direct quotation is one in which you copy an author's words directly

from the text and use that exact wording in your essay. Try to use direct

49
quotations sparingly: only use them when they are focused precisely on
the point you want to make and are both brief and telling, or where the
substance/ wording of the quote is what you wish to address.

When directly quoting, remember the following points:

for a short quotation, use quotation marks " " to indicate that these are
the words of another

In fact, Rumelhart suggests that schemata "truly are the building blocks of cognition" (1981:
33).

for quotations longer than three lines, take a new line and indent the
quote to separate it from the main text (in this case you do not require
quotation marks)

In fact, Rumelhart suggests that schemata

truly are the building blocks of cognition. They are the fundamental elements upon which all
information processing depends. Schemata are employed in the process of interpreting
sensory data (both linguistic and non linguistic), in retrieving information from memory, in
organizing actions, in determining goals and sub goals, in allocating resources, and generally,
in guiding the flow of processing in the system (1981: 33-34).

Rumelhart (1981) attempts to unravel the functions of schemas, explaining them through a
series of analogies.

when referencing the quote include the page number from which it was
taken

In fact, Rumelhart (1981: 33) suggests that schemata "truly are the building blocks of
cognition".

ensure that the grammar of the quote is consistent with the grammar of
your sentence

Incorrect:

51
Past attempts to deal with organisational conflict problems "lead to the development of
integrative and mixed structures such as committees, task forces and matrix structures"
(Dawson, 1986:97).

Correct:

Past attempts to deal with organisational conflict problems have led "to the development of
integrative and mixed structures such as committees, task forces and matrix structures"
(Dawson, 1986:97).

to omit words from the original quote use three period marks ... to
indicate that you have removed certain phrases or words

In fact, Rumelhart asserts that schemata "are the fundamental elements upon which all
information processing depends. Schemata are employed ... in allocating resources, and
generally, in guiding the flow of processing in the system" (1981: 33-34).

to add words to the original quote use square brackets [ ]

In fact, Rumelhart asserts that since schemata "are the fundamental elements upon which all
information processing ... [and play a large role] in guiding the flow of processing in the
system" (1981: 33-34).

to indicate a grammatical or spelling error in the original quote place (sic)

after the error

In 1845, the explorer, Eyre stated:

Whenever European colonies have been established in Australia, the native races in that
neighbourhood rapidly decreasing(sic), and already in some of the older settlements, have
totally disappeared (cited in Coupe, 1991).

An example of direct quotation in the context of a paragraph.

Another problem in the organization Introduces the concept

which could be taken into account is that of the 'informal group'

51
 of the 'informal group', which seems to as an issue
have developed within the particular
territory in crisis in the case study. An
informal group is an important part of
any organization, and they are seen as Explains the nature of

"...central to the formation of the bonds the informal group using

between workers which allow acts of a quote

solidarity, such as those involved in

industrial action" (Dunford, 1992:106).
This is certainly the case in the case- Relates the concept to

study, where the outspoken woman the incident in the case

makes a complaint and is supported study

wholeheartedly by her coworkers. This

Provides a
indicates a type of informal 'groupthink'
recommendation as to
among the workers, and more care
how it should be
should be given to watch over the group
considered
and ensure individual opinions and
initiatives are encouraged.

Information that is not essential to explain your findings, but that

supports your analysis (especially repetitive or lengthy information),
validates your conclusions or pursues a related point should be placed in
an appendix (plural appendices). Sometimes excerpts from this
supporting information (i.e. part of the data set) will be placed in the
body of the report but the complete set of information ( i.e. all of the data
set) will be included in the appendix. Examples of information that could
be included in an appendix include figures/tables/charts/graphs of results,
statistics, questionnaires, transcripts of interviews, pictures, lengthy
derivations of equations, maps, drawings, letters, specification or data
sheets, computer program information.

There is no limit to what can be placed in the appendix providing it is

relevant and reference is made to it in the report. The appendix is not a

52
 catch net for all the semi-interesting or related information you have
gathered through your research for your report: the information included
in the appendix must bear directly relate to the research problem or the
report's purpose. It must be a useful tool for the reader.

Each separate appendix should be lettered (Appendix A, Appendix B,

Appendix B1, Appendix B2, Appendix C, etc). The order they are
presented in is dictated by the order they are mentioned in the text of the
report. It is essential to refer to each appendix within the text of the
report; for example,

For the manufacturer's specification, see Appendix B

or

Appendix C contains the YoY shareholder account growth rates. The rates are high. The increasing growth rate of
accounts will significantly affect the valuation of the company.

Guidelines to writing a business report

Many people think of business reports as dry, boring documents
that take a great deal of time and effort to prepare.

Some people wonder if reports are worth all the effort. So … before we start talking about
how to write a business report, let's talk about why.

What is the purpose of business reports? Simply stated, a business report conveys
information to assist in decision-making. The report is the means to present this information.
Some reports might present the actual solution to solve a business problem; other reports
might record historical information that will be useful to assist in future decision making. Either
way, information is being "reported" that will useful in making decisions.
In order for the writer to have a clear understanding of why a report is written, a written
purpose sentence is essential. This purpose sentence could be written as either a statement
or a question. For example:

 To determine ways to improve employee morale. (statement)

 To design a new procedure for the company’s annual inventory. (statement)

53
  Should new computers be purchased to replaced the older models? (question)
 Should the office arrangement be open or modular? (question)

Now that you know why you write business reports, let's go through the steps in how to write
one.

Steps in Writing a Routine Business

Report

Your assignment will be to write a memo report to help solve a

business-related problem.

Think of a job you currently have (or have had in the past). Is there something you would
change? Have you noticed a procedure or on-going situation that could be improved?
Perhaps new equipment is needed or the physical layout is inefficient. Perhaps the work flow
needs to be revised or company policy needs to be reevaluated. I'm sure there is something
you would like to see improved.

Once you have a topic, you're then ready to start thinking in terms of a report. Don't decide on
a solution right now. I want you to go through some steps to come to the RIGHT solution.

