RADIOGRAPHY

TESTING
Principle of Radiography
 Principle of Radiography

• Electromagnetic radiation of certain wavelengths

penetrate materials and are absorbed differentially
by different materials.
• The emergent radiation from the job is recorded
normally on a film
• The film after processing is called a radiograph
and contains the shadow image of the
discontinuities which produce differential degree
of darkness on the radiograph
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Characteristics of X rays and Gamma
Rays
• Capable of Penetrating most of the
industrial materials
• Travels in straight lines
• Can affect photographic films
• Can ionize gases
• Can affect living cells
• Invisible, Odorless
 Sources of Electromagnetic
Radiation
• X Rays
– X ray Generator, Linear Accelerator, Betatron
• Gamma Rays
– Natural and Artificial Radioactive elements
Natural : Radium, Polonium, Uranium, Radon
Artificial : Iridium 192, Cobalt 60, Cesium 137
Ytterbium 170, Thulium 169
 X RAY
• X rays are produced when high speed
electrons hit a material target in an
evacuated chamber ( 10 ^ -12 to 10^ -13
torr )
CONSTRUCTION OF
X RAY GENERATOR
FOCAL SPOT
 Parameters in X Radiography
• KV – Controls thickness to which can be
radiographed
• Exposure affects the density of image in
the radiographs
• Exposure – mA * Mins
X RAY UNIT - CONTROLS
 Gamma radiography

Gamma rays are

produced during
radioactive decay of
elements
– Alpha particles are
He ++
– Beta particles are (-)
– Gamma radiation is
a electromagnetic
radiation
Radioactive decay
 RADIOACTIVE
SOURCE CAMERA
 GAMMA RAY
CAMERA OPERATION
Source in stored
position in pig

Source cranked partially out

source no longer shielded

Source in exposure
position all the way
Source Pencil
Co 60
• Created by Neutron
bombardment,
• capsuled pellet
• 1.17, 1.33 MeV
• Penetration 1 - 8 “ steel
• Requires thick shielding
• Container is bulky and
handling difficult
Iridium 192
• Produced by neutron
bombardment
• 0.31, 0.47 & 0.60 MeV
• Capsuled pellet
• Easy shielded and less
bulky
• widely used
• 0.25 – 3 inches thick steel
EXPOSURE CHART
Characteristics of sources
Isotope Cobalt60 Ir 192 Cs 137c
Half life 5.3 yrs 75 days 30 yr
Form Co Ir CsCl
Energy 1.33,1.17 0.45 0.66

Practical Sources
Ci 20 50 75
Rhm 27 60 30
Dia, app, 3 mm 3 mm 10 mm
 Characteristics of Isotopes
• Curie is a measure of disintegration of source 1 Ci
= 3.7 x 10 10 disintegrations per sec
• In SI System it is 1 Becquerel = 1 disintegrations /
sec
• Half Life : length of time required for the activity
to decay to one half of the original value
• Energy is expressed as KeV or MeV
• Specific Activity : Ci/ gm of isotope
 Parameters in Gamma
radiography
• Source determines the thickness limit of
radiography
• Exposure determines the density of
radiographic image
• Exposure = Curie * min
Curie – Strength of source
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
FILM PROCESSING
ASTM Penetrameters

Hole Type Wire Type

LOCATION OF PENETRAMETERS
– AWS D1.1
 Sensitivity Level
Equivalent Quality Level T of Perceptible
Sensitivity % Penetrameter hole dia

0.7 1-1T 1 1T

1.0 1-2T 1 2T

1.4 2-1T 2 1T

2.0 2-2T 2 2T

2.8 2-4T 2 4T

4 4-2T 4 2T
 DIN Wire Penetrameter
• DIN 1-7
1- 3.2; 2-2.5; 3-2.0; 4-1.6;
5-1.25; 6-1.00; 7-0.8
• DIN 6-12
• 6-1.00; 7-0.8; 8-0.63; 9-0.5
10-0.4 11-0.32;12 –0.25
• DIN 10-16
10-0.4; 11-0.32; 12- 0.25 13-0.2
14-0.16; 15 - 0.125 16-0.1
 ASTM Wire Penetrameter
• SET A
No 1–0.08 mm, 2-0.1,3–0.13 4-0.16, 5-0.2, 6-0.25
• SET B
No 6-0.25,7-0.33, 8- 0.4, 9-0.51, 10-0.64,11-0.81
• SET C
No 11-0.81, 12-1.02, 13- 1.27, 14-1.6 15-2.03 16-2.5
• SET D
No 16-2.5 17- 3.2 18-4.06 19-5.1 20-6.4 21 – 8
 Wire Penetrameter Sensitivity
SENSITIVITY
S = ( D / T ) * 100

S – Sensitivity in %
D - Dia of smallest wire seen in mm
T – Thickness of Job in mm
Effect of angle of radiation
 RT Techniques

Single Wall Single Image Double wall Single image

Job Film Weld Source Radiation
 RT Techniques

Double Wall Double Image Panoramic Exposure

Job Film Weld Source Radiation

 Radiation Safety
• Radiation safety is ensured by
– Radiation Protection
– Radiation monitoring
 Radiation Protection
• Radiation Protection is ensured by
– Undertaking RT in an enclosure
– Maintaining safe distances
– Providing local temporary enclosure around the
source
– Retaining the source in the camera when not in
use
 Radiation Monitoring
• Ensuring that radiation intensity
is within limits
• Thermo Luminescent Dosage
(TLD) badge is used for
monitoring the dosage received
by the operator
• TLD Badges are processed every
month by BARC or its
authorised agency
 AWS D1.1
RT Evaluation
Gap between defects
w
e
l
d
s
i
z
e

* Pl refer to codes for details

 AWS D1.1
RT Evaluation

* Pl refer to codes for details

RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS

INTER-PASS SLAG INCLUSIONS

RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS

SLAG INCLUSION
RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS

SLAG INCLUSION
RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS

CLUSTER PORES
RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS

LACK OF PENETRATION
RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS

PORES
RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS

WORM HOLE
THANK YOU