Boxing Full

BOXING DICTIONARY
The sport of boxing has its own, unique language.
It's full of terminology that is so strong that much of it has become a part of every day
lingo.
Browse through our glossary of terms to see how many words and phrases you know and
use.
Accidental Butt:
It is ruled an accidental butt when two fighter’s heads collide and the referee determines
that neither fighter intentionally head-butted the other.
Typically both fighters are warned to be careful, but no fighter is penalized.
Alphabet Groups:
This is a negative term used to describe the numerous sanctioning bodies of boxing; the
WBC, WBA, WBO, etc.
Amateur Boxing:
Competitive boxing matches where neither participant is paid and most fighters are
beginning to learn their craft.
Apron: 
The section of a boxing ring canvas, on the floor, that extends outside of the ring ropes.
Backpedal: 
To retreat or move backwards, away from an opponent, while still facing him, all in an
attempt to avoid an attack.
Be First:
When your coach tells you to "be first", he or she is wanting you to throw your punches
before your opponent.
In other terms, he/she wants you to be aggressive.
Bell:
 A type of gong used to signal the start and end of each round.
Below the Belt:
A punch that strays low, below the waistband of a boxer’s trunks.
Bleeder: A boxer who gets cut easily.
Blow-by-Blow:
A detailed description used by broadcasters to describe the action as it unfolds in the ring.
Bob and Weave:
Side to side and rolling movements that are used as defence to avoid punches.
Heavyweight Joe Frazier is a classic example of someone who used the “bob and weave”
defence to perfection.
Body Work:
An offensive method of attack that is targeted towards an opponent’s midsection with the
intent of wearing him down or knocking the wind out of him/her.
Bolo Punch:
Typically used to distract an opponent, it is a punch that is thrown in a circular motion

and is a hook combined with an uppercut.
“Bolo” means machete in the Filipino language.
Macario Flores was the first fighter to have reportedly use the punch, but it became more
popular and is more commonly associated with Kid Gavilan and Sugar Ray Leonard.
Bout:
A word used to describe a boxing match.
Brawler:
This is a type of fighter who likes to exchange punches and relies on being aggressive
and fighting on the inside.
Break:
This is a command used by a boxing referee to stop the action and separate the fighters.
Canvas:
Although these days the ring flooring can also be vinyl, boxing rings were traditionally
made from canvas and were called that.
This is now a general term used to reference the floor of the boxing ring.
Card:
This is the line-up of bouts or fights that are scheduled at any given boxing event.
Catch-Weight:
A term used to describe a bout where neither fighter adheres to a traditional weight
division, but instead have agreed to a predetermined weight at which they will compete.
Caught Cold:
This is a term used to describe a boxer who gets hurt in the opening rounds or stopped
early in the fight because he or she was not mentally or physically prepared or warmed-
up.
Challenger:
A boxer who is scheduled to face a champion or the favoured fighter.
Champion:
The fighter who holds the title.
Check Hook:
A counterpunch designed to “catch” an aggressive fighter as he is moving forward on the
attack.
This punch is thrown like a traditional hook, but involves simultaneously stepping back
and timing the opponent as he comes forward. 
Chief Second:
This is the coach or trainer who is in charge of the corner.
Clinch:
A term used to describe when two fighters grab onto or hold each other to prevent an
exchange or to slow the action.
One fighter may also use this tactic when he is hurt, to prevent absorbing additional
punishment.
Combination:
This is any series of punches thrown in succession, one right after the other, with no
break in between.
Contender:
This is a qualified opponent who has worked his way up the ranks in order to challenge
for the world title.
Corkscrew Punch:
This is a punch thrown in an overhand, arching motion that twists on impact and is
intended to cause a cut.
Cornerman:
A coach, cutman or person responsible for tending to a fighter between rounds.
Shop All Corner Supplies
Counterpunch:
This is any punch that is thrown in return or comes back as a response to an offensive
move.
Cover-Up:
This is a defensive move employed by a fighter to avoid getting hit.
He or she simply hides beneath and behind their gloves to avoid direct contact from an
offensive attack.
Cross:
A power punch thrown with the rear hand and travels across the fighter’s body.
Cruiserweight:
Professional boxing competition is divided into weight divisions in order to provide a

more “level playing field.”
Any boxer weighing 200lbs or less can compete in and is classified as a cruiserweight.
Cutman:
The individual in the corner who is responsible for controlling any cuts, abrasions, or
swelling that could negatively impact a fighter’s ability to perform or continue to fight.
Cutting-off-the-Ring: 
This is a technique that involves limiting an opponent’s movement by stepping side to

side, not allowing him to move freely around the ring.
Decision:
This is the verdict rendered by the ringside judges who determine the winner of the bout.
This typically occurs at the conclusion of the contest, but can also take place if a foul,
accidental butt or type of injury takes place and the scorecards have to be referenced.
Disqualification:
This occurs when one boxer commits too many fouls or flagrant rule violations and is
subsequently deemed unfit to continue competing.
He automatically loses the bout.

Dive:
This is when one fighter purposely goes down for the count or pretends to be knocked
out.
Down and Out:
A common boxing phrase used for when one boxer is knocked down and fails to get up
before the referee reaches the mandatory count of ten.
Draw:
When all judges scores are tallied and the rounds are all scored close, exactly the same, or
balance each other out, the bout is determined” even”, with no winner declared.
Duck:
Dropping your weight down and under a punch to avoid being hit by it.
Eight Count:
When one fighter is knocked down or in trouble of being stopped, a referee can
administer a count of eight to give the fighter time to recover or so that he can better
assess the situation.
Enswell:
A tool used by the cut-man in a boxer’s corner to reduce swelling and stop bleeding.
It is typically made of stainless steel that is cooled by placing on ice.
It is then applied with slight pressure to the injured area to constrict the capillaries and
slow blood flow, bruising or swelling.
Faded:
Usually refers to a fighter who runs out of gas in the later rounds or who, overall in terms
of his boxing career, is no longer performing at his best.
Feint:
Faking or feinting a punch is used to make an opponent unnecessarily react, or to gauge
his response so that it throws him off his game or makes him commit to a false move.
Fisticuffs:
A term used in the early 1600’s, combining the word fist and cuff, or “blow.” It was
commonly used in reference to two men engaging in hand-to-hand combat.
Flash Knockdown:
This typically describes a quick knockdown or brief trip to the canvas where the fighter
that goes down was only temporarily caught off-guard or rocked, but suffered no
significant damage.
Foul:
 To break one of boxing’s rules, which can ultimately lead to point deductions if they are
repeated.
Fringe Contender:
This usually refers to a lesser-known or low-ranking fighter who is about to break into
the higher rankings, but doesn’t typically pose much of a threat.
Gate:
This is the amount of money generated on-site from the sale of tickets.
Gatekeeper:
Term used to describe a fighter who is not a threat to be champion, but opponents can
establish themselves as a legitimate contender by beating him.
Get Off:
This refers to a fighter’s ability to “let his hands go” or throw uninhibited to mount an
effective offensive attack.
Glass Jaw:
A negative term used to describe a fighter who can’t take a punch, who gets knocked out
easily or has a questionable chin.
Go the Distance:
To fight to the final bell or the duration of an entire fight.
Go to the Body:
An offensive strategy focused on attacking the mid-section or abdominal region, as

opposed to concentrating on the head as a fighter’s target.
Go to the Cards:
An occurrence where neither fighter is knocked out or stopped.
The decision, as to who won the fight, is made by assigned judges who have scored each
round as the bout has progressed.
Governing Body:
The organization who dictates the rules of each bout and sanctions or approves fights.
Groin Protector:
A type of protective gear that is typically made of fabric and foam and fits around a
fighter’s waist to protect his hips, upper abdomen and groin area to guard against punches
that accidentally land “below the belt.”
Hand Wraps:
In order to protect their fists in training and sparring, fighters wrap their hands in tape,
gauze or cotton bandages that have specifically been designed for boxing.
Haymaker:
A desperation punch thrown with full force and with the intent to knock an opponent out.
Head Butt:
When two fighter’s heads collide or come together.
This occasionally happens by accident or is sometimes employed as a blatant foul.
Head Hunting: 
A term used to describe a boxer who focuses most of his attention on striking his
opponent in the face and head, thereby, ignoring body punching.
Heavyweight:

Any boxer weighing over 200lbs is classified as heavyweight.
Hook:
This punch is thrown with the lead or front hand and is delivered in a semi-circular
pattern.
The hook is executed by leading with your front hand, bringing your elbow up and
rotating the front side of your body (in a similar motion as slamming a door).
It is meant to reach beyond your opponent’s guard and make contact with the side of his
head or chin.
Infighting:
This is also called “inside fighting” or exchanging punches at close-range.
Improve Close-Range Punching
Jab:
The jab is a punch that is thrown with your front hand and delivered straight at your
opponent. It should be the centrepiece of any boxing offence.
Journeyman:
This is a term that means a fighter who is always “in the game,” but not typically in title
contention.
A journeyman is used by up-and-coming fighters to test their skills and, in many cases,
gain a recognizable win over a “name” on their record.
Journeymen are constantly on their own journey (never arriving) and part of a future
champion’s journey to notoriety.
Kidney Punch:
This is an illegal blow thrown at an opponent’s lower back, usually while in a clinch or as
a counterpunch.
Knockdown: 
When an opponent is struck and falls to the ring floor or when his glove or knee touches
the canvas after being hit.
Knockout/KO:
 If a fighter is rendered unconscious, cannot stand after being knocked-down, or is unable
to continue for any reason under their physical control by the count of ten, he or she
would be considered knocked-out and loses the contest.
Lead Right:
A lead right is delivered in place of a lead jab, but is harder to execute because it has to
travel across the distance of a fighters body to land, so it has to be thrown quickly and
catch an opponent off-guard.
Light Flyweight:

Any boxer weighing 108lbs or less can compete in and is classified as a light flyweight.
Light Heavyweight:

Any boxer weighing 175lbs or less can compete in and is classified as a light
heavyweight.
Light Middleweight:

middleweight.
Light Welterweight:

welterweight.
Lineal Champion:
This is when a fighter wins the title from the fighter who won the title and it has been
passed down through a direct line of champions.
It is, in essence, “the man who beat the man.”
Low Blow:
This is any punch that is thrown or strays below the waistband of a boxer’s trunks.
It can also be an imaginary line at the base of the midsection where the referee deemed
illegal.
Main Event:
The most recognizable or main fight on a card.
Mauler:
Most often this is used to describe a fighter who likes to fight wildly on the inside and use
roughhouse tactics to nullify their opponent’s effectiveness.
Majority Decision:
(awarded by the majority of the judges)