In creating your report, follow these steps:

1. Determine the Scope of the Report

2. Consider Your Audience
3. Gather Your Information
4. Analyze Your Information
5. Determine the Solution
6. Organize Your Report

54
1. Determine the scope of the report

A common fault of many reports is making the scope of a report

too general or too vague. When you choose a subject for a report,
one of the first steps is to narrow the scope to a report length.

The scope of the report is defined by determining the factors which you will study. You need
to limit the amount of information you will gather to the most needed and most important
factors.

For example, factors to be studied to determine ways to improve employee morale might
include:

Salaries
Fringe benefits
Work assignments
Work hours
Evaluation procedures

You could study many other factors relative to improving employee morale. Some may be
important, and you may want to consider them later. For any one report, however, a
reasonable scope must be clearly defined by determining what factors will be included.

2. Consider Your Audience

Always consider your reader or readers. Unlike letters and

memos, reports usually have a far wider distribution. Many people
may be involved in a decision-making process and have need to
read the information in the report.

Your job is to make it easy for the reader. In order to make reading your report easier, think in
terms of the reader.

Each audience has unique needs. Some audience consideration include:

55
  Need (from your report)
 Education level
 Position in the organization
 Knowledge of your topic or area
 Responsibility to act
 Age
 Biases
 Preferences
 Attitudes

Some false assumptions commonly made regarding audiences are:

1. That the person who will first read or edit the report is the audience
2. That the audience is a group of specialists in their field
3. That the audience is familiar with the subject of the report
4. That the audience has time to read the entire report
5. That the audience has a strong interest in the subject of the report
6. That the author will always be available to discuss the report

To avoid making these false assumptions, writers should identify everyone who might read
the report; characterize those readers according to their professional training, position in the
organization, and personal traits; and determine how and when the reader might use the
report. Audiences are basically of three kinds:

Primary People who have to act or make decisions

on the basis of the report

Secondary People affected by actions of the primary

audiences would take in response to the
report

Immediate People responsible for evaluating the

report and getting it to the right people

56
Additional questions to ask regarding your audience are:

1. How much background will the audience need?

2. Do you need to define any terms you are using?
3. What language level will be most appropriate for your readers?
4. How many and what kind of visual aids should you use?
5. What will the audience expect from your report?
6. Does the reader prefer everything given in detail or merely a brief presentation
that touches upon the highlights?

3. Gather Your Information

Now that you have a clear understanding of the purpose and scope of your report and who
you are writing to, you're now ready to gather your information.

Information you gather can be of two types: Secondary and Primary. Secondary is information
gathered and recorded by others. Primary is information you gather and record yourself.

Sources Caution

Secondary Books, internet, reports, Information may be inaccurate,

newspapers, magazines, out of date, or biased
pamphlets, and journals

Primary Questionnaires, surveys, Information must be gathered

observation, experiments, carefully to ensure it is accurate
historical information, and and bias free.
raw data

4. Analyze Your Information

Now that you have information, you need to analyze it.

The purpose of the analysis is to make sense, objectively, out of the information you have
gathered. You will not want personal bias of any kind to enter into the analysis.

Information is compared and contrasted in an effort to try to find new ideas or the best ideas.

57
Separate facts and figures need to be interpreted by explaining what they mean--what
significance they have.

For example, if you were doing a study to determine which computer to buy for your office,
you would collect information on the type of work you are currently doing in your office and
the kinds of work you want to do. Then you would gather information on computers. This
information might include cost, compatibility, speed of operation, machine capacity, machine
dependability, maintenance availability, potential for upgrading, and other factors. Then you
would compare and contrast (analyze) the different computers to determine how well they can
do what you want done, what their potential is, how dependable they are, and so on. Once all
the information is gathered, you are ready to determine solutions.

5. Determine the Solution

Based on your analysis, you will be then be ready to offer a

solution (or solutions) to the problem you have been studying.

For example, which computer would be the best buy for the word processing center or what
office arrangement would be the best for effective work flow?

A word of caution: The gathered information should be the basis for making this decision. A
tendency in business report writing is to "slant" information in the report to lead the reader to
the decision the writer wants. Make sure you report all pertinent information--good and bad.
The credibility of the report (and credibility of you) is at stake.

Make sure, however, that a solution is even requested. Depending on your position in the
organization and the particular business study, a solution may NOT be requested in the
report. Your purpose would then be to present the objective facts. These facts would be used
by someone else to determine the best solution.

6. Organize Your Report

You've got your topic, your information, and your decision. Now you're ready to determine
how to present your information.

58
Before actually writing, organize your information into an outline form. You can formulate an
outline for your report by choosing the major and supporting ideas, developing the details,
and eliminating the unnecessary ideas you've gathered. This outline becomes the basic
"structure" of your report.

A report could be presented as a memo report, a standardized form report, or a formal

report. The report you will be assigned in this course will be a memo report intended for an
audience within your organization.

Your memo report will have the following five steps:

 Provide identifying information (usually in the TO, FROM, DATE, SUBJECT

area)
 Define the project or problem (purpose of the report)
 Give the background
 Give the supporting data
 State your conclusions and recommendations

Create a "skeleton" outline by jotting down these five steps and filling in the information from
your gathered material that would fall into each category.

Based on your outline you are NOW ready to begin the actual writing of your report. Write a
rough draft. Don't be overly concerned about proofreading and editing at this point. Just get
your thoughts done.

Be systematic if you can--starting at the beginning and work your way through. However, if
you can find no logical approach, start anywhere--BUT START. Expert writers often use this
technique. They know that they can write the opening paragraph(s) or page(s) at a later
time. Remember, don't think about editing when writing the first draft. Editing proves a
stumbling block in creativity for many writers. Write first. Then come back and
edit. Otherwise, you are working against the creative process.

In writing your report, you might want to use headings for each of these sections of your
report. Headings and subheadings are used as organizational tools in writing to identify major
parts of a report. Headings serve as guideposts for a reader, dividing the information into

59
segments that make it easy for a reader to understand.

When writing headings be sure they are descriptive, parallel, and unnecessary to transition.

Descriptive Headings should talk about the contents of their portion of the
report.

Poor: Supporting Data

Better: Comparison of Three Computer Models

Parallel All headings of the same level should start with the same
grammatical structure.

