2014 Chapter 3 Basic Mathematics Power Point

Chapter 3
Functions
07/6/2022 By: Waltengus D. WKU Department Of Mathematics

Cartesian Product
Definition
Let 𝐀 and 𝐁 are two non-empty sets then artesian product of 𝐀 and 𝐁, denoted by 𝐀 ×
𝐁, and
𝐀 × 𝐁 = {(𝐚, 𝐛): 𝐚 ∈ 𝐀 and 𝐛 ∈ 𝐁}.
Example
If 𝑨 = {𝟐 , 𝟒} and 𝑩 = −𝟏 , 𝟑 ,then find
a. 𝑨 × 𝑩 =
b. 𝑩 × 𝑨 =
07/6/2022 By: Waltengus D. WKU Department Of Mathematics 2
Equality of ordered Pairs
Definition:
Two ordered pairs (𝒂 , 𝒃) and (𝒄 , 𝒅) are equal if and only if 𝒂 = 𝒄 and 𝒃 = 𝒅.

Relation
Definition
If 𝑨 and 𝑩 are sets, any subset of 𝑨 × 𝑩 is called a relation from 𝑨 into 𝑩
Example
Let 𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓} and 𝑩 = {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄}. Then the following are relations from 𝑨 into 𝑩;
i. 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏, 𝒂
ii. 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟐, 𝒃 , 𝟑, 𝒃 , 𝟒, 𝒄 , 𝟓, 𝒂
iii. 𝑹𝟑 = {(𝟏, 𝒂), ((𝟐, 𝒃), (𝟑, 𝒄)}

Domain and Rage
Definition
Let 𝑹 be a relation from 𝑨 to 𝑩. Then,
a) 𝐃𝐨𝒎(𝑹) = {𝒂 ∈ 𝑨: (𝒂, 𝒃) ∈ 𝑹}
b) 𝐑𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆(𝑹) = {𝒃 ∈ 𝑩: (𝒂, 𝒃) ∈ 𝑹}
Note:
If 𝑹 be a relation from set 𝑨 to set 𝑩 then set 𝑩 is called the codomain of the relation 𝑹

Example
Find the domain, Range and Codomain of 𝑹 for the following relations
1. Let 𝑨 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔 and 𝑩 = 𝟔, 𝟕, 𝟖, 𝟗, 𝟏𝟎 be two sets. The set 𝑹 =
𝟒, 𝟕 , 𝟓, 𝟖 , 𝟔, 𝟏𝟎 is a relation from the set 𝑨 to B.
2. Let 𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟔} and 𝑹 be the relation on 𝑨 defined by 𝑹 = {(𝒂, 𝒃): 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈
𝑨, 𝒂 is a factor of 𝒃}.
3. Let 𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓} , 𝑩 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, ⋯ , 𝟔𝟕 and relation 𝑹 = {(𝒙, 𝒚) ∈ 𝑨 × 𝑩: 𝒙 is
cube root of 𝒚} .
Solution: Whiteboard

Remark
The range of a relation is always subset of its codomain.
If 𝑨 and 𝑩 are two non-empty finite sets consisting of 𝒎 and 𝒏 elements

respectively:
i. 𝑨 × 𝑩 contains 𝒎𝒏 ordered pair
ii. The total number of subsets of 𝑨 × 𝑩 is 𝟐𝒎𝒏
iii. Since each relation from the 𝑨 to 𝑩 is a subset of 𝑨 × 𝑩 the total number of
relations from 𝑨 to 𝑩 is 𝟐𝒎𝒏

Example
If 𝑨 = {𝟏 , 𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟕}, 𝑩 = 𝟐 , 𝟓 find the number of relations from 𝑨 to 𝑩

Remark:
1. A relation 𝑹 on a set 𝑨 is called

i. a universal relation if 𝑹 = 𝑨 × 𝑨
ii. identity relation if 𝑹 = {(𝒂, 𝒂): 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨}
iii. void or empty relation if 𝑹 = ∅
2. If 𝑹 is a relation from 𝑨 to 𝑩, then the inverse relation of 𝑹, denoted by 𝑹−𝟏 , is a
relation from 𝑩 to 𝑨 and is defined as:
𝑹−𝟏 = {(𝒚, 𝒙): (𝒙, 𝒚) ∈ 𝑹}.

Example
Let 𝑨 = {𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟕, 𝟏𝟕} and 𝑹 be the relation on 𝑨 defined as
𝑹 = { 𝒂, 𝒃 : 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑨 , 𝒂 − 𝒃 = 𝟏. 𝟑}
Now 𝑹 = ∅ ⊆ 𝑨 × 𝑨 is a void relation
Note:
D𝒐𝒎(𝑹) = 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆(𝑹−𝟏 ) and 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆(𝑹) = 𝑫𝒐𝒎(𝑹−𝟏 ).