When two of the three judges score it for one fighter, while the third judge scores it a
draw.
Majority Draw:
When two of the three judges score the fight as a draw, while the third judge scores it for
one of the fighters.
Middleweight:

Any boxer weighing 160lbs or less can compete in and is classified as a middleweight.
Minimumweight:

Any boxer weighing 105lbs or less can compete in and is classified as a minimum
weight.
Mouse:
A bump or isolated area of swelling on a fighter’s face.
Mouth Guard:
A piece of protective equipment that is constructed of a dense rubber material, molded to

a fighter’s mouth to protect his teeth, gums and jaw from injury.
Neutral Corner:
Each of the two fighters are assigned a red or blue corner.
Two white corners of the ring are remaining and are considered “neutral territory.”
Neither fighter’s cornermen are stationed there so it’s where a fighter is sent if he knocks
his or her opponent down.
They remain there while a count is administered by the referee.
No-Decision:
When it has been pre-determined by both fighters that a particular fight will not go on
their records, for a variety of reasons, or when a fight is prematurely ended due to an
unintentional head butt or cut, it can be ruled a no-contest or no decision.
On the Ropes:
Whether purposely, as a defensive technique, or he is forced to fight from this position by

a more aggressive opponent, a fighter who lays against the ring ropes is considered “on
the ropes.”
Orthodox:
A right-handed fighter or one who leads with a left jab and uses his back, or right hand,
as his cross.
Outpoint: 
This is when one boxer outscores his opponent by landing more blows each round.
Outside Fighter:
Boxers who prefer to fight from the outside, typically behind a long jab, from long-range
are considered outside fighters.
Overhand:
A punch that is delivered in an arching motion, traveling downward on the opponent.
Palooka:
This is an old boxing term used to describe a fighter who is uneducated, who is lacking in
ability and/or who is generally clumsy.
Parry:
This is when you not only block an incoming punch, but actually re-direct it away from
your body or the intended target.
Paw: When you don’t fully commit to a punch and throw it without any real intent to
land, but more like you are testing the waters, this is referred to as “pawing.”
Peek-A-Boo:
This style of fighting was attributed to legendary trainer Cus D’Amato and involved
placing your hands high in front of your face, providing a lot of angles to confuse your
opponent and moving your upper torso rapidly from side to side.
Mike Tyson was famous for employing this type of style.
Picking-off Punches: 
A term used when punches are blocked or redirected before they land.
Play Possum:
This is when a fighter acts like he is hurt or tired in an attempt to lure his opponent in and
carelessly leave himself open, while attempting to take advantage of the “vulnerable”
fighter.
Plodder:
A heavy-footed, slow fighter who consistently moves forward is considered “a plodder.”
Point Deduction:
A point is taken away from a fighter when a blatant foul or rule infraction occurs.
It can also happen after several warnings have been issued, such as in a case of
unintentional, but repeated low blows.
Pound-for-Pound:
This term is used to describe a fighter’s skill level regardless of weight category.
It originated with and is commonly used to describe Sugar Ray Robinson, whose skill
and overall ring generalship would translate into and transcend any weight division.
Prizefighter:
This is a traditional term used to describe any combatant who competes against another
for “prize money” or an award.
Promoter:
Used in many forms of entertainment, but in relation to boxing, the term refers to an
individual or entity that arranges boxing matches.
This typically includes paying everyone involved, obtaining the necessary licensing,
advertising the event, ticket sales, securing a venue to stage the matches, assuming all
financial risk and nearly every facet of organizing the contest(s).
Pugilist:
An outdated word that originated from the Latin word “pugil” which means a fist-fighter
or boxer.
Pull:
A defensive move where a fighter leans away from or pulls back from to avoid being hit.
Pull Counter: 
This is a type of defensive-counterpunch combination used against a fighter who takes

the lead and throws a jab first.
It requires a fighter to anticipate when his opponent is going to throw the punch, to pull
away just far enough for him to miss, but stay close enough in range to land a counter-
cross in return.
Pull Your Punches:
When a punch is not delivered at full force, but held back.
Fighters sparring each other may pull their punches to keep the intensity light.
Some fighters may do it in a competitive match to trick their opponent into a feeling of
safety before they surprise them by throwing with full power.
Puncher’s Chance:
A term used to describe the type of fighter, who although may be outclassed, still
possesses the kind of knock out power to end a fight with one punch.
He could clearly not outbox his opponent, but would always have a chance to win based
on his power.
Punch Mitts:
A pair of foam pads that a boxing trainer wears on his hands to provide moving targets
for his boxer.
These pads are used to mimic an opponent’s movement, to practice specific punches and
combinations and develop specific boxing skills.
Purse:
The amount of money a boxer earns or is being paid to fight.
Rabbit Punch:
This is any punch that is delivered to the back of another fighter's head.
It is an illegal blow, due to being highly dangerous.
It is called that because of its similarity to the way that hunters used to kill rabbits.
Ring Generalship:
This is the manner in which a fighter controls the action in the ring and understands his
position.
It is the way he is able to impose his will on his opponent and strategically outmaneuver
him.
Ring/Round Card Girls:

Combat sports regularly feature women who carry a numbered sign or “card” in the ring
during the rest period.
This informs or reminds the audience which round is coming up next.
Ringside:
A position in the front row or right next to the boxing ring is considered “ringside.”
Roadwork: 
This term applies to running, jogging or sprinting that fighters do in cardiovascular

preparation for a boxing match.
Roll with the Punches:
The ability to move with a punch to reduce its impact or turn in that same direction so
that it doesn’t land cleanly.
Rope-a-Dope:
When you maintain a defensive posture on the ropes in an attempt to outlast or tire your
opponent.
It is most recognized and was actually given that name by Muhammad Ali when he
employed the technique to defeat George Foreman.
Roughhousing:
When an opponent uses “questionable” offensive tactics, is highly physical and

aggressive, it is considered to be “roughhouse tactics.”
Rubber Match:
When two fighters have fought twice, each having won one of the previous matches, this
one deciding who will win best of three, it is called a rubber match.
Sanctioning Body:
An organization that regulates and approves fights.
Sanctioning bodies
dictate the rules and guidelines that any bout is fought under.
Saved by the Bell:
If a fighter is knocked down and seemingly cannot get up by the time the round ends, he
is considered to have been “saved by the bell.”
Second: One of a fighter’s cornermen.
Seconds Out:
A verbal command issued by the referee that the one minute rest between rounds has
ended, signaling that the fighter’s trainers, coaches and cut men must leave the corner and
return ringside for the start of the next round.
Shadow Boxing: 
A type of training or warm-up exercise used to describe when a fighter observes his
shadow or his reflection in a mirror, against an imaginary opponent, in order to review
his technique.
Shifting:
An offensive technique where you change your lead foot, shifting your weight to gain
more power.
You are basically changing from orthodox to southpaw as you deliver a punch.
Shoe Shine:
A series of flashy punches in quick succession that look impressive but do little damage.
Shopworn:
This refers to a fighter who has taken too much punishment or suffered too much wear
and tear on his body over the course of his career.
Shoulder Roll:
This is a defensive move where a fighter leaves his front arm low and drapes it across his
midsection so that when his opponent throws a punch he can use his shoulder to block or
roll with it.
This is so the defensive fighter is able to counter back with either hand because neither
was used for blocking.
For a right-handed fighter, it also automatically shifts his weight to his back foot and sets
him up for a hard counter right cross.
Although Floyd Mayweather has become known for this, many great fighters like Jersey
Joe Walcott were masters of this defensive technique.
Slip:
When you move your head to avoid getting hit.
Southpaw:
Slang for a left-handed fighter or someone who is left hand dominant.
Spar:
This is used for training and preparation in the gym.
It should be much less intense than an actual fight, incorporating greater padded gloves
and headgear.
Sparring Partner: 
This is a term used to describe another boxer that a fighter trains with and practices
against, in order to prepare for a “real” bout.
Spit Bucket:
The bucket or container a corner uses to carry their supplies, but is primarily used
between rounds for the fighter to spit excess water into so that he doesn’t swallow too
much during the course of a bout.
Split Decision:
(split between the two fighters) When two of the three judges score the bout for one
fighter and one judge scores it for the other.
Split Decision Draw:
When one judge scores the bout for one fighter, the next judge scores it for the other and
the third judge scores it a draw.
Stablemate:
When two fighters train in the same gym and fight for the same manager or promoter,
they are oftentimes called stablemates.
Stepping Stone:
A negative term that describes any fighter being used to improve another boxer’s position
or standing in boxing.
This typically refers to an athlete who has name recognition or has had some level of
success, but is no longer “a threat” to win.
Stick and Move:
This is an offensive style of fighting that incorporates a great deal of movement,

punching and moving constantly.
Stylist:
A fighter who uses skill and technique more than power is considered “a stylist.”
Sucker Punch:
A punch thrown at an unsuspecting victim or after the bell has sounded.
Super Middleweight:

Any boxer weighing 168lbs or less can compete in and is classified as a super
middleweight.
Technical Decision:
When a fight is stopped early due to a cut, disqualification, or any situation when the bout
is stopped and the scorecards are tallied.
Technical Draw:
When a bout is stopped early and the scores are even.
Technical Knockout:
A technical knockout, or TKO, is the ending of a fight, determined by the referee, before
it has gone the predetermined distance on the grounds of one contestant's inability to
continue, the opponent being declared the winner.
Throw in the Towel:
When a fighter’s corner tosses a towel into the ring in order to stop the fight.
It is usually due to their fighter taking too much punishment and is symbolic of
surrendering.
Toe-to-Toe:
When two fighters don’t back down, stand directly in front of each other and exchange
punches.
Trial Horse:
This refers to a fighter who is used as a test for an up-and-coming fighter to gauge his
ability or readiness to step-up in class.
A “trial horse” is usually a tough, durable fighter who will fight back, but poses no real
threat to win.
Tying-Up: 
A type of defensive technique used when a fighter clinches or locks his opponent’s arms
against his body so that they cannot throw punches in return.
Unanimous Decision:
When all three judges agree and score the bout for one fighter.
Undercard:
These are the fights that lead up to the main event.
Underdog:
This is a label given to a competitor or athlete who is believed to have little or no chance
of winning a fight.
Uppercut:
A punch thrown in an upward fashion, up the middle of a fighter’s guard, intended to

make impact on the point of his chin.
It is delivered from a crouched position, with your hands up and, as you twist your upper
torso, you extend your hand out and up slightly to make contact.
This can be thrown with either hand.
Upstart:
A beginning fighter who shows potential.
Walkout Bout:
Oftentimes, these are fights scheduled as “filler” and when the main bouts end early, they
are tacked on at the end of the card to make the fight card last longer.
Weight Class:
Boxers are categorized and compete in specific weight divisions.
These are weight classifications or “class” for short.
Welterweight:

Any boxer weighing 140lbs or less can compete in and is classified as a welterweight.
White Collar Boxing:
When business professionals, or men and women who have white collar professions, train
and box on an amateur level.
Most have had little or no previous boxing experience.