Unnecessary Headings should not be relied upon to give meaning to that

to Transition section of the report. Headings do serve as guides, but the
report should be understood even though no headings are
used.

Poor:

Changes Must Be Communicated to Employees: This problem

has been a persistent one throughout the industry.

Better:

Changes Must Be Communicated to Employees. The problem

of communicating changes procedures to employees has been
a persistent one throughout the industry.

Elements of Effective Business Report Writing

Now that you have an overall outline and rough draft of your report, you are ready
to start the "polishing." In presenting information, an effective business report
should be accurate and objective.

61
1. Accurate
2. Objective

Accurate

Accuracy in a business report includes accuracy of information and accuracy of

writing.

Since the information in a business report is used to make decisions, inaccurate

information can lead to inaccurate decisions. Therefore, make sure your facts are
right! The accuracy of any report depends upon the correctness of the data that
was gathered to prepare it. Use reliable sources and be accurate in reporting all
information.

The accuracy of writing depends on accuracy in writing mechanics (spelling,

punctuation, and grammar) and accuracy in writing style. To avoid writing style
errors, use precise words and terms that are not likely to be misinterpreted by the
reader. For example:

Specific Terms profit of increase

increase of $100,000 annually

improved efficiency
20 percent increase in efficiency

staff reduction
one less operator

Specific Procedures have changed. This is the reason for the

Reference delay.

Procedures have been changed. These changes

account for the delay.

You try! Improve the following sentences to assure accurate use of nouns
and/or pronouns. (The suggested revisions are below.)

61
 1. The system change has improved customer service. This has resulted in
fewer returns of merchandise.
2. The memorandum reviewed the progress of several departments. It created
quite a few misunderstandings.
3. Problems of the past caused changes in personnel, budgeting, and follow-
up. As things turned out, they were probably timely.

Suggested Revisions:

1. The system change has improved customer service and has resulted in
fewer returns of merchandise.
2. The memorandum reviewing the progress of several departments created
quite a few misunderstandings.
3. Problems of the past caused changes in personnel, budgeting, and follow-
up. As things turned out, these changes were probably timely.

Objective

In writing, objectivity means presenting material free from personal feelings or

prejudice--a sometimes difficult balancing act.

You can achieve objectivity through the following techniques.

Make a distinction between facts and opinions:

Minimize unsupported judgments and inferences

Example:

You are gathering information on the quality of service offered by your

bank’s tellers. In an interview, a customer tells you that "the tellers are
always well-mannered and pleasant, even when they serve customers who
rush them or complain because they had to wait in line." While this
information is valuable for your report, it should be included as an opinion
rather than a fact.

62
 Reporting all pertinent information:

Present both positive and negative aspects

Example:

You are reporting on effects of your company’s experimental flex-time

system for work hours. Look for both benefits and problems resulting
from the system. If you enjoy the new system and want to see it become a
permanent arrangement, it may be difficult for you to present a fair-
minded view of the negative aspects. However, your credibility as a writer
and the value of your report depends upon your objectivity.

Using bias-free language:

Avoid emotional terms, such as "amazing," "tremendous," etc.

Example:

The collectors achieved an outstanding response rate of 50 percent.

The collectors achieved a response rate of 50 percent.

Using impersonal style:

Avoid interjecting a personal note, which might weaken a report by

making it seem merely a statement of one person’s opinion and beliefs.

Example:

I compared the qualities of three word processors.

Qualities of three word processors were compared.

Comparison of the qualities of three word processors showed ...

Rewrite the following sentences to improve objectivity and to incorporate an

impersonal style. (The suggested revisions are below.)

1. The enormous increase of 32 percent proves the sales department has done
a superb job.
2. The proposed procedure is bad because it would require an inordinate
amount of employee time--15 percent to be exact.

63
 3. The deplorable turnover rate could be reduced by about half--to 12 percent--
if fringe benefits could be introduced.
4. The enormous increase of 33 percent was a result of the amazing growth in
city population of 10,000 during the past year.
5. The horrible effect on employees from the change in parking regulations will
be one of creating massive in-and-out traffic problems at the beginning and
end of the day.
6. The writer surveyed 15 organizations to examine management styles.
7. We found formal check lists used in 14 of the 15 firms we surveyed.
8. We deleted the discussion on consumer energy habits because of possible
errors in data.
9. You will notice how Flow Chart 2 traces the progress of a purchase order
through the office under the revised procedure.
10. You can hardly imagine the effect of incentive pay on employee morale.
11. In my opinion, the use of computers will make it easier to compile our
monthly sales report.
12. I feel certain that the new plan is better than the old method.
13. I think the sales representatives will agree that the new Call Report form is
easier to complete.
14. If you were to ask me, I would select the wood desk over the metal one.
15. Most of us agree that a monthly status meeting will be helpful.

Suggested Revisions

1. The sales department has increased sales by 32 percent during the past
quarter.
2. The proposed procedure would require 15 percent more employee time.
3. The turnover rate could be reduced from 24 percent to 12 percent if fringe
benefits could be introduced.
4. The city population increase of 10,000 during the past year represents a
33 percent growth rate.
5. The change in parking regulations will create additional traffic congestion at
the beginning and end of the day.

64
 6. Fifteen organizations were surveyed to examine management styles.
7. Formal check lists were used in 14 of the 15 firms surveyed.
8. The discussion on consumer energy habits was deleted because of possible
errors in data.
9. Flow Chart 2 traces the progress of a purchase order through the office
under the revised procedure.
10. Incentive pay improved employee morale in the following ways:
11. Computers will make it easier to compile our monthly sales report for the
following reasons:
12. The new plan is more effective than the old method for the following
reasons:
13. In the survey 80 percent of the sales representatives agreed that the new
Call Report form is easier to complete.
14. The wood desk, rather than the metal desk, would be a better purchase
choice for the following reasons:
15. In the quarterly staff meeting 95 percent of the members supported having a
monthly status meeting.

Use of Graphics in Business Reports

In addition to the writing portion of your report, you might want to consider including
pictures or graphics. Let's look at the following aspects of using graphics in a
business report.

Why use graphics?

What types of graphics could I use?
How do I relate the graphic to the written text?