Example
Let 𝑹 be a relation defined on ℕ by 𝑹 = {(𝒂, 𝒃): 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ ℕ, 𝒂 + 𝟐𝒃 = 𝟏𝟏} then find

a) 𝑹 b) 𝑫𝒐𝒎(𝑹) c) 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆(𝑹)
d) 𝑹−𝟏 e) 𝑫𝒐𝒎(𝑹−𝟏 ) f) 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆(𝑹−𝟏 )

Functions
Definition
A function is a relation in which each element of the domain corresponds to exactly
one element of the range
Example
Determine whether the following relations are functions.
𝑹 = {(𝟓, −𝟐), (𝟑, 𝟓), (𝟑, 𝟕)} 𝑹 = {(𝟐, 𝟒), (𝟑, 𝟒), (𝟔, −𝟒)}
Definition
A relation 𝒇 from 𝑨 into 𝑩 is called a function from 𝑨 into 𝑩, denoted by 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩

if and only if
i. 𝑫𝒐𝒎 𝒇 = 𝑨
ii. No element of A is mapped by 𝒇 to more than one element in B, i.e. if (𝒙, 𝒚) ∈
𝒇 and (𝒙, 𝒛) ∈ 𝒇, then 𝒚 = 𝒛.

Domain, Codomain and range of a function
For the function 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩

i. The set 𝑨 is called the domain of 𝒇
ii. The set 𝑩 is called the codomain of 𝒇
iii. The set {𝒇(𝒙): 𝒙 ∈ 𝑨} of all image of elements of 𝑨 is called the range of 𝒇

Example
Determine whether 𝒇 is a function or not and find domain, range and codomain of 𝒇
1. Let 𝑨 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 , 𝑩 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, ⋯ , 𝟏𝟎 be the sets and 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩 and defined as;
𝒇= 𝒂, 𝒃 : 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩, 𝒃 = 𝒂𝟐
2. Let 𝑨 = {𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟕, 𝟗}, 𝑩 = ℕ and 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩 defined by;
𝒇 = { 𝐱, 𝒚 : 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟏𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏𝟕 𝐱 ∈ 𝑨, 𝒚 ∈ 𝑩}
𝒑
3. Let 𝒇 be the subset of 𝑸 × 𝒁 defined by 𝒇 = ,𝒑 : 𝒑, 𝒒 ∈ 𝒁, 𝒒 ≠ 𝟎 .
𝒒

Con…
4. Let 𝒇 be the subset of 𝒁 × 𝒁 defined by 𝒇 = {(𝒎𝒏, 𝒎 + 𝒏): 𝒎, 𝒏 ∈ 𝒁}.
5. Determine whether the following equations determine 𝒚 as a function of 𝒙, if so,
find the domain.
𝟐𝒙
𝒚 = −𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓 b) 𝒚 = c) 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙
𝟑𝒙−𝟓
𝟏𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 > 𝟏
6. The Function 𝒇: ℝ → ℝ defined 𝒇 𝒙 = ൜ then find
𝒙−𝟒 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≤ 𝟏
𝒇 𝟎 , 𝒇 𝟏 , 𝒇 −𝟏/𝟐 , 𝒇 𝟑 and 𝒇 𝟓

Real Valued functions and their properties
Let 𝒇 be a function from set 𝑨 to set 𝑩.
If 𝑩 ⊆ ℝ then 𝒇 is called a real valued function.
If 𝑨 ⊆ ℝ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑩 ⊆ ℝ then 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩 is called a real function.
Example
The function 𝒇: 𝕽 → 𝕽 defined by 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟕, 𝒙 ∈ 𝕽 is a real function.

Operations on functions
Definition:
If 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝒈(𝒙) be two functions then;
1. (𝒇 + 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙) The sum of the two functions
2. (𝒇 − 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙) The difference of the two functions
3. (𝒇 ⋅ 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙) The product of the two functions
𝐟 𝒇(𝒙)
4. 𝐠
(𝒙) =
𝒈(𝒙)
The quotient of the two functions (provided
𝒈(𝒙) ≠ 𝟎)

Remark:
𝑫𝒐𝒎 𝒇 + 𝒈 = 𝑫𝒐𝒎 𝒇 − 𝒈 = 𝑫𝒐𝒎 𝒇 × 𝒈 = 𝑫𝒐𝒎(𝒇) ∩ 𝑫𝒐𝒎(𝒈).
𝒇
𝑫𝒐𝒎 = {𝑫𝒐𝒎(𝒇) ∩ 𝑫𝒐𝒎(𝒈)}\{𝒙: 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎}
𝒈

