IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS

IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS
types of defects arise in solids

Point defects  Vacancy

 Interstitial atoms
 Substitutional atoms
Line (linear) defects  Dislocation

Area (planar) defects  Grain Boundaries

Bulk (volume) defects  Pores, cracks,
inclusions……….
POINT DEFECTS
• Vacancies:
-vacant atomic sites in a structure.

Vacancy
distortion
of planes

• Interstitials:
-"extra" atoms positioned between atomic sites.

self-
distortion interstitial
of planes
POINT DEFECTS
• Substitutional impurity:
-one of the “host” atoms replaced by “foreign” atom.
POINT DEFECTS

Cover of the MRS

Bulletin, Nov. 1991
LINE (OR LINEAR) DEFECTS
Dislocations

• are line defects,

• 3 types: edge, screw & mixed
 EDGE DISLOCATION
Extra half plane of atoms

Symbol

• Edge dislocation line: Directed into the page

• Atoms above dislocation line are in compression, and
those below are in tension
Symbol
ELASTIC DEFORMATION

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F

Elastic means reversible!

PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)
1. Initial 2. Large load 3. Unload

Plastic means permanent!

Dislocations help this process
 DISLOCATION MOTION

 The dislocation can move through a process known as slip.

 The bonds across the slip plane between the atoms in the column to the right of the
dislocation shown are broken.

 The atoms in the column to the right of the dislocation below the slip plane are
shifted slightly so that they establish bonds with the atoms of the edge dislocation.

 the dislocation has shifted to the right

 If this process continues, the dislocation moves through the crystal until it produces a
step on the exterior of the crystal
DISLOCATION MOTION
Dislocation motion is analogous to the mode of motion employed by a
caterpillar

SO: LINE (OR LINEAR) DEFECTS- DISLOCATIONS

• cause slip between crystal plane when they move,

• produce permanent (plastic) deformation.
INTERFACIAL OR PLANAR OR AREA
DEFECTS
 Free surfaces
 Grain boundaries
 Twin boundaries
 Stacking Faults
 Domain Walls
 Solidification

Nucleation Growth Grain Boundaries

1. Nucleation (1)‫تكون أنوية التجمد‬

2. Nucleation Growth into Grains (2) ‫نمو انوية التجمد‬
3. Grain growth (3) ‫تالقى البلورات‬
4. Grain Boundaries formation (4) ‫حدود الحبيبات‬
 Solidification

Nucleation Growth Grain Boundaries

Factors Affecting Grain Size:

1. Rate of Nucleation
Adding Refining Elements Fine Grains
2. Cooling Rate
Fast Cooling Fine Grains
Slow cooling Coarse Grains
 GRAIN BOUNDARIES

Grain boundaries:
• are boundaries between
crystals.
• are produced by the
solidification process, for example.
• have a change in crystal
orientation across them.
• impede dislocation motion.

• Atoms at grain boundaries are

less regularly arranged, and so
have high energies
• Impurities and vacancies tend
to segregate to the grain
boundaries
GRAIN BOUNDARIES

Schematic

grain
boundaries

Adapted from Fig. 4.7, Callister 6e.

TYPES OF GRAIN BOUNDARIES: TILT

when the misorientation angle is small, and perpendicular to

the grain boundary plane
 Can be described by an array of edge dislocations
TYPES OF GRAIN BOUNDARIES: TWIST
 when the misorientation angle is small, and parallel to the grain boundary
plane
  Can be described by an array of screw dislocations

Misorientation angle
TWIN BOUNDARIES

• Grain boundary is a “mirror” plane

• Region of material on either side of boundary
are called “twins”
OTHER TYPES OF DEFECTS
 Stacking fault: An interruption or disruption in
the stacking sequence of planes
 Example:
 Stacking sequence of FCC is …ABCABCABCABC…
 Stacking fault: …ABCABCABABC…

 Phase boundaries
 Boundary between two different phases that differ in
chemical composition
 Domain walls
 Boundary between regions of different magnetization
in magnetic materials
Activity: Identify the crystal defects in the schematic below.
SUMMARY
• Point, Line, and Area defects arise in solids.

• The number and type of defects can be varied

and controlled (e.g., T controls vacancy conc.)

• Defects affect material properties (e.g., grain

boundaries control crystal slip).
• Defects may be desirable or undesirable
(e.g., dislocations may be good or bad, depending
on whether plastic deformation is desirable or not.)