Why use graphics?

Graphics, of course, are not required as part of a business report. However, since
your goal in a business report is to convey information clearly to the reader, a
graphic can often be clearer than text.

A graphic does the following:

65
  Presents a message in an economical manner using less space than would
be needed to provide the same information in the text.
 Saves your reader’s time.
 Focuses the reader’s attention on specific information.
 Adds interest.
 Shows relationships.
 Presents facts and figures in a condensed manner.

What types of graphics could I use?

So .. what type of graphics would you use? That answer depends upon the type of
information you want to present.

For example, if you wanted to show sales broken down by categories, a pie chart
will be effective in showing a relationship of the parts of a whole.

However, if you wanted to show a sales trend for the past six months, a line or bar
graphic would be more effective. Some of the more common graphics that you
might want to consider would include:

Tables
Pie Charts
Line Charts
Bar Charts
Organizational Charts
Others (pictograms, maps, photographs, time lines, flow charts, etc.)

How do I relate the graphics to the written text?

Remember, the graphics are PART of the report, not a supplement. Work the
graphic into the flow of your text.

 Place the graphic within the text immediately after the paragraph in which
the graphic is first mentioned.

66
  Refer to each graphic by its figure number.

 Interpret the information found in the graphic within the text material. Textual
material should not merely repeat what can be seen in the graph or table.

For Example:

Poor: Figure 6 is a graph that shows the educational level of new hires.

Better: Figure 6 illustrates how a college degree has become the norm among
new hires.

You're now ready to start writing your report.

As you write your report, remember to incorporate all the other good writing
principles you have learned in this course--unity and coherence of paragraphs,
parallel structure, proper use of active voice, clear thought units, and more. If you
need to review any of these areas, you can always go back to the previous units
and refresh your memory!

Types of reports

There are basically two types of report, each requiring a different

structure: Research reports and Information-Only reports.

A research report investigates a subject and reports on the findings.

This might research a competitor's activities, consider options for a new
computer system, or report on product development. The structure of a
research report is the same as the structure used to write up scientific
experiments.

The aim is the objective, and is expressed in a single sentence at the

beginning.

The method explains how you researched your subject and the sources
used.

67
The results present your findings in an objective and neutral fashion.
Any unnecessary constructive detail should be included in an appendix.

The conclusion is where you express a subjective view drawn from the
results of your research.

An information-only report is just that, it simply passes on information. It

might be a memo, or the monthly budgets or management reports and
updates. The structure of an information only report groups your
organized information into a logical and clear sequence. This may be by
date, turnover, location or order of importance. Occasionally there may
no obvious sequence; you can't create logic where it simply doesn't exist!

Format and form

 A report should include some or all of the following:

 covering letter or memo
 title page
 executive summary
 table of contents
 introduction, method, discussion, conclusion, and/or recommendations
 bibliography/references
 appendices
 glossary
 index

Writing style

Write for the reader not for yourself. A report may need to be particularly
formal, or very informal according to the circumstances.

Keep your language simple, but avoid slang, jargon and clichés.

Use gender-neutral language.

Use examples and analogies. Your reader can't interrupt or ask you to
explain a point.

68
Use short sentences and paragraphs rather than long-winded
constructions.

Choose your words with care. A misused word can cast doubt on your
credibility.

Layout
Use plenty of headings and subheadings as signposts for your reader.

Use bullet points or numbers where possible, rather than continuous text.

Use relevant tables, figures and appendices to support your text, but
remember to adequately refer to these in your text.

There are at least 3 distinct report writing styles that can be applied by
students of Business Studies. They are called:

i. Conservative*
ii. Key points*
iii. Holistic

*These styles are sequential. This means, the report is structured around
the format of the question. Thus the question provides the framework for
the answer.

1. Conservative Style

This suits students who are good essay writers and who feel a bit
uncomfortable with the idea of utilizing the report writing tools. They may
feel that application of margins or using a coloured highlighter might
make their report look less „serious‟.

In such cases a conservative style should be applied. Essentially, the

conservative approach takes the best structural elements from essay
writing and integrates these with appropriate report writing tools. Thus
headings would be used to deliberate different sections of the answer. In
addition, space would be well utilized by ensuring that each paragraph is
69
distinct (perhaps separated from other paragraphs by leaving two blank
lines in between).

2. Key Point Style

This style utilizes all of the report writing tools and is thus more
overtly „report-looking‟.

Use of headings, underlining, margins, diagrams and tables are

common. Occasionally students might even use indentation and dot
points.

The important thing for students to remember is that the tools

should be applied in a way that adds to the report. The question
must be addressed and the tools applied should assist in doing that.

An advantage of this style is the enormous amount of information

that can be delivered relatively quickly.

3. Holistic Style

The most complex and unusual of the styles, holistic report writing
aims to answer the question from a thematic and integrative
perspective. This style of report writing requires that students have
a strong understanding of the course and are able to see which
outcomes are being targeted by the question.

In conclusion, students should practise writing business reports that

integrate the Topic areas. This should help them feel confidence
prior to attempting their major exams. Well structured reports
enable students to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding
of the Business Studies course. Good reports convey a huge amount
of relevant information and can be written in about 40 minutes.
Students need to settle on a preferred style and need to ensure that

71
 they utilize appropriate business terminology and link their response
to the stimulus.

Unit Five

Revision in Business Writing

Few writers are so talented that they can express themselves clearly and
effectively in a rough draft. For short, routine business communications,
you may be able to write quite easily with little or no revision. However,
for most business writing--especially longer, more complex letters and
reports--you should expect to revise, sometimes substantially, to insure
that you've said exactly what you meant to say in a manner that the
reader will understand.

Remember: An ineffective message is a waste of everyone's time.

Revision Provides a Service for Your Reader

71
If you are always satisfied to send out the first draft of your letter or
report, you are not serving your reader well. Not only are you asking a
high payment in terms of your reader's time and attention and running
the risk that the reader may misinterpret or be confused by what you
have to say, but you are also risking your reader's low opinion: careless,
hasty, unrevised writing is always apparent.