Example
𝒇
1. Find a) (𝒇 + 𝒈)(𝒙) b) (𝒇 − 𝒈)(𝒙) c) (𝒇. 𝒈)(𝒙)d) (𝒙) and find each of its domain if
𝒈
i. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐 and 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟒
ii. 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙 + 𝟒 and 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒
𝟒
iii. 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙 + 𝟏 and 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝟗 − 𝒙𝟐
iv. 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙 and 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙 .
𝟏 𝟏
2. If 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙 + , show that (𝒇(𝒙))𝟑 = 𝒇 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟑𝒇
𝒙 𝒙

Composition of functions
Definition:
Given two functions 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝒈(𝒙), the composition of the two functions is denoted
by 𝒇 ∘ 𝒈 and is defined by:
(𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇[𝒈(𝒙)].
𝑫𝒐𝒎 𝒇 ∘ 𝒈 is in the domain of 𝒈 whose range values are in the domain of 𝒇

Example
1. Let 𝒇 = { 𝟐 , 𝒛 , ( 𝟑 , 𝒒)} and 𝒈 = { 𝒂 , 𝟐 , (𝒃 , 𝟑), (𝒄 , 𝟓)} then find (𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) and its
domain.
2. Given 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟓𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐 and 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑, find
a) (𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(−𝟐) b) (𝒈 ∘ 𝒇)(𝟐) c) (𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) d) 𝒈∘𝒇 𝒙
𝒙 𝟐
3. Given 𝒇(𝒙) = and 𝒈(𝒙) = , find
𝒙+𝟏 𝒙−𝟏
a) (𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) and its domain b) (𝒈 ∘ 𝒇)(𝒙) and its domain

𝟔𝒙
4. Let 𝒇(𝒙) = and 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙. Find (𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝟏𝟐) and (𝒈 ∘ 𝒇)(𝒙) and its domain.
𝒙𝟐 −𝟗
Equality of functions
Definition
Two functions are said to be equal if and only if the following two conditions hold:
I. The functions have the same domain;
II. Their functional values are equal at each element of the domain.

Example
1. Let 𝒇: 𝒁 → 𝒁+ ∪ {𝟎} be defined by 𝒇 = {(𝒏, 𝒏𝟐 ): 𝒏 ∈ 𝒁} and

𝒈: 𝒁 → 𝒁+ ∪ {𝟎} be defined by 𝒈 = {(𝒏, 𝒏 𝟐 ): 𝒏 ∈ 𝒁}.
Now, for all 𝒏 ∈ 𝒁, 𝒇(𝒏) = 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏 𝟐 = 𝒈(𝒏).
Thus, 𝒇 = 𝒈.
𝒙𝟐 −𝟐𝟓
2. Let 𝒇(𝒙) = , 𝒙 ∈ 𝕽\{𝟓}, and 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙 + 𝟓, 𝒙 ∈ 𝕽.
𝒙−𝟓
The function 𝒇 and 𝒈 are not equal because 𝑫𝒐𝒎(𝒇) ≠ 𝑫𝒐𝒎(𝒈).

Types of functions and inverse of a function
I. One to One function

Definition:
A function 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩 is called one to one function if and only if for all 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒙𝟐 ∈ 𝑨,
𝒇(𝒙𝟏 ) = 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 ) implies 𝒙𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐 .

Example
Let 𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, ⋯ , 𝟔} and 𝑩 = {𝟕, 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅, 𝟖, 𝒆} and if

𝒇 = 𝟏, 𝟕 , 𝟐, 𝒂 , 𝟑, 𝒃 , (𝟒, 𝒃), (𝟓, 𝒄), (𝟔, 𝟖)} and
𝒈 = 𝟏, 𝟕 , 𝟐, 𝒂 , 𝟑, 𝒃 , 𝟒, 𝒄 , 𝟓, 𝟖 , (𝟔, 𝒅)} , are functions from 𝑨 into 𝑩.
𝒇 is not a 1 – 1 function because 𝒇(𝟑) = 𝒇(𝟒) but 𝟑 ≠ 𝟒.
𝒈 is a 1 – 1 function.

II. Onto functions
Definition:
A function 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩 is called an onto function if 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆(𝒇) = 𝑩.