Boxing
 Introduction
 History
 The boxing world
 Rules, organizations, techniques, and styles
 Boxing in art, literature, and film
Introduction
boxing, sport, both amateur and professional, involving attack and defence with the fists.
Boxers usually wear padded gloves and generally observe the code set forth in
the marquess of Queensberry rules.
Matched in weight and ability, boxing contestants try to land blows hard and often with
their fists, each attempting to avoid the blows of the opponent.
A boxer wins a match either by outscoring the opponent—points can be tallied in several
ways—or by rendering the opponent incapable of continuing the match. Bouts range
from 3 to 12 rounds, each round normally lasting three minutes.
Sonny Liston and Cassius Clay (Muhammad Ali)
The terms pugilism and prizefighting in modern usage are practically synonymous

with boxing, although the first term indicates the ancient origins of the sport in its
derivation from the Latin pugil, “a boxer,” related to the Latin pugnus, “fist,” and derived
in turn from the Greek pyx, “with clenched fist.”
The term prizefighting emphasizes pursuit of the sport for monetary gain, which began
in England in the 17th century.
History
Early years
Boxing first appeared as a formal Olympic event in the 23rd Olympiad (688 BCE), but
fist-fighting contests must certainly have had their origin in mankind’s prehistory.
The earliest visual evidence for boxing appears in Sumerian relief carvings from the 3rd
millennium BCE.
A relief sculpture from Egyptian Thebes (c. 1350 BCE) shows both boxers and

spectators.
The few extant Middle Eastern and Egyptian depictions are of bare-fisted contests with,
at most, a simple band supporting the wrist; the earliest evidence of the use of gloves or
hand coverings in boxing is a carved vase from Minoan Crete (c. 1500 BCE) that shows
helmeted boxers wearing a stiff plate strapped to the fist.
The earliest evidence of rules for the sport comes from ancient Greece.
These ancient contests had no rounds; they continued until one man either acknowledged
defeat by holding up a finger or was unable to continue.
Clinching (holding an opponent at close quarters with one or both arms) was strictly
forbidden.
Contests were held outdoors, which added the challenge of intense heat and bright
sunlight to the fight.
Contestants represented all social classes; in the early years of the major athletic festivals,
a preponderance of the boxers came from wealthy and distinguished backgrounds.
The Greeks considered boxing the most injurious of their sports.
A 1st-century-BCE inscription praising a pugilist states, “A boxer’s victory is gained in

blood.”
In fact, Greek literature offers much evidence that the sport caused disfigurement and,
occasionally, even death.
An amazingly bloody bout is recounted by Homer in the Iliad (c. 675 BCE):
“Sons of Atreus, and all you other strong-greaved Achaians,

we invite two men, the best among you, to contend for these prizes
with their hands up for the blows of boxing. He whom Apollo
grants to outlast the other, and all the Achaians witness it,
let him lead away the hard-working jenny [female donkey] to his own shelter.
The beaten man shall take away the two-handled goblet.”
He spoke, and a man huge and powerful, well skilled in boxing,

rose up among them; the son of Panopeus, Epeios.
He laid his hand on the hard-working jenny, and spoke out:
“Let the man come up who will carry off the two-handled goblet.
I say no other of the Achaians will beat me at boxing
and lead off the jenny. I claim I am the champion. Is it not
enough that I fall short in battle? Since it could not be
ever, that a man could be a master in every endeavour.
For I tell you this straight out, and it will be a thing accomplished.
I will smash his skin apart and break his bones on each other.
Let those who care for him wait nearby in a huddle about him
to carry him out, after my fists have beaten him under.”
So he spoke, and all of them stayed stricken to silence.

Alone Euryalos stood up to face him, a godlike
man, son of lord Mekisteus of the seed of Talaos;
of him who came once to Thebes and the tomb of Oidipous after
his downfall, and there in boxing defeated all the Kadmeians.
The spear-famed son of Tydeus was his second, and talked to him
in encouragement, and much desired the victory for him.
First he pulled on the boxing belt about his waist, and then
gave him the thongs carefully cut from the hide of a ranging
ox. The two men, girt up, strode into the midst of the circle
and faced each other, and put up their ponderous hands at the same time
and closed, so that their heavy arms were crossing each other,
and there was a fierce grinding of teeth, the sweat began to run
everywhere from their bodies. Great Epeios came in, and hit him
as he peered out from his guard, on the cheek, and he could no longer
keep his feet, but where he stood the glorious limbs gave.
As in the water roughened by the north wind a fish jumps
in the weed of the beach-break, then the dark water closes above him,
so Euryalos left the ground from the blow, but great-hearted Epeios
took him in his arms and set him upright, and his true companions
stood about him, and led him out of the circle, feet dragging
as he spat up the thick blood and rolled his head over on one side.
He was dizzy when they brought him back and set him among them.
But they themselves went and carried off the two-handled goblet.
(From Book XXIII of Homer’s Iliad, translated by Richmond Lattimore.)

Boxer at rest
By the 4th century BCE, the simple ox-hide thongs described in the Iliad had been
replaced by what the Greeks called “sharp thongs,” which had a thick strip of
hard leather over the knuckles that made them into lacerative weapons. Although the
Greeks used padded gloves for practice, not dissimilar from the modern boxing glove,
these gloves had no role in actual contests. The Romans developed a glove called
the caestus (cestus) that is seen in Roman mosaics and described in their literature; this
glove often had lumps of metal or spikes sewn into the leather. The caestus is an
important feature in a boxing match in Virgil’s Aeneid (1st century BCE). The story of
the match between Dares and Entellus is majestically told in this passage from the
pugilism article in the 11th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica:
Further on we find the account of the games on the occasion of the funeral of Anchises,
in the course of which Dares, the Trojan, receiving no answer to his challenge from the
Sicilians, who stood aghast at his mighty proportions, claims the prize; but, just as it is
about to be awarded him, Entellus, an aged but huge and sinewy Sicilian, arises and
casts into the arena as a sign of his acceptance of the combat the massive cesti, all
stained with blood and brains, which he has inherited from King Eryx, his master in the
art of boxing.
The Trojans are now appalled in their turn, and Dares, aghast at the fearful implements,
refused the battle, which, however, is at length begun after Aeneas has furnished the
heroes with equally matched cesti.
For some time the young and lusty Dares circles about his gigantic but old and stiff
opponent, upon whom he rains a torrent of blows which are avoided by the clever
guarding and dodging of the Sicilian hero.
At last Entellus, having got his opponent into a favourable position, raises his
tremendous right hand on high and aims a terrible blow at the Trojan’s head; but the
wary Dares deftly steps aside, and Entellus, missing his adversary altogether, falls
headlong by the impetus of his own blow, with a crash like that of a falling pine.
Shouts of mingled exultation and dismay break from the multitude, and the friends of the
aged Sicilian rush forward to raise their fallen champion and bear him from the arena;
but, greatly to the astonishment of all, Entellus motions them away and returns to the
fight more keenly than before.
The old man’s blood is stirred, and he attacks his youthful enemy with such furious and
headlong rushes, buffeting him grievously with both hands, that Aeneas put an end to the
battle, though barely in time to save the discomfited Trojan from being beaten into
insensibility.
Roman boxing took place in both the sporting and gladiatorial arenas.
Roman soldiers often boxed each other for sport and as training for hand-to-hand
combat.
The gladiatorial boxing contests usually ended only with the death of the losing boxer.
With the rise of Christianity and the concurrent decline of the Roman Empire, pugilism
as entertainment apparently ceased to exist for many centuries.
Michael Poliakoff
The bare-knuckle era
Boxing history picks up again with a formal bout recorded in Britain in 1681, and by
1698 regular pugilistic contests were being held in the Royal Theatre of London.
The fighters performed for whatever purses were agreed upon plus stakes (side bets), and
admirers of the combatants wagered on the outcomes.

These matches were fought without gloves and, for the most part, without rules.
There were no weight divisions; thus, there was just one champion, and lighter men were
at an obvious disadvantage. Rounds were designated, but a bout was usually fought until
one participant could no longer continue. Wrestling was permitted, and it was common to
fall on a foe after throwing him to the ground. Until the mid 1700s it was also common to
hit a man when he was down.
Although boxing was illegal, it became quite popular, and by 1719 the prizefighter James
Figg had so captured the public’s imagination that he was acclaimed champion of
England, a distinction he held for some 15 years.
One of Figg’s pupils, Jack Broughton, is credited with taking the first steps toward
boxing’s acceptance as a respectable athletic endeavour.
One of the greatest bare-knuckle prizefighters in history, Broughton devised the modern
sport’s first set of rules in 1743, and those rules, with only minor changes, governed
boxing until they were replaced by the more detailed London Prize Ring rules in 1838.
It is said that Broughton sought such regulations after one of his opponents died as a
result of his fight-related injuries.
Broughton discarded the barroom techniques that his predecessors favoured and relied
primarily on his fists.
While wrestling holds were still permitted, a boxer could not grab an opponent below the
waist.
Under Broughton’s rules, a round continued until a man went down; after 30 seconds he
had to face his opponent (square off), standing no more than a yard (about a metre) away,
or be declared beaten. Hitting a downed opponent was also forbidden.
Recognized as the “Father of Boxing,” Broughton attracted pupils to the sport by