Revision Requires a Shift in Your Perspective

To revise effectively, you must first distance yourself from your writing so
that you can respond objectively. In other words, you need to shift your
perspective by assuming the role of the reader. To accomplish this, you
should get away from the paper for a while, usually leaving it until the
following morning. You may not be able to budget your time this ideally;
but you can put the paper aside while you visit a friend, grab a bite to
eat, or work on something else. Unless you divorce yourself from the
paper, you will probably remain under its spell: that is, you will see only
what you think is on the page instead of what is actually there. And you
will be unable to transport yourself from your role of writer to that of
reader.

Such objective distance may at first seem difficult to achieve; however,

the following questions should help you to systematize the revision stage
of your letter and report writing and enable you to keep your reader in
mind as you determine appropriate detail, language, tone, organization,
and mechanical correctness.

Detail: Deciding What to Include

1. What does my reader want or need to know to enable him or her to

understand my message?

2. Does my letter/report answer all the questions my reader has asked or

questions he or she may have in mind?

3. What is my purpose in writing this letter/report?

72
4. Does my letter/report give all the information needed to accomplish
this purpose?

5. What purpose does this communication serve for my reader?

6. Have I included ONLY the material essential to my reader's purpose

and understanding? Or am I boring or distracting my reader with
unessential and/or obvious information?

7. What do I want my reader to do when he or she finishes reading my

letter or report?

8. Have I included all the information he or she will need to enable my

reader to easily take this action or make this decision?

Language: Aiming for Conciseness and Clarity

1. Have I used ONLY the essential words to get my message across to my

reader?

WORDY CONCISE
Sale of surplus tappers is one We must sell our surplus
of our primary needs. (10) tappers. (6)
This manual of instructions We prepared this instruction
was prepared to aid our manual to help our dealers
dealers in being helpful to serve their customers. (12)
their customers. (16)
It is the responsibility of our Our Production Department
Production Department to see must meet our Sales
that it meets the Division's requirements. (9)
requirements of our Sales
Division. (19)

2. Have I used too many words to express simple, unimportant, or

obvious ideas?

73
 WORDY CONCISE
The collision had the effect of The collision destroyed the
a destructive force on the duplicator. (5)
duplicator. (12)
We have enclosed a pamphlet Page four of the enclosed
which shows further details of pamphlet shows further
construction on page four. construction details. (10)
(14)
Three days ago you asked us Too low humidity is
to investigate the problem of apparently the cause of your
discomfort among your office workers' discomfort. Since
workers. . . We have made your building is steam-
our study. Too low humidity is heated, your solution is to . . .
apparently the main cause of (21)
your problem. Your building is
steam-heated; therefore,
your solution is to. . . (41)

3. Have I poured out ideas and facts too rapidly for the reader's
comprehension?

Negative Example

Our deluxe models have chromium, rubber-insulated fixtures for

durability, economy, and easy maintenance, and convenient controls to
cut down on installation costs and necessary adjustments. They operate
on AC or DC current and incorporate the latest principles of electronic
controls which means flexibility in their use, better adjustment of the
thermal units, less chance of error, and reduced labor costs per unit of
production.

4. Have I used vague words instead of more vivid and convincing specific
words?

VAGUE SPECIFIC
contact call, write, visit
slowly about as fast as you normally
walk
soon by March 15

74
This television set is high All components in this
quality. television set meet or exceed
government specifications for
use in manned satellites

5. Have I keyed the language to my reader's understanding?

EXCESSIVE, ACCESSIBLE, DIRECT

OVERWRITTEN
The defendant is renowned as The defendant drinks, chases
a person of intemperate other women, and refuses to
habits. He is known to work.
partake heavily of intoxicating
beverages. Further, he
cultivates the company of
others of the distaff side, and
wholly, regularly, and
consistently refuses and
abstains from earnest
endeavors to gain
remuneration.
The choice of exogenous Supply determines demand.
variables in relation to multi-
collinearity is contingent upon
the derivations of certain
multiple correlation
coefficients.

Tone: Tailoring Language to Your Audience

1. Have I expressed my ideas so that the reader will feel that I am helpful,
courteous, and human?

TACTLESS TACTFUL
You neglected to take care of To enjoy the full benefits. of
the requirements of form 123. your new ABC, simply follow
the procedures outlined on
form 123.
We want our check. To keep your account in the
preferrer Ed customer class,
send our check for $142.33
today.

2. Have I tailored my message to my reader's desires, problems,

circumstances, and probable reactions to the purpose of my message?

75
 FLAT DETAIL
This cookware is guaranteed
to with stand temperature
changes.
DETAIL ADAPTED TO
READER NEED
Because Creston cookware
can withstand extreme
changes in heat and cold, you
can safely move any piece
from your freezer to your
microwave.

3. Have I emphasized "you", the reader, instead of "I" or "we"?

"WE" ATTITUDE "YOU" ATTITUDE

We are happy to have your
order. We shipped it this
morning.
We regret that you've had so
much trouble with our
product, and we apologize for
not solving your problem
sooner.
You will receive your solid
walnut desk by Tuesday,
October 23.
You were right to ask me
about the troubles you've
been having with your new
car. Thank you for this
opportunity to answer your
questions.

4. Have I expressed my ideas so they reflect good public relations for the
company (letters) or good human relations with my colleagues (reports)?

POOR ATTITUDE GOOD ATTITUDE

You must remember that I've asked Mr. Sanders, a
we've more responsibility safety consultant from Health
here at CEC than worrying Enterprises, to investigate
about some one's fingers and suggest possible
getting caught in some procedure and machine
machine. modifications.
It's hardly possible that our To prevent your gun from
trigger could have misfired misfiring again, we will gladly
without some contributing replace the trigger you have.
cause; nevertheless, to help
out hose who lack technical
know-how, a company as
responsible as Creative Guns
can gladly replace the trigger
you have.

5. Have I tactfully avoided words and phrases which imply that my reader
is dishonest, careless, or mentally deficient?

76
 TACTLESS TACTFUL
Obviously, if you'd read your I'm glad to clear up these
policy carefully, you'd be able questions for you.
to answer these questions
yourself.
In order to complete the claim To complete your
you made, simply. . . transaction, . . .