Example
Determine whether the following functions are onto or not
a. Let 𝑨 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 and 𝑩 = {𝟏, 𝟒, 𝟓}.
The function 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩 defined as 𝒇(𝟏) = 𝟏, 𝒇(𝟐) = 𝟓, 𝒇(𝟑) = 𝟏
b. Let 𝑨 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 and 𝑩 = {𝟏, 𝟒, 𝟓}.
The function 𝒈: 𝑨 → 𝑩 given by 𝒈 = {(𝟏 , 𝟒), (𝟐, 𝟓), (𝟑, 𝟏)}
c. 𝒇: 𝒁 → 𝒁 defined 𝒇 𝒏 = 𝒏𝟐 for all 𝒏 ∈ 𝒁
d. 𝒇: 𝒁 → 𝒁 defined 𝒇 𝒏 = 𝟐𝒏 for all 𝒏 ∈ 𝒁

Note:
❑ If 𝑨 is a non-empty set, the function 𝒊𝑨 : 𝑨 → 𝑨 defined by 𝒊𝑨 (𝒙) = 𝒙 for all 𝒙 ∈ 𝑨

is a 1 – 1 function from 𝑨 onto 𝑨.
❑ 𝒊𝑨 is called the identity map on 𝑨.

III. 𝟏 – 𝟏 Correspondence
Definition:
A function 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩 is said to be a 1 – 1 correspondence if 𝒇 is both 1 – 1 and onto.
Example
Determine whether the following functions are 1 – 1 correspondence or not
1. Let 𝑨 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓} and 𝑩 = {𝟎, 𝟓, 𝟏𝟎, 𝟏𝟓, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟓}.
Suppose 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩 given by 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟓𝒙 for all 𝒙 ∈ 𝑨.
2. Let 𝑨 be a finite set. If 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑨 is onto, then it is one to one.
IV. Inverse of a function
Definition:
If a function 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩 is one to one and onto then 𝒇 has an inverse and is denoted by
𝒇−𝟏 and is defined by 𝒇−𝟏 = {(𝒚, 𝒙): (𝒙, 𝒚) ∈ 𝒇} OR 𝒇−𝟏 𝒚 = 𝒙 𝒊𝒇𝒇 𝒇 𝒂 = 𝒃
Example:
Determine whether the function 𝒇 has an inverse if it has, find 𝒇−𝟏
Let 𝑨 = {𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓} and 𝑩 = {𝟏, 𝟕, 𝟖, 𝟏𝟏}. and 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩 be the function defined as
𝒇 𝟐 = 𝟕 , 𝒇 𝟑 = 𝟏, 𝒇 𝟒 = 𝟖, 𝒇 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟏
Guidelines for finding the Inverse Function of a One-to-One Function f
Step 1: Write 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)

Step 2: Solve this equation for 𝒙 in terms of 𝒚 (if possible).
Step 3: To express 𝒇−𝟏 as a function of 𝒙, interchange 𝒙 and 𝒚.
The resulting equation is 𝒚 = 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙).

Example
Find the inverse of the following function.

a. 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑
b. 𝒇 (𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑 for 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎
c. 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟑
𝒙
d. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙+𝟐

Polynomial functions
Definition:
A polynomial function is a function of the form
𝒚 = 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟎 , 𝒂𝒏 ≠ 𝟎.
• Each 𝒂𝒊 is assumed to be a real number,
• 𝒏 is a non-negative integer,
• 𝒂𝒏 is called the leading coefficient.
• 𝒂𝟎 is called the constant term.
Such a polynomial is said to be of degree 𝒏.

Remark:
The domain of a polynomial function is always the set of real numbers.
Examples of polynomial functions:

𝑞 𝑥 = 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 − 𝜋
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3
𝑝(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 1

Properties of polynomial functions
The graph of a polynomial is a smooth unbroken curve.
If 𝒑 is a polynomial of degree 𝒏, then it has at most 𝒏 zeros.
The graph of a polynomial function of degree 𝒏 can have at most 𝒏 − 𝟏 turning

points.

Division Algorithm
Let 𝑝(𝑥) and 𝑑(𝑥) be polynomials with 𝑑(𝑥) ≠ 0, and with the deg (𝑑 𝑥 ) ≤
deg (𝑃 𝑥 ) then there are polynomials 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑅(𝑥) such that
𝑝(𝑥)
ถ = 𝑑(𝑥)
ถ . 𝑞(𝑥)
ถ + 𝑅(𝑥)
ถ ,
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
where deg 𝑅 𝑥 < deg (𝑑 𝑥 )

Example
𝒙𝟒 −𝟏
Divide 𝟒 .
𝒙 +𝟐𝒙

The Remainder Theorem
When a polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) of degree at least 1 is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑟, then the remainder is

𝑝(𝑟).
Example
Find the remainder when 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 is divided by 𝑥 − 2

The Factor Theorem
𝑥 − 𝑟 is a factor of 𝑝(𝑥) if and only if 𝑝(𝑟) = 0.
Location theorem
Let 𝑓 be a polynomial function and 𝑎 and 𝑏 be real numbers such that 𝑎 < 𝑏. If
𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑏) < 0, then there is at least one zero of 𝑓 between 𝑎 and 𝑏.