introducing “mufflers,” the forerunners of modern gloves, to protect the fighter’s hands
and the opponent’s face. (Ironically, these protective devices would prove in some ways
to be more dangerous than bare fists.
When boxers wear gloves, they are more likely to aim for their opponent’s head,
whereas, when fighters used their bare hands, they tended to aim for softer targets to
avoid injuring the hand.
Thus, the brain damage associated with boxing can be traced in part to the introduction of
the padded boxing glove.)
After Jack Slack beat Broughton in 1750 to claim the championship, fixed fights (fights
in which outcomes were predetermined) became common, and boxing again experienced
a period of decline, though there were exceptions—pugilists Daniel
Mendoza and Gentleman John Jackson were great fighters of the late 1700s. Mendoza
weighed only 160 pounds (73 kg), and his fighting style therefore emphasized speed over
brute strength.
Jackson, who eventually defeated Mendoza to claim the championship, contributed to the
transformation of boxing by interesting members of the English aristocracy in the sport,
thus bringing it a degree of respectability.
During the early to mid 1800s, some of the greatest British champions, including Jem
Belcher, Tom Cribb, Ben Caunt, and Jem Mace, came to symbolize ideals of manliness
and honour for the English.
After the British Pugilists’ Protective Association initiated the London Prize Ring rules in
1838, the new regulations spread quickly throughout Britain and the United States.
First used in a championship fight in 1839 in which James (“Deaf”) Burke lost the
English title to William Thompson (“Bendigo”), the new rules provided for a ring 24 feet
(7.32 metres) square bounded by two ropes.
When a fighter went down, the round ended, and he was helped to his corner.
The next round would begin 30 seconds later, with each boxer required to reach, unaided,
a mark in the centre of the ring.
If a fighter could not reach that mark by the end of 8 additional seconds, he was declared
the loser.
Kicking, gouging, butting with the head, biting, and low blows were all declared fouls.
The era of Regency England was the peak of British boxing, when the champion of bare-
knuckle boxing in Britain was considered to be the world champion as well.
Britain’s only potential rival in pugilism was the United States. Boxing had been
introduced in the United States in the late 1700s but began to take root there only about
1800 and then only in large urban areas such as Boston, New York City, Philadelphia,
and to some extent New Orleans.
Most of the fighters who fought in the United States had emigrated from
either England or Ireland; because boxing was then considered to be the national sport of
Britain, there were few American-born fighters of the time.
Boxing’s hold upon the British imagination is evidenced in the many idioms taken from
pugilism that entered the English language during this period.
Phrases such as come up to scratch (to meet the qualifications), start from scratch (to

start over from the beginning), and not up to the mark (not up to the necessary level) all
refer to the line that was scratched in the dirt to divide the ring.
At the beginning of each round, both boxers were required to put their toes up against the
line to prove they were fit enough for the bout.
If they were unable to do so, they were said to be unable to come up to scratch, or to the
mark.
The term draw, meaning a tied score, derives from the stakes that held the rope
surrounding the ring:
when the match was over, the stakes were “drawn” out from the ground, and eventually
the finality of taking down the ropes came to stand for the end of an inconclusive fight.
Further, these stakes were also the basis behind the monetary meaning of stakes.
In early prizefights a bag of money, which would go to the winner of the bout, was hung
from one of the stakes—thus high stakes and stake money.
As for the ropes held by the stakes, to be against the ropes connotes a posture of defence
against an aggressive opponent.
And any telling point in an argument is spoken of as being a knockout blow, and a
beautiful woman as being a knockout.
The Queensberry rules
Though the London Prize Ring rules did much to help boxing, the brawling that
distinguished old-time pugilism continued to alienate most of England’s upper class, and
it became apparent that still more revisions were necessary to attract a better class
of patron.
John Graham Chambers of the Amateur Athletic Club devised a new set of rules in 1867
that emphasized boxing technique and skill.
Chambers sought the patronage of John Sholto Douglas, the 9th marquess of
Queensberry, who lent his name to the new guidelines.
The Queensberry rules differed from the London rules in four major respects:
contestants wore padded gloves; a round consisted of three minutes of fighting followed
by a minute of rest; wrestling was illegal; and any fighter who went down had to get up
unaided within 10 seconds—if a fighter was unable to get up, he was declared knocked
out, and the fight was over.
During this period the introduction of the first weight divisions also took place.
The new rules at first were scorned by professionals, who considered them unmanly, and
championship bouts continued to be fought under London Prize Ring rules.
But many young pugilists preferred the Queensberry guidelines and fought accordingly.
Prominent among these was James (“Jem”) Mace, who won the English heavyweight title
under the London rules in 1861.
Mace’s enthusiasm for gloved fighting did much to popularize the Queensberry rules.
In addition to the shift in rules, dominance in the ring began to slowly shift to American
fighters.
The change started, perhaps, with American fighters competing in Britain during the
Regency era.
Two such early fighters were former slaves—Bill Richmond and his protégé Tom
Molineaux.
Both Richmond and Molineaux fought against the top English pugilists of the day;
indeed, Molineaux fought Tom Cribb twice for the championship title, in 1810 and 1811.
Soon British champions began touring the United States and fighting American
opponents.
Despite the change to the Queensberry rules, boxing was losing the social acceptability it
had gained in England—partly because of changing middle-class values and an
Evangelical religious revival intensely concerned about sinful pastimes.
Boxing, after all, had close associations with such unsavoury practices as drinking and
gambling.
Further, the violence of boxing was not confined to the boxers—the spectators
themselves, who often bet heavily on matches, were prone to crowd into the ring and
fight as well.
Large brawls frequently ensued.
This energy, conversely, suited the American scene and the millions of new immigrants.
Bouts were frequently promoted and perceived as ethnic grudge matches—for instance,
between fighters from Ireland and those of American birth—and violence between ethnic
gang members frequently broke out during and after such bouts.
This was the heyday of such fighters as Yankee Sullivan, Tom Hyer, John Morrissey, and
John Heenan.
bare-knuckle championship fight
British ascendancy in boxing came to an end with the rise of the Irish-born American
boxer John L. Sullivan.
Sullivan was the first American champion to be considered world champion as well.
For a hundred years after Sullivan’s ascendancy, boxing champions, especially in the
heavyweight division, tended to reside in the United States.
It was Sullivan who was also responsible for aligning professional fighters on the side of
the Queensberry rules.
He claimed the world heavyweight championship in 1882 under the London bare-knuckle
rules, and in 1889 he defended his title against Jake Kilrain in the last heavyweight
championship bare-knuckle fight in the United States.
Legal problems followed the Kilrain match, because bare-knuckle boxing had by that
time been made illegal in every state, and so when Sullivan went up against James J.
Corbett in 1892, he fought under Queensberry rules.
Thomas Hauser
Jeffrey Thomas Sammons
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Boxing’s legal status
Rule changes in British boxing took into account not only shifts in societal norms but the
inescapable fact that the sport was illegal.
The primary task of proponents was to reconcile a putatively barbaric activity with a
civilizing impulse.
According to English law, as reported in William Blackstone’s Commentaries on the

Laws of England(1765–69), “a tilt or tournament, the martial diversion of our ancestors is
an unlawful act: and so are boxing and sword playing, the succeeding amusements of
their posterity.”
Perceived by the courts as a throwback to a less-civilized past, prizefighting was

classified as an affray, an assault, and a riot.
However, widespread public support for boxing in England led to legal laxity and
inconsistency of enforcement.
In the United States the response was different.
There a combination of Puritan values and fears of lawlessness often produced

heightened judicial vigilance.
As the frequency of prizefights increased, various states moved beyond general and
sometimes vague statutes concerning assault and enacted laws that expressly forbade
fistfights.
In 1876 the Massachusetts State Supreme Court confirmed its intention to maintain a
lawful and ordered society by ruling that “prizefighting, boxing matches, and encounters
of that kind serve no useful purpose, tend to breaches of the peace, and are unlawful even
when entered into by agreement and without anger or ill will.”
Boxing thus took a course of evasion by bringing a greater appearance of order to the
sport through changes in rules and by relocation to more lenient environments.
Matches were frequently held in remote backwaters and were not openly publicized in
order that the fighters might avoid arrest; barges were also used as fight venues because
they could be located in waters outside U.S. legal jurisdiction and fights could be held
unimpeded.
Eventually the ever-growing popularity and profitability of the sport combined with its
hero-making potential forced a reconsideration of boxing’s value by many state
authorities.
The fact that the heavyweight champion of boxing came to symbolize American might
and resolve, even dominance, had a significant impact on the sport’s acceptance.
Likewise, its role as a training tool in World War I left many with the impression that
boxing, if conducted under proper conditions, lent itself to the development of skill,
courage, and character.
Thus, the very authorities who had fined and jailed pugilists came to sanction and
regulate their activities through state boxing and athletic commissions.
State regulation became the middle ground between outright prohibition and unfettered
legalization.
The Boxing World

By the early 20th century, boxing had become a path to riches and social acceptance for
various ethnic and racial groups.
It was at this time that professional boxing became centred in the United States, with its
expanding economy and successive waves of immigrants.
Famine had driven thousands of Irish to seek refuge in the United States, and by 1915 the
Irish had become a major force in professional boxing, producing such standouts as Terry
McGovern, Philadelphia Jack O’Brien, Mike (“Twin”) Sullivan and his brother Jack,
Packey McFarland, Jimmy Clabby, and Jack Britton, among others.
German, Scandinavian, and central European fighters also emerged.

Outstanding Jewish fighters such as Joe Choynski, Abe Attell, Battling Levinsky, and
Harry Lewis were active before 1915 and were followed by a second wave consisting
of Barney Ross, Benny Leonard, Sid Terris, Lew Tendler, Al Singer, Maxie Rosenbloom,
and Max Baer.
Italian Americans to reach prominence included Tony Canzoneri, Johnny Dundee, Rocky

Marciano, Rocky Graziano, Carmen Basilio, and Willie Pep.
Jack Johnson
African Americans also turned to boxing to “fight their way to the top,” and foreign-born
Black boxers such as Peter Jackson, Sam Langford, and George Dixon went to the United
States to capitalize on the opportunities offered by boxing.
Of African American boxers, Joe Gans won the world lightweight championship in 1902,

and Jack Johnson became the first Black heavyweight champion in 1908.
Before and after Jack Johnson won his title, prejudice against Black boxers was great.
Gans was frequently forced by promoters to lose to or underperform against less-talented

white fighters.
Other Black fighters found it difficult or impossible to contend for championships, as

white boxers refused to face them.
For instance, John L. Sullivan refused to accept the challenges of any Black, and

Sullivan’s successor, Jim Corbett, refused to fight the Black Australian Peter Jackson,
although Jackson had fought Corbett to a 63-round draw before Corbett became
champion.
Jack Dempsey continued the tradition by refusing to meet the African American Harry
Wills.
During Jack Johnson’s reign as champion, he was hounded so relentlessly that he was
forced to leave the United States.
Joe Louis and Max Schmeling
Blacks nevertheless continued to pursue fistic careers, particularly during the Great

Depression.
In 1936 African American fighter Joe Louis was matched against German Max

Schmeling in a bout that was invested with both racial and political symbolism.
Louis lost to Schmeling in a 12th-round knockout.
In 1937 Louis captured the world heavyweight title from James Braddock, but stated he
would not call himself a champion until he had beaten Schmeling in a rematch.
The fight occurred on June 22, 1938, and was seen on both sides of the Atlantic as a
confrontation between the United States and Nazi Germany; the American press made
much of the contest between an African American and an athlete seen as a representative
of Aryan culture.
Both Adolph Hitler and Franklin D. Roosevelt had personal meetings with their nation’s
pugilist.
Louis’s sensational 1st-round victory over Schmeling in the rematch was a pivotal
moment for African American athletes, as Louis in victory quickly became a symbol of
the triumph of world democracy for Americans of all races.