6. Have I stressed the positive and avoided emphasizing ideas my reader

may view unfavorably?

NEGATIVE
I regret to inform you that
your admission to candidate
status has been delayed until
you complete the following
requirements.
On March 3, we sent you the
accidental injury forms and
requested that you return
them to the Health Center. It
is now March 27, and we have
not yet received your reply.
POSITIVE
Before you are admitted to
candidate status, you will
need to complete the
following requirements.
To receive your check from
Student Insurance, please file
the accidental injury form we
sent you on March 3.

Organization: Fitting the Form to Message and Audience

1. Have I structured my letter or report according to what my reader's

reaction to my message is likely to be?

 Have I used the direct approach (which begins with good news or
the main idea and fills in necessary explanation later) when my
reader is likely to consider my message favorable or neutral?
 Have I used the indirect approach (which begins with a buffer
and requires necessary explanation and detail before the decision
is stated) when my reader is likely to consider my message
unfavorably or when he or she will need to be persuaded?

2. Have I included transitions which will show my reader the relationships

between my sentences and paragraphs?

77
3. Does one paragraph logically follow the preceding paragraph and lead
into the one which follows?

Correctness: Using Conventional Grammar, Spelling, and

Punctuation

Since most writers have problems with only particular types of spelling,
grammar, and/or punctuation errors, you should read through your final
drafts carefully--looking for those errors which you frequently commit.
Slowly reading through your letter or report once for EACH of these errors
will, in most cases, insure that your reader's attention will be focused on
your message, not on your mechanical errors.

Tailoring Employment Documents For a Specific

Audience
What does it mean to tailor employment documents?

Employment documents include resumes, cover letters, and any business

message that concerns employment. Your message will be directed to
your contact(s) in the organization and will vary depending on what your
intent is upon writing. Regardless of the type of message, it is very
important to make sure that you use a writing strategy that will
effectively reach your reader.

In any piece of writing it is important to keep your audience in mind. Ask

yourself, who will read my document? When you tailor a document to a
particular audience, you are adapting your writing for a reader. It is
important to consider what you want your message to convey to the
audience.

Why is it important for me to tailor my employment

documents?

It is important to tailor your employment documents for a specific

audience in order to convey your message clearly and convincingly.
Considering your audience will help you to personalize the document and

78
make it relevant to the reader. If you write without a specific audience in
mind, the document might be far too general and vague, or it might
include too much information. When you tailor a document to a specific
audience, the document will have better "unity of purpose and style," and
it will make the reader feel more involved (Hale).

Audience is important for all pieces of writing, and even more so for any
employment document because employment documents must be able to
persuade the reader that what you are saying is true in order to be
effective. You are directly communicating with the organization, and you
want the reader to understand your message and its relevance.

For what types of readers should I tailor my employment

documents?

There are two kinds of readers that an employment document should be

tailored for: Skimmers and Skeptics.

Skimmers are readers that are typically very busy. Pressed for time,
they often skim employment documents in a rather short period of time.
Consequently, the documents you prepare for this particular reader
should:

 State the main point clearly and up front

 Place the most important information at the beginning or ending
of paragraphs
 Highlight key dates or figures

Both of the following examples represent the same experiences. A

skimmer would be able to understand Example 2 much more quickly,
though.

Example 1 Example 2

Managed $10,000 in project  Managed $10,000 in project

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accounts, compiled and published
engineering reports as assistant to
Vice President, coordinated
registrations, payments, and
literature for software training
seminars.
accounts.
 Compiled and published
engineering reports as
Assistant to Vice President
 Coordinated registrations,
payments, and literature for
software training seminars.

The second type of reader is a Skeptic. A Skeptic is a reader that is

cautious and doubtful. Skeptical readers will tend to read a document
carefully, questioning its validity. Ultimately, they will question the
writer‟s claims. In order to meet the needs of the Skeptic, it is necessary
to support your statements with sufficient details and evidence. Provide
specific examples, numbers, dates, names, and percentages to meet the
needs of the skeptical reader.

For example:
NOT: I performed very well in my classes.
BUT: I received the Dean‟s List Honors 7/8 semesters and received a
Women in Communications Scholarship in May 2001.

How do I tailor an employment document to an audience?

In addition to following general guidelines for writing to both busy and

skeptical readers, it is a good idea to determine who your particular
reader is likely to be and to write specifically for that person.

Determine your specific audience.

Ask, "Who am I writing to and what is her or his position(s) in the

organization?" You can gain a surprising amount of information about
your reader simply from carefully reading job ads.

81
Example:
John Doe is an Advertising Director at a city newspaper. This may clue
you in to the fact that he is a sales-oriented individual, highly motivated,
and creative.

Jane Smith is a Pharmacist. You might assume simply from the position
she holds that she is very customer oriented and skilled in the area of
pharmaceutical sciences.

In some cases, you may not know who to write to if a name or title is not
listed in an ad. Take the time to contact the organization and ask for this
specific information. However, you may at times run across a blind ad,
which means that there is no contact information other than an address
available. When this happens, specifically mention in your cover letter
where you saw the job advertisement and tailor your document to meet
the needs of the position. You may address these documents to the
Human Resource Manager.

In any case, it is necessary to consider your reader, their background,

and what they may expect from the employees they decide to hire.

Research and analyze the reader and the organization.

What are their objectives, values, needs, time restraints? This can be
done by reading and evaluating company literature and profiles. This
research will give you some background information about the
organization and any current issues they are facing. When you find out
what is relevant to the company, you can tailor your document
accordingly.

Consider these points as guides:

 Determine what qualifications the employer is likely to look for in

a job applicant by asking yourself what qualifications you would
look for if you were the employer.

81
  Visit the company's website, if they have one, to become aware
of current events and news releases that pertain to the
company's mission, goals, and objectives.
 Read the company‟s mission statement; it will illustrate the goals
and objectives of the organization.

Fully research the company so you can adequately address your reader
and assume a more knowledgeable base for your statements. Ultimately,
if you know the company well you can make sure that you illustrate how
you can meet and surpass their expectations.