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
If 𝑝(𝑥) is a polynomial of degree 𝑛 > 0 whose coefficients are complex numbers, then
𝑝(𝑥) has at least one zero in the complex number system.
The linear Factorization Theorem

If 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 , where 𝑛 ≥ 1 and 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, then
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑟1 )(𝑥 − 𝑟2 ) ⋯ (𝑥 − 𝑟𝑛 ), where the 𝑟𝑖 are complex numbers (possible

real and not necessarily distinct).

Example
Express each of the polynomials in the form described by the Linear Factorization
Theorem. List each zero and its multiplicity.
a) 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 16𝑥
b) 𝑞 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 8
c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 2

Conjugate Roots Theorem
Let 𝑝(𝑥) be a polynomial with real coefficients. If complex number 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is a zero of

𝑝(𝑥), then its conjugate 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖 also zero of 𝑝(𝑥).
Example
Let 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 26𝑥 − 20. Given that 1 − 3𝑖 is a zero, find the other
zero of 𝑟(𝑥).

The Rational Root Theorem
Suppose that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 , where 𝑛 ≥ 1, 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 is an
𝑛𝑡ℎ degree polynomial with integer coefficients.
𝑝
▪ If is a rational root of 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, where 𝑝 and 𝑞 have no common factor other
𝑞
than ±1, then 𝑝 is a factor of 𝑎0 and 𝑞 is a factor of 𝑎𝑛 .

3
▪ To get a feeling as to why this theorem is true, suppose is a root of 𝑎3 𝑥 3 +
2
𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 = 0.
3 3 3 2 3
Then 𝑎3 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎1 + 𝑎0 = 0 which implies that
2 2 2

Cont…
27𝑎3 9𝑎2 3𝑎1

+ + + 𝑎0 = 0 multiplying both sides by 8
8 4 2
27𝑎3 + 18𝑎2 + 12𝑎1 = −8𝑎0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)

27𝑎3 = −18𝑎2 − 12𝑎1 − 8𝑎0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
If we look at equation (1), the left-hand side is divisible by 3, and therefore the right-
hand side must also be divisible by 3.
Since 8 is not divisible by 3, 𝑎0 must be divisible by 3.
From equation (2), 𝑎3 must be divisible by 2.

Example
Find all the zeros of the function 𝑝(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 23𝑥 − 12.

Rational Functions and their Graphs
𝑛(𝑥)
A rational function is a function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = where 𝒏(𝒙) and 𝒅(𝒙) are
𝑑(𝑥)
polynomials and 𝑑(𝑥) ≠ 0.
Examples of rational function.

𝟑 𝒙−𝟏 𝒙𝟓 +𝟐𝒙𝟑 −𝒙+𝟏
𝒇(𝒙) = , 𝒇(𝒙) = and 𝒇(𝒙) =
𝒙+𝟓 𝒙𝟐 −𝟒 𝒙𝟐 +𝟓𝒙
Note:
𝑛(𝑥)
𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = is {𝑥: 𝑑(𝑥) ≠ 0}
𝑑(𝑥)

Example
Find the domain and zeros of the function

3𝑥−5
𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥 2 −𝑥−12

𝒏(𝒙)
Steps used to sketch the graph of a rational function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒅(𝒙)
.
1. Identify the domain and simplify it.

2. Find the intercepts of the graph whenever possible.
▪ 𝑦–intercept 𝑖. 𝑒 (0, 𝑓(0) ) is the 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 if 0 ∈ 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓).
▪ 𝑥–intercept 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 (𝑎, 0) is 𝑥 −intercept if 𝑓(𝑎) = 0.
3. Determine the asymptotes of the graph.
Vertical Asymptote: if 𝑑 𝑎 = 0 and 𝑛(𝑎) ≠ 0, then 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a vertical asymptote of 𝑓(𝑥)

if 𝑑(𝑎) = 0 = 𝑛(𝑎), then 𝑥 = 𝑎 may or may not be a 𝑉𝐴 of 𝑓 .
Horizontal Asymptote: If f(x)→b as 𝑥→ or as 𝑥→ – the 𝑦 = 𝑏 is called horizontal

asymptote of 𝑓(𝑥).
i. If 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑛 𝑥 < 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒(𝑑(𝑥)), then 𝑦 = 0 is the 𝐻𝐴 of 𝑓.
Cont…
ii. If 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒(𝑛(𝑥)) = 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒(𝑑(𝑥)) = 𝑛, i.e.,
𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 +⋯+𝑎1 𝑥+𝑎0 𝑎𝑛

𝑓(𝑥) = , then 𝑦 = is the HA of 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 +𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 +⋯+𝑏1 𝑥+𝑏0 𝑏𝑛
Oblique Asymptote: If 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒(𝑛(𝑥)) = 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒(𝑑(𝑥)) + 1 then 𝑓(𝑥 ) has an

oblique asymptote and 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, 𝑎 ≠ 0, is called an oblique asymptote if
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 as either 𝑥→ 𝑜𝑟 𝑥→ – .