Sugar Ray Robinson and Randy Turpin
Other African Americans followed Louis, with Sugar Ray Robinson, Archie

Moore, Ezzard Charles, Henry Armstrong, Ike Williams, Sandy Saddler, Emile
Griffith, Bob Foster, Jersey Joe Walcott, Floyd Patterson, Sonny Liston, Muhammad
Ali, Joe Frazier, and George Foreman winning world championships in various weight
divisions.
By the turn of the 21st century, African Americans were a dominant force in professional
boxing, producing stars such as Sugar Ray Leonard, Marvelous Marvin Hagler, Thomas
Hearns, Aaron Pryor, Larry Holmes, Michael Spinks, Mike Tyson, Evander
Holyfield, Riddick Bowe, Pernell Whitaker, Shane Mosley, Bernard Hopkins, Roy Jones,
Jr., and Floyd Mayweather, Jr.
Amateur boxing
In 1867 the first amateur boxing championships took place under the Queensberry rules.
In 1880 the Amateur Boxing Association (ABA), the sport’s first amateur governing
body, was formed in Britain, and in the following year the ABA staged its first official
amateur championships.
The Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) of the United States was formed in 1888 and
instituted its annual championships in boxing the same year.
In 1926 the Chicago Tribune started another amateur competition called the Golden

Gloves.
It grew into a national competition rivalling that of the AAU.
The United States of America Amateur Boxing Federation (now USA Boxing), which
governs American amateur boxing, was formed after the 1978 passage of a law
forbidding the AAU to govern more than one Olympic sport.
Amateur boxing spread rapidly to other countries and resulted in several major
international tournaments taking place annually, biennially, or, as in the case of
the Olympic Games, every four years.
Important events include the European Games, the Commonwealth Games, the Pan

American Games, the African Games, and the World Military Games.
All international matches are controlled by the Association Internationale de Boxe

Amateur (AIBA), formed in 1946.
Although the Soviet Union did not permit professional boxing, it joined the AIBA in
1950, entered the Olympics in 1952, and became one of the world’s strongest amateur
boxing nations, along with such other communist countries as East Germany, Poland,
Hungary, and Cuba. Cuba, which had produced many excellent professional boxers
before professional sports were banned by Fidel Castro’s government, became a
dominating force in international amateur boxing.
The Cuban heavyweight Teófilo Stevenson won Olympic gold medals in 1972, 1976, and
1980, a feat that was duplicated by his countryman Felix Savón in 1992, 1996, and 2000.
African countries advanced in boxing after acquiring independence in the 1950s and ’60s,
and by the end of the 20th century Nigeria, Ghana, Tanzania, Egypt, and South
Africa had excellent amateur boxing programs.
In the late 20th century boxing began attracting participants from the general public—
especially because of its conditioning benefits—and by the early 1990s the sport’s
popularity among white-collar professionals had given rise to a new form of amateur
boxing known as white-collar boxing.
While many of the matches were held for charity and featured no decisions, several
regulatory groups were formed, and they established rules, sanctioned events, and ranked
competitors.
Thomas Hauser
Intercollegiate boxing
Intercollegiate boxing has a venerable tradition in Great Britain.
By the early 1800s many British aristocrats thought boxing to be a required skill for a
well-rounded gentleman, and soon thereafter pugilism was encouraged as an
appropriate exercise for young college men (though only at the amateur level).
The first varsity match between the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge was held in
1897, and it was considered a privileged “full blue” sport: an athlete who has represented
Oxford is permitted to wear a dark blue blazer and a Cambridge athlete a light blue one.
To be a boxing blue for either of these universities is a great honour.
The first American national intercollegiate boxing tournament was held in 1932, but

boxing had existed as an intramural sport in the United States since the 1880s.
Intercollegiate boxing formally emerged after World War I, when the officers responsible
for armed forces training programs returned to college campuses imbued with the belief
that boxing should be included in higher education because of its value in both physical
conditioning and character building.
Initially used to qualify collegians for Olympic tryouts in 1932 and 1936, the national
tournament became an annual National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)
championship event in 1937 and continued through 1960 with the exception of years
1944–46, when it was suspended because of World War II.
During the heyday of NCAA boxing, officials insisted that their sport disassociate itself
from professional boxing and what many saw as the sordid blood, gore, and brutality of
the prize ring. Physical conditioning, skill, “science,” and sportsmanship were
emphasized.
The foremost concern was the safety of participants; therefore, well-padded gloves,
protective headgear, and mandatory standing nine counts (in which the action is stopped
and a boxer who has been hurt but not knocked down has until the count of nine to
respond to the referee’s satisfaction or loses the fight as a technical knockout) were
required.
To compensate for the stress of ring combat, coaches often arranged for opponents to
socialize before and after bouts, creating a fraternal spirit and many lasting friendships.
Some famous participants in NCAA boxing were Alabama Governor George Wallace,

U.S. Senators William Proxmire and Warren Rudman, and President Gerald Ford, who
was a boxing coach for a time at Yale University.
The Universities of Idaho, Virginia, and Wisconsin, Syracuse University, and Idaho,

Louisiana, Michigan, Pennsylvania, San Jose, and Washington State universities had
leading programs.
One hundred institutions had teams in the late 1930s, and attendance at boxing matches
was second only to that for football on many American campuses.
Although the NCAA rules attempted to prevent more-experienced boxers from

competing, a number of institutions did give scholarships to former champions of such
organizations as the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU), Golden Gloves, and the armed
forces.
This led to bouts featuring some highly skilled contestants and intense action, although it
sometimes created lopsided contests.
Even during peak participation years, however, few collegians turned professional.
Efforts to humanize the sport, maintain it on a high plane, and differentiate it from

professional boxing could not mitigate its essentially violent nature, nor could boxing
overcome the longtime opposition from educators who claimed that its objective was to
hurt an opponent.
In 1960 the ring-related death of University of Wisconsin boxer Charles Mohr, as well as

a general waning of interest in the sport, contributed to the end of “big time”
intercollegiate boxing, and boxing is unlikely ever to regain NCAA status.
However, it continues today at a college club level with 20 to 25 institutional teams

involved each year in national tournaments of the National Collegiate Boxing
Association (NCBA).
Seeking to teach fundamentals to novices in a safety-oriented and

structured environment of balanced competition, the NCBA bars persons who have
participated in non collegiate bouts after age 16.
Almost since its inception and the first tournament in 1976, NCBA boxing has been
dominated by the U.S. Air Force Academy, which has won over a dozen team titles.
Other U.S. military academies, such as those at West Point and Annapolis, also have
strong traditions in intercollegiate boxing.
E.C. Wallenfeldt
Military boxing
Boxing has been considered excellent training for soldiers, at least since the time
of ancient Greece and Rome.
The British army has long trained its personnel in boxing, believing that it developed
fitness and, more important, character.
The American military followed that lead, and soon after World War II a large number of
armies from nations in Europe and Asia incorporated boxing into their military training.
Although few armies currently include boxing in basic training, amateur boxing still
features heavily in military sports. The German army (Bundeswehr), British army, and
U.S. military all have extensive boxing programs, and their boxers compete at the
Olympics as well as at the Military World Games organized under the auspices of the
Conseil International du Sport Militaire (CISM).
Leon Spinks, Ray Mercer, and Ken Norton are among the prominent boxers who learned
their trade in the U.S. military.
Professional boxing
The man who made boxing into big business was George (“Tex”) Rickard, the sport’s
first great promoter. After staging the world’s lightweight championship bout
between Joe Gans and Oscar (“Battling”) Nelson to publicize the mining town of
Goldfield, Nevada, in 1906, he realized the potential of prizefighting.
Rickard made an art of boxing publicity, playing on the public’s prejudices to boost

interest and ticket sales.
Five of the bouts that he promoted for Jack Dempsey, heavyweight champion from 1919
to 1926, each grossed more than $1 million.
In the Great Depression years that followed Dempsey’s retirement, receipts from boxing

dwindled.
Then in 1935 promoter Mike Jacobs signed Joe Louis to a contract, launching a new era
of prosperity in the sport. Louis’s career purses totalled more than $5 million.
After World War II television took on an increasingly important role in professional

boxing.
Because of its popularity and relatively low production costs compared with other sports,
professional boxing became a regular feature of network programming throughout much
of the 1950s and early ’60s.
The televising of boxing led to the demise of many boxing clubs, which had been the
training ground for young fighters.
Therefore, in place of carefully trained boxers brought up slowly through the club
system, televised boxing led to a preference for sometimes poorly trained, stylish boxers
who had a showy knockout punch but fewer defensive skills.
Mismatches were inevitable, which further harmed the sport.

Eventually, there was so much televised boxing shown that it led to saturation and
created a dilution of the talent pool; that is, there were not enough gifted boxers available
to appear in the many bouts scheduled.
Moreover, the televising of boxers being beaten into a coma, sometimes fatally,
especially in the instance of Benny (“Kid”) Paret, further damaged the sport with the
viewing public.
After a period of decline, boxing enjoyed a television revival when five American boxers
(Leo Randolph, Howard Davis, brothers Michael and Leon Spinks, and Sugar Ray
Leonard) won gold medals in the 1976 Olympics and turned professional following those
games.
The success of the 1976 movie Rocky, the widespread popularity of Muhammad Ali, and

the advent of cable television in the United States also greatly increased boxing’s
presence on television.
Television also greatly increased boxing revenues, particularly events broadcast via
closed-circuit television and, later, pay-for-view events on cable.
Million-dollar purses for heavyweight championships became commonplace by the