Example:
You are writing a resume to apply for a customer service position at Joe‟s
Grocery Store. On their website, the job description stated:

"Looking for a highly motivated, customer-oriented individual to work full-

time at the customer service desk."

You could then tailor your objective statement to use key words that the
company included in its own profile and utilize them in a way that
accurately reflects their qualifications.

Objective: To obtain a customer service position at Joe‟s Grocery Store,

where I may apply interpersonal and customer service skills, to create
friendly and productive interaction between the store and its customers.
In this case, the writer used key words that the company included in its
own profile and utilized them in a way that accurately reflects their
qualifications.

Recognize and utilize key words

Key words are words that stand out as especially significant within the
text. When you are reading job ads, key words are those words that
signal what an employer considers important or essential in hiring for a
position.

82
Consider the previous example again. On their website, the job
description stated:

"Looking for a highly motivated, customer oriented individual to work full-

time at the customer service desk."

The key words have been underlined. It is necessary to read for keywords,
and you should keep these in mind as you research and prepare your
business or employment documents.

Where should I address my audience?

Ideally, all writing in an employment document should be written with the

audience in mind. From how you structure your resume to how you
decide to write a job acceptance letter, you need to write for a specific
audience.

There are times in your document when you may specifically mention
your reader. This establishes greater rapport with your audience. For
example, in a resume you may mention the position you are applying for
and the organization you are applying with in the Objective Statement. In
a Cover Letter, you may mention a previous meeting or interview with the
reader in the introductory paragraph. You should always address your
Cover Letter to a specific person as well, unless you are writing in
response to a blind ad.

Example:

Objective: Seeking a position in pharmaceutical sales at FEELBETTER

Industries where I may utilize my health care expertise and interpersonal
capabilities.

Cover Letter: I appreciate that you took the time to meet with me last
week for an informational interview. It was very exciting to learn more
about FEELBETTER Industries.

83
Did I effectively reach my audience?

Evaluate your writing and consider whether or not you effectively

addressed your reader. This is part of the revision process, and ultimately
part of the writing process. It may be necessary to rewrite or reorganize
the document to make your message clear.

To proofread for skimmers: Perform a 20-second test on your document

to see if your message effectively reaches skimmers. Simply skim your
document for twenty seconds, as an employer may do, and see what
stands out most to you in that amount of time and if what stands out is
able to convey your message clearly. Even better, have someone else
skim your document before sending it, and see if your message is clear to
them as well.

To proofread for skeptics: In order to proofread for skeptical readers, you

should question each of your assertions and be sure that you provide
specific and sufficient evidence to support each assertion in your
employment document.

You should also ask yourself:

 Is my main point stated clearly in the first paragraph?

 Did I include enough details and examples to support my main
point?
 Is it clear by the end of the message what I want the reader to
do or know?
 Do I provide enough context for the message or is more
background information required?
 Have I included keywords in my document?
 Did I specifically mention my reader‟s name (or the company‟s
name)?
 Did I use language that the reader will understand?
 Does my message have a sincere and appropriate tone?

84
Tone in Business Writing

What is Tone?
"Tone in writing refers to the writer‟s attitude toward the reader and the
subject of the message. The overall tone of a written message affects the
reader just as one‟s tone of voice affects the listener in everyday
exchanges".

A business writer should consider the tone of their message, whether they
are writing a memo, letter, report, or any type of business document.
Tone is present in all communication activities. Ultimately, the tone of a
message is a reflection of the writer and it does affect how the reader will
perceive the message.

How can I make sure my messages have the

appropriate tone?
The writer should consider several things when preparing to write. The
following questions will help you to determine the appropriate tone for
your message.

 Why am I writing this document?

 Who am I writing to and what do I want them to understand?
 What kind of tone should I use?

Why am I writing this document?

You should take time to consider the purpose of your document in order
to determine how you should express the message you wish to convey.
Obviously, you want the message to reach your audience, and you will
probably want the reader to take some action in response to your
message.

When you consider the message and how you wish to express it, the tone
of your message will become apparent.

85
For example:

Suzy is writing a job acceptance letter to an employer but is unsure of the

tone she should take in the message. She has decided to accept the
position. When she asks herself, "What is my intent upon writing?" she
answers, "I want to accept the position, thank the company for the offer,
and establish goodwill with my new co-workers." As she writes the letter
she quickly assumes a tone that is appreciative for the offer and
enthusiastic about beginning a new job.

Who am I writing to and what do I want them to

understand?
Who is your audience? Whether it is an employer or a fellow worker, it is
essential that you consider your reader before writing any document. Your
message will be much more effective if you tailor the document to reach
your specific audience. The message you wish to express must be written
in a way that will effectively reach the reader.

The tone that you use to write the document directly affects how the
reader will interpret what is said.

For example:

Bob is writing a cover letter for a position as a Sales Representative for a

newspaper. He is unsure that he will be able to succeed at such a position,
and uses phrases such as: "I hope that you will contact me…" "I know
that my qualifications are not very impressive, but…"

The reader is likely to interpret these phrases to mean that Bob isn‟t
really qualified for the position or that he doesn‟t really want the position.

Clearly, Bob is not assuming an appropriate tone. He must consider that:

86
  He is applying for a position as a Sales Representative.
 He wants the employer to ask him to come in for an interview.
 The employer will look for highly motivated and confident
individuals.

If Bob were to consider these things he may rewrite his cover letter to
include such phrases as: "You can reach me at 555-2233; I look forward
to hearing from you." "My qualifications make me an excellent applicant
for this position…"

The tone of the message has changed drastically to sound more confident
and self-assured.

What kind of tone should I use?

Fortunately, you can use the same kind of tone for most business
messages. "The business writer should strive for an overall tone that is
confident, courteous, and sincere; that uses emphasis and subordination
appropriately; that contains nondiscriminatory language; that stresses the
"you" attitude; and that is written at an appropriate level of difficulty".
The only major exceptions to these guidelines are when you need to write
a negative business message, such as when you deny a job offer or a
customer request.

Here are some general guidelines to keep in mind when considering what
kind of tone to use in your letters and how to present information in that
tone:

 Be confident.
 Be courteous and sincere.
 Use appropriate emphasis and subordination.
 Use non-discriminatory language.
 Stress the benefits for the reader.
 Write at an appropriate level of difficulty.