Example
Sketch the graphs of the following rational functions
𝑥+2 𝑥 2 +3𝑥+2
a) 𝑓 𝑥 = b) 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−1 𝑥 2 −1

Exponents and radicals:
Reading Assignment

Exponential Functions
Definition:
A function of the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 , where 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 1, is called an exponential
function.
Example:
1 𝑥
The functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 , 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 and ℎ(𝑥) = are examples of exponential
2
functions

Graphs of exponential Functions
The Exponential function 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒃𝒙
1. The domain of the exponential function is the set of real numbers
2. The range of the exponential function is the set of positive real numbers
3. The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 exhibits exponential growth if 𝑏 > 1 or exponential decay if
0 < 𝑏 < 1.
4. The 𝑦 − intercept is 1.
5. The 𝑥 −intercept is a horizontal asymptote
6. The exponential function is 1 – 1.
Algebraically if 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 , then 𝑥 = 𝑦

Example
Find the domain, range, intercepts, and asymptotes and Sketch the graph of each of
the following.
a. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 1
b. 𝑦 = 3𝑥+1
c. 𝑦 = −9−𝑥 + 3

Logarithmic Functions
Definition
For 𝑏 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ≠ 1, 𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦

Note:
An expression is written in the form 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 is said to be in exponential

form.
An expression is written in the form 𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 is said to be in

logarithmic form.
The logarithmic function 𝑦 = log 𝑒 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 is called natural logarithm
The logarithmic function 𝑦 = log10 𝑥 = log 𝑥 is called common

logarithm
Example
1
1. Write 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 = −2 in exponential form.
9
2
2. Write 27 in logarithmic form.
3
1
3. Evaluate 𝑙𝑜𝑔8 64

Basic Properties of logarithm function
a) log 𝑎 1 = 0 b) log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1
𝑎𝑥
c) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 =𝑥 d) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑛
𝑚
e) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑛
𝑛 f) 𝑎log𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑚𝑛 𝑚 𝑏 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚 𝑏
g) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 = 𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 h) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 = = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚 𝑏 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚 𝑎
1
i) log (𝑎𝑚 ) 𝑏 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏
𝑚

Example
5 2
𝑥3 𝑦
1. Express 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑧3 in terms of 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦 , 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑧

3
4
2. Find the values of 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 42 8
3. Solve the equation log(𝑥 + 4) − log 7 = 3 log 2 − log(𝑥 + 5).

1
4. Find 𝑥 if 𝑙𝑜𝑔 11 + 4 7 = log(2 + 𝑥)
2

Graphs of logarithmic function
Important information about the graph of the 𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 function:
1. Its domain is the set of positive real numbers

2. Its range is the set of real numbers.
3. Its graph exhibits logarithmic growth if 𝑏 > 1 and logarithmic decay
if 0 < 𝑏 < 1.
4. The 𝑥 − intercept is 1. There is no 𝑦 −intercept.
5. The 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is a vertical asymptote.
Example
1. Sketch the graph of the following functions. Find the domain, range asymptote and
intercepts of each.
a) 𝒚 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 𝒙 b. 𝒚 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏 𝒙 c. 𝒚 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 (𝒙−𝟐)

𝟐
2. Find the inverse function for

a) 𝒚 = 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒 b) 𝒚 = 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 (𝒙−𝟐)

Exercise
1. Express in terms of simpler logarithms.

𝑥𝑦
𝑥3𝑦 𝑥 3 +𝑦
a) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 b) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 c) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑧3
1
2. Show that 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 2
2
3. Evaluate log 1000