1970s, and the heavyweight champion Ali earned an estimated $69 million during his 20-
year professional career.
By the 1980s multimillion-dollar purses were no longer restricted to the heavyweight

division.
When middleweights Leonard and Marvin Hagler fought on April 6, 1987, they shared a

purse estimated at $30 million.
Aside from television, casino gambling has had the biggest influence on modern

professional boxing in the United States and, to a lesser degree, in continental Europe.
Casinos, especially those in Las Vegas, Nevada, and Atlantic City, New Jersey, have
found boxing to be a highly successful marketing tool for increasing gaming revenues
and therefore pay large site fees to attract major bouts to their premises.
Not surprisingly, the link between gambling and professional boxing has not been all
positive.
Organized crime has long been involved in the sport—indeed, John L. Sullivan’s bid for
the championship in 1892 was financed by a Chicago organized-crime boss.
Criminal involvement has sometimes taken the form of gambling syndicates asking a
boxer to “throw” a fight—that is, lose a match deliberately.
Boxer Primo Carnera, who boxed during the early 1930s, was under the control of an
American crime syndicate, and fighter Jake La Motta eventually cooperated with
organized crime by throwing a fight against Billy Fox after he was unable to obtain a
title bout without the consent of the mob.
Controversy continued through the 1970s, ’80s, and ’90s over many of the fights
organized by promoter Don King, who himself had a criminal record.
While fights are still sometimes thrown, a more common problem is now the
manipulation of the system by which boxers are rated.
A boxer’s rating determines his eligibility to participate in world championship fights and
is thus linked closely to the amount of money he can earn.
All the professional boxing organizations—such as the World Boxing Council (WBC),

the World Boxing Association (WBA), and the International Boxing Federation (IBF)—
rank boxers, and complaints concerning these organizations favouring fighters belonging
to certain promoters have been widespread.
In 1999 promoters Bob Arum and Cedric Kushner admitted to bribing the IBF in order to
receive favourable ratings for their fighters, and Don King was described as an unindicted
coconspirator in the case.
Professional boxing also remains controversial because of the potential danger to the
fighters.
A fighter’s risk of incurring brain injury while boxing is hotly debated between devotees
of the sport and the medical community.
This issue came to the fore in 1982 when South Korean boxer Kim Dŭk-gu (Duk Koo
Kim) died after being knocked out by Ray (“Boom Boom”) Mancini in a championship
fight that was nationally televised in the United States.
(It was most likely the cumulative effect of the punishing blows throughout the match
that led to Kim’s death, however, and not the final knockout punch.)
Despite improved safety measures taken in boxing, some 30 boxers have died in the
decades since that bout.
The death of light-heavyweight fighter Beethavean (Bee) Scottland after a nationally
televised bout in July 2001 renewed the call for greater safety measures for boxers.
Protective headgear is worn in amateur boxing, and some have called for this headgear to
be adopted by professional boxers.
Prizefighters have generally objected to such suggestions, arguing that headgear would
make fighting yet more dangerous because it causes a boxer to be less vigilant about
guarding the head against blows but cannot make the blows less damaging overall.
Further, while headgear protects a fighter from facial cuts, some observers think it
increases a fighter’s chance of incurring brain damage because it enlarges the hitting
surface of the head and thereby makes the head an easier target.
Death as a result of a boxing injury is actually less likely in the heavyweight division, an
unexpected fact given that it is in this division that the punches have the most force.
(The explanation for this may be that boxers at the lighter weights throw and receive far
more punches, and the cumulative effect of this is more damaging to the human brain
than one monumental punch.)
Even so, heavyweights are just as prone to brain damage as fighters at the lighter
weights.
The injury suffered by former heavyweight Muhammad Ali—who was diagnosed with

Parkinson syndrome, which slurred his speech and impaired his movement—has again
focused attention on the potential dangers of boxing.
Critics of the sport have even called for it to be banned, but supporters believe that
outright prohibition might cause boxing to go underground, where fighters would be
afforded less medical protection, such as access to ringside physicians authorized to stop
a fight.
Evander Holyfield and Mike Tyson

Not helping the sport’s reputation in recent years have been the much-publicized violent
acts of former heavyweight champion Mike Tyson, a convicted felon who, in a notorious
incident, bit off part of opponent Evander Holyfield’s ear in a televised championship
fight in 1997.
After an altercation with heavyweight Lennox Lewis at a press conference in 2002,

Tyson was denied a license to box by the Nevada State Athletic Commission.
Prizes and awards
Large and elaborate belts given to boxing champions are an old tradition.
English bare-knuckle champion Tom Cribb and American champion John L.

Sullivan were both presented with belts to commemorate their championships; Cribb’s
belt is thought to have been the first such awarded to a fighter.
These early trophies were unique to the fighter; for instance, Cribb’s belt was made of
lion skin and decorated with a silver buckle, while Sullivan’s featured a plate of gold
encrusted with diamonds.
In 1909 the Lonsdale Belt was first presented to the British champion in each weight
division, and this prize still represents the pinnacle of British boxing.
Until the 1920s, however, belts were not automatically given to a fighter who won a
world championship within his weight division but often were awarded only if his fans
could raise the money to buy an expensive trophy.
Nat Fleischer, Ring magazine’s founder, changed this in 1926 when he began awarding

belts to the world champion in each weight division in boxing, and for the next 50 years
these belts were one of the greatest prizes to be gained in the sport.
The Ring belts are individualized with the name and photo of the boxer and become his
property.
By the late 1980s the major sanctioning bodies that governed much of boxing (the
International Boxing Federation, World Boxing Council, and World Boxing Association)
were each awarding their own belts to their champions.
Given the proliferation of champions because of the number of sanctioning groups and
the increasing number of weight divisions, in the 1980s Ring magazine stopped its
practice of awarding a belt to each champion and instead awarded belts to only
undisputed champions—that is, to fighters who have unified the title (won the title
belonging to all three sanctioning bodies), to the boxer Ring names Fighter of the Year,
and to the boxer Ringnames the best “pound-for-pound” fighter.
(For information on title unification, see BTW: Title unification in boxing.)
The belts awarded by the sanctioning groups remain with the fighter even when his status
changes. When a boxer loses his championship status in a title match, it may appear that
he loses the belt, given that the winner of the match is given his belt and appears in the
ring wearing it.
The belt, however, is returned to the former champion after the fight, and a new belt is
given to the current champion.
Fleischer was also responsible for introducing a Hall of Fame to boxing.
In 1954 Ringmagazine began inducting boxers into its “Hall” (there was not an actual
geographic location such as exists for baseball in Cooperstown, New York).
This “paper” Hall of Fame was changed in 1989 when the International Boxing Hall of
Fame was opened in Canastota, New York; with this development, Ring magazine
stopped its inductions.
(When Encyclopædia Britannicalists the date of a boxer’s induction into the Boxing Hall

of Fame, it refers to the Ringmagazine induction unless otherwise noted.)
The awards given out annually by the Boxing Writers Association of America (BWAA)
are also among the most prestigious in boxing.
Since 1938 the organization has designated a Fighter of the Year. Muhammad Ali, Joe
Frazier, Sugar Ray Leonard, Evander Holyfield, and Manny Pacquiao have been so
honoured three times.
Other BWAA awards are given annually for the Manager of the Year and the Trainer of
the Year, and there are honours for excellence in broadcasting and boxing journalism as
well as a special BWAA award for “long and meritorious service to boxing.”
International boxing
Professional boxing was once largely a British-American rivalry, although many other
nations had their own self-defence or martial arts sports.
In the 20th century, however, boxing under the Queensberry rules became truly

international.
This can be traced to two factors: the globalization of culture in general and the advent of
satellite technology that allowed major fights to be seen in and transmitted from all parts
of the world.
In 1999 there were 116 professional fights designated as world championship bouts by
the three major sanctioning organizations.
Sixty-nine of these bouts were contested in the United States, 19 in Europe, 19 in Asia, 8
in Latin America, and 3 in Africa.
Continental Europe
During the 1880s professional boxing moved from England to continental Europe, and by
1906 European champions were being crowned.
The first continental European boxer to become a national hero was Georges

Carpentier of France, who won the light-heavyweight championship in 1920 and lost the
following year to Jack Dempsey in a bid to become heavyweight champion of the world.
Over time continental Europe produced three fighters who captured the world
heavyweight crown:
Max Schmeling of Germany, who won the title by disqualification against Jack

Sharkey in 1930;
Primo Carnera of Italy, who knocked out Sharkey in 1933;
and Ingemar Johansson of Sweden, who captured the championship with a knockout

of Floyd Patterson in 1959.
Other great continental European fighters include middleweight champions Marcel

Cerdan, who was born in Algeria but campaigned in France and won the championship in
1948 by knocking out Tony Zale, and Nino Benvenuti of Italy, who won the title by
decision from Emile Griffith in 1967.
Latin America
British sailors are generally credited with having introduced boxing to Latin America

when their ships visited ports in Argentina en route to the Straits of Magellan.
The first recorded bout on the mainland occurred in 1903 between combatants identified
as Paddy McCarthy and Abelardo Robassio.
Thereafter British seamen organized local tournaments, and the first official boxing
federation was founded in Chile in 1912.
Heavyweight champion Jack Johnson fought two exhibitions in Buenos Aires in

December 1914 and one more the following month before losing his title to Jess
Willard in Cuba on April 5, 1915. Thereafter the sport proliferated.
Luis Angel Firpo of Argentina, known as the “Wild Bull of the Pampas,” was the first
native Latin American to mount a challenge for the heavyweight crown.
In 1923 he was defeated in two rounds by Jack Dempsey in a classic brawl in which
Firpo was knocked down nine times and Dempsey twice.
Among the greatest world champions from

Latin America are
Pascual Pérez and Carlos Monzón of Argentina;
Eder Jofre of Brazil;
Roberto Durán, Panama
Al Brown, and Eusebio Pedroza of Panama;
Antonio Cervantes (Kid Pambelé) of Colombia;
Ruben Olivares, Carlos Zarate, Salvador Sanchez, and Julio César Chávez of Mexico;