87
Be Confident

You can feel confident if you have carefully prepared and are
knowledgeable about the material you wish to express. The manner in
which you write should assume a confident tone as well. As you prepare
business documents, you want the reader to do as you ask or to accept
your decision. In order to make the document effective, you must write
confidently.

Consequently, a confident tone will have a persuasive effect on your

audience. The reader will become more inclined to accept your position,
and will notice the confidence that you have. Employers are inclined to
hire individuals that appear confident and sure of their abilities.

This does not mean however; that you should appear overconfident. This
can easily be interpreted as arrogant or presumptuous.

For example:
Not: You must agree that I am qualified for the position.
But: My qualifications in the areas of accounting and customer service
meet your job requirements.

Be Courteous and Sincere

A writer builds goodwill for him or herself by using a tone that is polite
and sincere. It is important to strive for sincerity in tone because without
sincerity, politeness can sound condescending

Consider the words and phrases you use in your document and how your
reader will likely receive them. If you are respectful and honest, readers
will be more willing to accept your message, even if it is negative.

88
For example:
Not: You didn‟t read the instructions carefully, thus your system has shut
down.
But: The system may automatically shut down if any installation errors
occur.

Use Appropriate Emphasis and Subordination

You can help your readers to understand which of your ideas you consider
most important by using emphasis and subordination. You can choose
from a variety of strategies to emphasize an idea or to subordinate it.

To emphasize an idea, place it in a short sentence. A short and simple

sentence will most effectively convey an important idea. You can provide
further explanation, sufficient examples, or evidence in following
sentences. To subordinate an idea, place it in a compound sentence.

Emphasis Subordination

Smoking will no longer be permitted The committee on employee

in the building. The committee on
employee health and safety reached
this decision after considering
evidence from researchers and
physicians on the dangers of second-
hand smoke.
health and safety has finished
considering evidence, and they
have reached the decision that
smoking will no longer be
permitted in the building.

Ideas placed in the first paragraph of a document or message receive the

most emphasis, followed by information placed in the last paragraph. You
can subordinate an idea by placing it in middle paragraphs of your
message because these paragraphs receive the least emphasis.

Use active voice to emphasize the person or thing performing an action

and passive voice to emphasize the action that is being performed.

Active Passive

Scientists have conducted Experiments have been conducted

89
experiments to test the hypothesis. to test the hypothesis.

Note: In most nonscientific writing situations, active voice is preferable to

passive for the majority of your sentences. Even in scientific writing,
overuse of passive voice or use of passive voice in long and complicated
sentences can cause readers to lose interest or to become confused.
Sentences in active voice are generally--though not always-- clearer and
more direct than those in passive voice. You can recognize passive-voice
expressions because the verb phrase will always include a form of be,
such as am, is, was, were, are, or been. The presence of a be-verb,
however, does not necessarily mean that the sentence is in passive voice.
Another way to recognize passive-voice sentences is that they may
include a "by the..." phrase after the verb; the agent performing the
action, if named, is the object of the preposition in this phrase.

You can also emphasize and subordinate information by letting readers

know how you feel about the information.

The amount of space that you devote to an idea will help convey the
idea‟s importance to the reader. Discuss ideas that you want to
emphasize in more detail than you do ideas that you want to subordinate.

The language you use to describe your ideas can also suggest how
important that idea is. Use phrases such as "most important," "major," or
"primary" when discussing ideas you want to emphasize and phrases such
as "a minor point to consider" or "least important" to discuss ideas you
want to subordinate.

Emphasis Subordination

Our primary consideration must be A minor point to consider is

cost. appearance

91
Repeating important ideas is good way to emphasize them as well. Be
careful not to overuse this strategy; you will lose your readers‟ interest if
they believe you are needlessly repeating information.

Our primary consideration must be cost — cost to purchase, cost to

operate, and cost to maintain.

Any information that stands out from the rest of the text will be
emphasized. Bolding, underlining, CAPITALIZING, indenting, and
highlighting will convey emphasis to your reader. Do not use this strategy
frequently or the design effect will be lost.

Use Nondiscriminatory Language

Nondiscriminatory language is language that treats all people equally. It

does not use any discriminatory words, remarks, or ideas. It is very
important that the business writer communicate in a way that expresses
equality and respect for all individuals. Discriminatory language can come
between your message and your reader. Make sure your writing is free of
sexist language and free of bias based on such factors as race, ethnicity,
religion, age, sexual orientation, and disability.

Suggestion Not: But:

Use neutral job titles. Chairman Chairperson

Avoid demeaning or After the girls in the When orders are received
stereotypical terms. office receive an from the office, they are
order, our office fills filled within 24 hours.
it within 24 hours.

Avoid words and Executives and their Executives and their

phrases that wives spouses
unnecessarily imply
gender.

Omit information Connie Green Connie Green performed

about group performed the job the job well.
membership. well for her age.

If you do not know a Dear Gentlemen: To Whom it May Concern:

reader‟s gender, use a

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nonsexist salutation.

Do not use masculine Each student must Students must provide

pronouns. provide his own lab their own lab jackets. Or
jacket. Each student must
provide his or her own lab
jacket.

Stress the Benefits For the Reader

Write from the reader‟s perspective. Instead of simply writing from the
perspective of what the reader can do for you, write in a way that shows
what you can do for the reader. A reader will often read a document
wondering "What‟s in it for me?" It is your job to tailor your document
accordingly.

Not: I am processing your order tomorrow.

But: Your order will be available in two weeks.

Stressing reader benefits will help you to avoid sounding self-centered

and uninterested.

Write at an Appropriate Level of Difficulty

It is essential that you write at an appropriate level of difficulty in order to

clearly convey your message. Consider your audience and prepare your
writing so that the reader will clearly understand what it is that you are
saying. In other words, prepare your style of reading to match the
reading abilities of your audience. Do not use complex passages or terms
that the reader will not understand. Accordingly, do not use simple terms
or insufficient examples if the reader is capable of understanding your
writing. A competent writer will match the needs and abilities of their
reader and find the most effective way to communicate with a particular
reader.

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