4. Find the inverse function of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 1

Trigonometric functions and their graphs
Definition
Let 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦) be any point distinct from the origin, on the terminal side 𝑂𝐴 of the angle. Let
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑟 and let 𝜃 be the angle as shown in the figure below then we have the following
definition
𝑦
i. sin 𝜃 =
𝑟
𝑥
ii. cos 𝜃 =
𝑟
𝑦 (𝟐𝐧+𝟏)𝜋
iii. tan 𝜃 = provided 𝜃 ≠
𝑥 2
𝑥
iv. cot 𝜃 = provided 𝜃 ≠ 𝐧𝜋
𝑦
1 𝑟 (𝟐𝐧+𝟏)𝜋
v. sec 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃
= provided 𝜃 ≠
𝑥 2
1 𝑟
vi. csc 𝜃 =
sin 𝜃
= provided 𝜃 ≠ 𝐧𝜋
𝑦
The graph of 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
Domain of sin 𝜃 is the set of real numbers
Range of sin 𝜃 is −1 , 1
𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 of sin 𝜃 is 𝑛𝜋 where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 of sin 𝜃 is 0
𝜋
As 𝜃 increases from 0 to , sin 𝜃 increases from 0 to 1.
2
𝜋
As 𝜃 increases from to 𝜋 , sin 𝜃 decreases from 1 to 0.
2
3𝜋
As 𝜃 increases from 𝜋 𝑡𝑜 , sin 𝜃 decreases from 0 to -1.
2
3𝜋
As 𝜃 increases from to 2𝜋 , sin 𝜃 decreases from -1 to 0.
2

The graph of 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
The graph of 𝑦 = sin 𝜃 which is called the basic sine curve.

The graph of 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
Domain of cos 𝜃 is the set of real numbers
Range of cos 𝜃 is −1 , 1
(2𝑛+1)𝜋
𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 of cos 𝜃 is 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
2
𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 of cos 𝜃 is 0
𝜋
As 𝜃 increases from 0 to , cos 𝜃 decreases from 1 to 0.
2
𝜋
As 𝜃 increases from to 𝜋 , cos 𝜃 decreases from 0 to -1.
2
3𝜋
As 𝜃 increases from 𝜋 𝑡𝑜 , cos 𝜃 increases from -1 to 0
2
3𝜋
As 𝜃 increases from to 2𝜋 , cos 𝜃 increases from 0 to 1.
2

The graph of 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

About 𝒚 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽
(2𝑛+1)𝜋
Domain of tan 𝜃 is the set of real numbers except where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
2
Range of tan 𝜃 is −∞ , ∞
𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 of tan 𝜃 is 𝑛𝜋 where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 of tan 𝜃 is 0
2𝑛+1 𝜋
Vertical asymptote of tan 𝜃 is ,𝑛 ∈ ℤ
2

Exercise
Sketch the graph of the following trigonometric function
a) 𝑦 = tan 𝜃
b) 𝑦 = sec 𝜃
c) 𝑦 = csc 𝜃

Periodic Function
Definition
A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is called periodic if there exists a number 𝑝 such that
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑝) = 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓.
The smallest such number 𝑝 is called the period of the function

Note
The period of 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 functions is 2𝜋 because sin 𝜃 + 2𝜋 = sin(𝜃).
The period of the tangent function is 𝜋 because tan 𝜃 + 𝜋 = tan(𝜃).

Amplitude and Frequency of a periodic function
Definition
The amplitude of a periodic function 𝑓(𝑥) is
1
𝐴 = [max 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 − min 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
2
The number of complete cycles a sine or cosine graph makes on an interval of
length equal to 2𝜋 is called its frequency.

Note
The amplitude of the basic sine and cosine function is 1.
The frequency of the basic sine curve 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 and the basic cosine curve 𝑦 =
cos 𝑥 is 1 because each graph makes 1 complete cycle in the interval [0, 2𝜋].
𝜋 2𝜋
If a sine function has a period of its frequency is 𝜋 = 4 and its graph will make
2
2
4 complete cycles in an interval of length 2𝜋

Y
X
𝜋 5𝜋 2𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋
4 4 2
4 2
𝜋
A sine graph of period and frequency 4
2
𝝅
Thus, if a sine function has a period of its frequency is 𝟒 and its graph will
𝟐
make 𝟒 complete cycles in an interval of length 𝟐𝝅.
Example
Sketch the graph of the following and find its amplitude, period and frequency.
𝝅
a) 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙 b) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 +
𝟐

Trigonometric identities
1. 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝐱 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝐱 = 𝟏
2. 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝐱 + 𝟏 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝐱
3. 𝟏 + `𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝐱 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝐱

Hyperbolic functions and their graphs
Definition:
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
The hyperbolic sine function is defined by sinh 𝑥 = and its domain is ℝ
2
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
The hyperbolic cosine function is defined by cosh 𝑥 = and its domain is ℝ
2
The hyperbolic tangent function is defined by tanh 𝑥 = and its domain is ℝ
The hyperbolic cotangent function is defined by coth 𝑥 = and its domain is ℝ\{0}
1 2
The hyperbolic secant function is defined by sech 𝑥 = = and its domain is ℝ
cosh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
1 2
The hyperbolic cosecant function is defined by csch 𝑥 = = and its domain is ℝ\{0}
sinh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥

Remark:
cosh 𝑥 is an even function and sinh 𝑥 is an odd function.
In contrast to sine and cosine, the hyperbolic functions are not periodic.