Wilfredo Benítez, José Torres, Carlos Ortiz, Wilfredo Gómez, and Félix Trinidad of
Puerto Rico;
and Kid Gavilan, Kid Chocolate, Luis Rodríguez, and José Napoles of Cuba.
With the advent of communist rule in Cuba in 1959, professional boxing was banned
there.
However, Cuba has since become the world’s preeminent nation in amateur boxing, in

part because its best boxers fight as amateurs throughout their career rather than moving
to the professional ranks.
U.S. boxers of Latin American descent have also made their mark in the sport; some
notable fighters include Manuel Ortiz, Oscar De La Hoya, and Fernando Vargas.
On March 3, 2000, John (“the Quiet Man”) Ruiz became the first Hispanic to hold a
world heavyweight title when he defeated Evander Holyfield for the World Boxing
Association belt.
Asia
Wijan Ponlid
Boxing reached Asia in the early 1900s and, once established, became extremely
popular.
The first Asian to win a world championship was flyweight Pancho Villa of

the Philippinesin 1923. Villa’s countryman Flash Elorde reigned as world junior-
lightweight champion from 1960 through 1967.
A high point of professional boxing in the Philippines came on October 1, 1975, when, in
a bout referred to as the “Thrilla in Manila,” Muhammad Ali defeated Joe
Frazier in Quezon City.
The Philippines became the centre of the boxing universe during the first 10 years of the
21st century when native son Manny Pacquiao set a record by winning world
championships in eight different weight classes and was widely considered to be the best
pound-for-pound fighter in the world during that decade.
Korean boxing began with the founding of the boxing organization Yugakkwŏntugurakbu

in 1912, when Korea was still under Japanese colonial rule.
However, it was the Korean Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) that was

instrumental in developing and promoting boxing as an amateur sport.
Korean boxing developed rapidly, and soon pugilists such as Sŏ Chŏng-kwon, Hwang
Ŭl-su, and Yi Kyu-hwan began to dominate at national boxing contests in Japan.
Korean boxing was then banned by the Japanese government in the mid 1930s as an
“activity inimical to Japanese interest.”
After World War II and the expulsion of the Japanese, Korean boxing regained its
competitive edge despite the Korean War and the division of the peninsula.
South and North Korean boxers earned some 20 Olympic medals during the last half of
the 20th century, and South Korea saw its first world champion in Kim Ki-su, who
defeated Nino Benvenuti in a WBA junior-middleweight title match in 1966.
Since then the nation has produced some 43 world champions, including Hong Su-hwan,
Jang Chŏng-gu, and Yu Myŏng-wu.
Western boxing arrived in Japan in the 1920s but became popular in the 1960s and ’70s
with such prominent fighters as Masahiko (“Fighting”) Harada.
Boxing is a popular televised sport in Japan, and it is controlled by a few powerful gyms
with close links to television networks.
Once a fighter has turned professional, the gym for which he fights manages his career,
and, unless he is traded, he will fight for that gym for the remainder of his career.
In Thailand, international-style (Queensberry) boxing and the traditional martial

art of Thai boxing (Muay Thai) are both featured at many boxing events.
This fusion has its roots in the 1930s, when Queensberry boxing first reached Thailand
and began influencing the native sport.
Soon Muay Thai matches were held in a ring and fought under time limitations.
Muay Thai programs often feature eight fights, the last of which is international-style
boxing.
The other fights of the evening feature Thai boxing, in which the fighters are allowed to
use their feet, knees, and elbows in addition to gloved fists. (Wrestling or judo moves are
not allowed, however.)
There is a large ritual element in Thai boxing programs that includes music, prayers, and
amulets worn by the fighters. Two boxers who were champions in Muay Thai and went
on to become champions in international-style boxing are Khaosai Galaxy and Samart
Payakaroon.
In China, Western boxing, as it was known in contradistinction to the Chinese martial art
of chung-kuo chuan (“Chinese fist”), was introduced in the late 1920s.
The sport grew until it was banned by Chairman Mao Zedongin 1959 as being too
dangerous for athletes.
In 1979 Muhammad Ali made his first of three visits to China as a goodwill ambassador

for boxing, conferring with communist leader Deng Xiaoping.
These visits and overtures by amateur boxing officials led to the resumption of boxing in
China in 1986.
China sent boxers to the 2000 Olympics at Sydney, and professional matches featuring
fighters from Europe and the United States have been held in China.
By the early 21st century professional boxing was allowed for both Chinese men
and women.
Australia
In the late 1800s, as boxing evolved from bare-knuckle fighting to the Queensberry
rules, Australia was in the forefront of innovation.
A fighter-turned-trainer named Billy Palmer began teaching new defensive techniques to

boxers.
Peter Jackson of the West Indies, who fought a 61-round draw with heavyweight
champion
James Corbett in 1891, and Bob Fitzsimmons of England, who bested Corbett for the
crown in 1897, both traveled to Australia to hone their skills.
Albert Griffiths, who fought under the ring name Young Griffo, captured the world
featherweight title in 1890, which made him Australia’s first native-born world
champion.
The most famous fight to occur on Australian soil was held in Sydney on December 26,
1908, when Jack Johnson knocked out Tommy Burns in 14 rounds to become boxing’s
first Black heavyweight champion.
Africa
The first African to win a world championship was Louis Phal (better known as “Battling
Siki”) of Senegal, who knocked out Georges Carpentier in Paris in 1922 to capture the
world light-heavyweight crown.
Six months later Siki lost his title on a controversial decision to Mike McTigue, an
Irishman, in Dublin on St. Patrick’s Day.
It would be four decades before another African—middleweight and light-heavyweight

champion Richard Ihetu of Nigeria (who fought as “Dick Tiger”)—rose to world
prominence.
Meanwhile, there was little administrative framework for professional boxing in Africa
until 1973, when representatives of nine African nations created the African Boxing
Union.
One year later, on October 30, 1974, Muhammad Ali and George Foreman did battle for
the heavyweight championship in Kinshasa, Zaire.
Ali defeated Foreman on an eighth-round knockout to regain the title in a bout of

legendary proportions promoted as the “Rumble in the Jungle.”
Women in boxing
Hear about the first Olympic gold medal winner in women's boxing Nicola Adams
Women in boxing
Women did not compete in boxing (or most other sports) in ancient times.
In the modern era women boxers were often a novelty, competing in contests staged in
London during the 1700s.
The 1904 Olympics featured women’s boxing but only as a display event.
Not until the 1970s did women begin to train seriously for the ring and to fight, although
they had a difficult time getting matches and gaining acceptance by the boxing
establishment.
The fitness movement of the 1980s, however, helped to make boxing more accessible to
women.
Gender discrimination suits have also facilitated the rise of women’s boxing, especially

in the United States.
Lawsuits against such organizations as USA Boxing and the Golden Gloves Tournament,

in which women sued to have the right to compete in amateur matches, opened doors of
opportunity for women athletes, regardless of the outcome of the individual suits.
By 1993 USA Boxing had sanctioned women’s amateur boxing, and the AIBA followed
in 1994.
In the 1990s women were also sanctioned to box in Canada and in numerous European
nations—including Russia, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, and Hungary—and the
Golden Gloves organization opened its tournament to women. Women’s boxing became
an official Olympic sport at the London 2012 Games.
In amateur boxing, women follow the rules of men’s boxing with a few exceptions—the
rounds are shorter, and women wear breast protectors, with groin protection being
optional.
Professional boxing has been equally difficult for female fighters.
Promoters such as Bob Arum and Don King began promoting female boxers in the

1990s, but there was a continuing problem in that the skill level of most women boxers
has been far below that expected of professionals.
The daughters of famous fighters—including Laila Ali(Muhammad Ali), Jacqui Frazier-

Lyde (Joe Frazier), and Irichelle Durán (Roberto Durán)—have participated in the sport,
overshadowing the few accomplished female boxers such as Lucia Rijker and Christy
Martin in publicity and purses.
It remains to be seen whether women’s professional boxing can progress to anything
more than a curiosity.
Bouts between men and women have been less frequent and have spurred far more
controversy than those between women.
A male-female match was sanctioned in the United States in 1999 by the state of
Washington’s Department of Licensing for boxing.
Thomas Hauser
Rules, Organizations, Techniques, and Styles
Professional organizations
World professional boxing has no one controlling body that is universally recognized.
This situation had its origins in the United States in 1920 when two organizations were
established: the National Boxing Association, a private body, and the New York State
Athletic Commission, a state agency.
Divided control led to competing organizations’ sometimes recognizing different boxers

as world champions at the same time.
In Europe the ruling body was the International Boxing Union, which in 1948 became
the European Boxing Union.
Several attempts were subsequently made to induce all major professional boxing
organizations to agree to the formation of one international ruling body, but to little
avail. In the early 1960s the World Boxing Council (WBC) was formed, and the National
Boxing Association changed its name to the World Boxing Association (WBA).
The International Boxing Federation (IBF) was established in 1983, which added to an

already convoluted situation.
Since the 1980s it has been common for most weight divisions to have three so-called
world champions, and this has considerably diluted the championship class in boxing.
The lack of one unified governing body has also seriously hampered attempts to reform
boxing.
The sport’s chaotic organization makes it nearly impossible to implement safety

measures, such as requiring stringent qualifications for ringside physicians, or to alter
systemic problems that lead to corruption, such as the practice of permitting those who
are promoting a fight to manage one or both of the boxers appearing in that fight.
If a promoter or fighter is banned from fighting in one jurisdiction, the fact that the fight
can be moved to another venue, which is ruled by a different group, makes avoidance of
regulations easy.
Weight divisions
During the 19th and again at the beginning of the 20th century, the popularity of boxing
brought about the formation of weight divisions other than the heavyweight class to
eliminate the handicap of smaller contestants’ having to concede excessive weight to
their opponents.
Some of these weight divisions originated in the United States, others in Great Britain.
There were traditionally eight weight divisions in men’s boxing.
More divisions were added, and professional governing bodies now recognize a total of
17 weight classes, which had their current names established by the major boxing
organizations in 2015.
The upper limits of these classes are delimited as follows:
 minimumweight, 105 pounds (48 kg)

 light flyweight, 108 pounds (49 kg)
 flyweight, 112 pounds (51 kg)
 super flyweight, 115 pounds (52 kg)
 bantamweight, 118 pounds (53.5 kg)
 super bantamweight, 122 pounds (55 kg)
 featherweight, 126 pounds (57 kg)
 super featherweight, 130 pounds (59 kg)
 lightweight, 135 pounds (61 kg)
 super lightweight, 140 pounds (63.5 kg)
 welterweight, 147 pounds (67 kg)
 super welterweight, 154 pounds (70 kg)
 middleweight, 160 pounds (72.5 kg)
 super middleweight, 168 pounds (76 kg)
 light heavyweight, 175 pounds (79 kg)
 cruiserweight, 200 pounds (91 kg)
 heavyweight, unlimited
In all world and national title fights, weight limits must be strictly observed, although
fighters are often allowed by contract to weigh-in the day before a fight.
If a boxer is over the limit, he is normally given a short time in which to make
the stipulated weight.
If he still fails, the bout usually proceeds, but if the overweight fighter wins the bout, the
title for which he was fighting is declared vacant.
In Olympic-style amateur boxing the weight divisions for men are:
 light flyweight, not more than 108 pounds (49 kg)

 flyweight, 115 pounds (52 kg)
 bantamweight, 123 pounds (56 kg)
 light welterweight, 141 pounds (64 kg)
 middleweight, 165 pounds (75 kg)
 heavyweight, 201 pounds (91 kg)
 super heavyweight, any weight over 201 pounds (91 kg)
There is no universal agreement on weight divisions within women’s professional
boxing, but amateur weight divisions are:
 flyweight, not more than 106 pounds (48 kg)