Example
Using definitions of hyperbolic functions and show that

1. 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡𝟐 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 = 1
2. 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝐱 + 𝐲 = cosh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + sinh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
3. 𝐬inh 𝑥 + 𝑦 = sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
4. 𝟏 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥
5. 𝐜𝐨𝐭𝐡𝟐 𝑥 − 1 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑥

Example
Sketch the graph of the following hyperbolic functions

a) 𝑦 = cosh 𝑥 b) 𝑦 = sinh 𝑥
c) 𝑦 = tanh 𝑥 d) 𝑦 = sech 𝑥
e) 𝑦 = csch 𝑥 f) 𝑦 = coth 𝑥


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Chapter 3

07/6/2022 By: Waltengus D. WKU Department Of Mathematics

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The range of a relation is always subset of its codomain.

If 𝑨 and 𝑩 are two non-empty finite sets consisting of 𝒎 and 𝒏 elements

07/6/2022 By: Waltengus D. WKU Department Of Mathematics 7

If 𝑨 = {𝟏 , 𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟕}, 𝑩 = 𝟐 , 𝟓 find the number of relations from 𝑨 to 𝑩

07/6/2022 By: Waltengus D. WKU Department Of Mathematics 8

1. A relation 𝑹 on a set 𝑨 is called

07/6/2022 By: Waltengus D. WKU Department Of Mathematics 9

07/6/2022 By: Waltengus D. WKU Department Of Mathematics 10

Let 𝑹 be a relation defined on ℕ by 𝑹 = {(𝒂, 𝒃): 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ ℕ, 𝒂 + 𝟐𝒃 = 𝟏𝟏} then find

07/6/2022 By: Waltengus D. WKU Department Of Mathematics 11

A relation 𝒇 from 𝑨 into 𝑩 is called a function from 𝑨 into 𝑩, denoted by 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩

07/6/2022 By: Waltengus D. WKU Department Of Mathematics 13

For the function 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩

07/6/2022 By: Waltengus D. WKU Department Of Mathematics 14

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Let 𝒇 be a function from set 𝑨 to set 𝑩.

If 𝑩 ⊆ ℝ then 𝒇 is called a real valued function.

If 𝑨 ⊆ ℝ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑩 ⊆ ℝ then 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩 is called a real function.

07/6/2022 By: Waltengus D. WKU Department Of Mathematics 18

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𝑫𝒐𝒎 𝒇 + 𝒈 = 𝑫𝒐𝒎 𝒇 − 𝒈 = 𝑫𝒐𝒎 𝒇 × 𝒈 = 𝑫𝒐𝒎(𝒇) ∩ 𝑫𝒐𝒎(𝒈).

07/6/2022 By: Waltengus D. WKU Department Of Mathematics 20

i. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐 and 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟒

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a) (𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) and its domain b) (𝒈 ∘ 𝒇)(𝒙) and its domain

07/6/2022 By: Waltengus D. WKU Department Of Mathematics 24

1. Let 𝒇: 𝒁 → 𝒁+ ∪ {𝟎} be defined by 𝒇 = {(𝒏, 𝒏𝟐 ): 𝒏 ∈ 𝒁} and

The function 𝒇 and 𝒈 are not equal because 𝑫𝒐𝒎(𝒇) ≠ 𝑫𝒐𝒎(𝒈).

07/6/2022 By: Waltengus D. WKU Department Of Mathematics 25

I. One to One function

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Let 𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, ⋯ , 𝟔} and 𝑩 = {𝟕, 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅, 𝟖, 𝒆} and if

𝒇 is not a 1 – 1 function because 𝒇(𝟑) = 𝒇(𝟒) but 𝟑 ≠ 𝟒.

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❑ If 𝑨 is a non-empty set, the function 𝒊𝑨 : 𝑨 → 𝑨 defined by 𝒊𝑨 (𝒙) = 𝒙 for all 𝒙 ∈ 𝑨

07/6/2022 By: Waltengus D. WKU Department Of Mathematics 31

Step 1: Write 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)

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Find the inverse of the following function.

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• 𝒂𝒏 is called the leading coefficient.

• 𝒂𝟎 is called the constant term.

Such a polynomial is said to be of degree 𝒏.

The domain of a polynomial function is always the set of real numbers.

Examples of polynomial functions:

07/6/2022 By: Waltengus D. WKU Department Of Mathematics 38

The graph of a polynomial is a smooth unbroken curve.

If 𝒑 is a polynomial of degree 𝒏, then it has at most 𝒏 zeros.

The graph of a polynomial function of degree 𝒏 can have at most 𝒏 − 𝟏 turning

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where deg 𝑅 𝑥 < deg (𝑑 𝑥 )

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