 bantamweight, 112 pounds (51 kg)
 featherweight, 119 pounds (54 kg)
 light welterweight, 132 pounds (60 kg)
 middleweight, 152 pounds (69 kg)
 heavyweight, 179 pounds (81 kg)
 super heavyweight, any weight over 179 pounds (81 kg)
Women’s Olympic boxing is restricted to just three weight classes:
 flyweight, 106 to 112 pounds (48 to 51 kg)

 lightweight, 123 to 132 pounds (56 to 60 kg)
 middleweight, 152 to 165 pounds (69 to 75 kg)
Ring, rules, and equipment
Because there is no universally accepted world ruling body for professional boxing, each
country has its own set of rules, and in the United States there are different rules in
different states.
Generally bouts take place in a “ring” that is 18 to 22 feet (5.5 to 6.7 metres) square and
surrounded by four strands of rope.
Professional bouts may be scheduled to last from 4 to 12 rounds of three minutes’

duration, though two-minute rounds are commonly used in women’s bouts and in some
bouts held in Great Britain.
Since the late 1920s, professional championship bouts traditionally lasted 15 rounds, but
by the late 1980s the WBC, WBA, and IBF championships were all being scheduled for
12 rounds.
A referee is stationed inside the ring with the boxers and regulates the bout.
In some jurisdictions the referee scores the contest along with two judges outside the

ring.
In most jurisdictions, however, the referee does not participate in the judging, and three
ringside officials score the bout.
The officials award points to each boxer for each round, and a boxer must win on two of
the three scorecards to earn a decision victory.
In Olympic bouts five judges score the fight electronically by pushing a button whenever
a punch is believed to have landed on a boxer.
No punch is registered as a hit unless at least three judges press their buttons within a
second of each other.
Padded gloves, ranging from 8 to 10 ounces (227 to 283 grams) in weight, are worn by
the boxers.
A bout ends in a knockout when a boxer is knocked down and cannot get up by the count
of 10.
A fight can be stopped by a technical knockout (TKO) when a boxer is deemed by the
referee (and sometimes the ringside physician) to be unable to defend himself properly,
when a boxer is deemed to have sustained a serious injury, or when a boxer or his
seconds decide he should not continue.
A bout may also end in a decision when the bout has gone the scheduled number of
rounds and the scoring officials decide the winner.
Several conditions can cause a bout to end in a draw:
all three judges awarding identical scores to both contestants results in a draw, as does
two of three judges awarding opponents identical scores, regardless of the third judge’s
score;
further, two of the three judges giving the decision to opposing contestants and the third
judge’s scorecard being evenly divided between the opponents leads to a draw.
In a “no contest” the bout is declared a nullity because of a premature and inconclusive
end, such as one of the participants being unable to continue owing to a cut caused by an
accidental clash of heads early in the fight.
A bout may also end in disqualification.
The rules governing amateur boxing are similar in the United States, Great Britain, and
continental Europe but differ substantially from those governing professional boxing.
Amateur bouts are normally three rounds in duration, and the boxers wear protective
headgear.
Olympic bouts changed from three rounds of three minutes to four rounds of two minutes
for the Games at Sydney in 2000.
The referee only supervises the boxing, while three to five ringside judges score the
bout.
The rules are also more stringently enforced in amateur boxing, and disqualification is
more common than in professional boxing.
Techniques
An effective offence depends on the ability to throw punches quickly and to place them
strategically so as to penetrate the opponent’s guard.
Defensive tactics include parrying or warding off punches with one’s upraised arms and
gloves, moving the head evasively up and down (“bobbing”) and side to side
(“weaving”), and bending or twisting one’s head and upper body out of the blow’s path.
Footwork is important to both offence and defence.
The two generally recognized stances are “orthodox” and “southpaw.”
The former has the left hand and the left foot forward, the latter the right hand and the
right foot forward—the foot or hand that is forward is known as the lead.
Boxers using orthodox stances ordinarily are right-handed and rely on that hand for
power, using the left hand to jab and hook; the converse is true of southpaw boxers, who
are usually left-handed.
In either stance the lead hand is extended forward in front of the body and the other hand
is held near the chin for protection, the chin is tucked into the chest, and the shoulders are
hunched.
There are individual variations.
There are four basic punches:
the jab,
hook,
uppercut,
and straight right (straight left for a southpaw),
which is sometimes referred to as a “cross.” All other punches are modifications of these
basic punches.
The jab, whether thrown from an orthodox or a southpaw stance, is a straight punch

delivered with the lead hand, which moves directly out from the shoulder.
The hook, also thrown with the lead hand, is a short lateral movement of arm and fist,
with elbow bent and wrist twisted inward at the moment of impact.
The uppercut is an upward blow delivered from the direction of the toes with either
hand.
The straight right or left is thrown at shoulder level with the back hand, usually as a
follow-up to a jab from the other hand.
Styles
In bare-knuckle fighting the emphasis was on the power of the punch, since bouts usually
ended only when one contestant could not continue.
The hands were held in front of the body in no particular position, and footwork was
practically nonexistent.
With the advent of padded gloves and contests decided on points, boxing skills and
footwork became more important.
James J. Corbett was the first modern heavyweight to concentrate on technique.
Ten years after Corbett lost the title, heavyweight champion Jack Johnson showed that he
too could box as well as punch.
The heavyweight champion Jack Dempsey enjoyed tremendous popularity because he
was an aggressive fighter with an explosive assault.
Dempsey fought from a crouch, bobbing and weaving to leave as little of himself

exposed as possible.
The heavyweight champion Joe Louis perfected the “stalking” style, a method of

patiently pursuing his opponent until he came within range to deliver damaging blows.
Until Muhammad Ali, heavyweights were not expected to move quickly.
At his peak, however, Ali was the fastest and arguably the most skillful heavyweight
champion of all time.
He danced around the ring with his arms sometimes dangling at his side, his legs ready to
take him into punching range or out of harm’s way at will.
Although Ali did not possess a devastating punch, his hand speed was extraordinary, and
he dominated many fights by delivering rapid sequences of blows.
Though style remains a matter of individual choice, swift lateral movement, good
defensive head movement, combination punching, and effective counterpunching have, to
a large degree, become the most important aspects of modern boxing technique.
Ron Olver
Nigel Collins
Boxing in Art, Literature, and Film

For such a brutal trade, boxing has attracted more than its share of artists and writers.
Of course, it may be more accurate to say that it is boxing’s seminaked display of

aggression that accounts for its appeal.
If all life is ultimately a Darwinian struggle for survival, then boxing at least has the
virtue of being open about it.
Boxing is also said to foster the “manly” virtues of discipline and fortitude.

According to the duke of Wellington, boxing “tends to produce and keep up that natural
undaunted bravery and intrepidity which has enabled our armies to conquer in many a
hard-fought battle.”
Whatever its psychological hold, the sport has always inspired wonder and admiration, as
well as repugnance, moving the artist to pick up pen, brush, chisel, or camera.
One of the earliest depictions of boxers appears on a Minoan

vase from Crete c. 1500 BCE.
Almost 800 years later Homer recounted a boxing match in the 23rd book of

the Iliad(see above), and, in a neat bit of parallelism, the sport became part of the
23rd Olympiad in 688 BCE.
Later Plato referred to boxing in the Republic and the dialogue Gorgias; Virgil, echoing

Homer, included a boxing match in the Aeneid (see above).
Pindar composed poems for Olympic champions, as in the Olympian ode written for
Diagoras of Rhodes excerpted here:
But, Father Zeus, you who rule over the ridges of Atabyrium, grant honour to the hymn
ordained in praise of an Olympian victor, and to the man who has found excellence as a
boxer, and grant to him honoured grace in the eyes of both citizens and strangers. For he
walks a straight course on a road that hates arrogance, knowing clearly the sound
prophetic wisdom of his good ancestors.
Greek and Roman art frequently depict boxing.
Greek vases portray many different types of blows and postures and often show blood
pouring from a boxer’s nose and cuts on his face.
The life-size seated boxer (dating to the 1st century BCE) now in the Roman National
Museum in Rome wears superbly detailed sharp thongs on his hands, and his battered
face, broken nose, and cauliflower ears show the effects of such fighting.
The brutal and sinister forms of the Roman caestus (glove) frequently appear in small

bronzes and in Roman mosaics.
After boxing died out with the gladiatorial games in the 5th century AD, it naturally
disappeared from the literary and artistic canvas.
When the sport resurfaced in 17th-century England, artists and writers soon gravitated to
it.
William Hogarth painted the first British champion, James Figg, and Alexander

Pope and Jonathan Swift attended Figg’s exhibitions in London.
Early in the next century, Lord Byron and John Keats professed themselves admirers of

the sport, while William Hazlitt’s essay “The Fight” (1821) made it legitimate material
for men of letters.
In 1812 a London journalist, Pierce Egan, wrote a history of British boxing, Boxiana,

whose highly stylized prose very likely influenced a young reader by the name of Charles
Dickens.
Both Dickens and William Makepeace Thackeray attended the famous fight between the
American John C. Heenanand the British champion Tom Sayers in 1860, and Thackeray
wrote a rather silly but endearing poem about it, A Lay of Ancient London.
George Bernard Shaw devoted a novel to boxing, Cashel Byron’s Profession(1883),

which became the play The Admirable Bashville (1903).
Arthur Conan Doyle not only made sure that Sherlock Holmes was a good amateur
pugilist, he also wrote a half dozen stories about boxers under the title The Croxley
Master and Other Tales of the Ring and Camp (1910). Even the poet laureate John
Masefield devoted some stanzas to boxing in The Everlasting Mercy (1911).
Here a boxer’s seconds (a second assists or supports a boxer or duelist) try to ensure that
their fighter will be ready for his next round:
They drove (a dodge that never fails)

A pin beneath my finger nails.
They poured what seemed a running beck
Of cold spring water down my neck;
Jim with a lancet quick as flies
Lowered the swelling round my eyes.
They sluiced my legs and fanned my face
Through all that blessed minute’s grace;
They gave my calves a thorough kneading,
They salved my cuts and stopped the bleeding.
A gulp of liquor dulled the pain,
And then the flasks clinked again.
Americans resisted boxing until the end of the 19th century, but, once the sport had
gained a foothold, men who wrote about boxing often seemed as plentiful as fighters
themselves.
Among them were Jack London, Dashiell Hammet, H.C. Witwer, Nelson Algren, Ernest

Hemingway, Ring Lardner, James T. Farrell, Clifford Odets, Irwin Shaw, Budd
Schulberg, and Norman Mailer.
In fact, it is likely that more literary writing, as opposed to pure journalism, has been
spent on boxing than on any other sport, and, indeed, on rare occasions, gifted journalists
have blurred the line between literary writing and sportswriting. A.J. Liebling’s reportage
in The Sweet Science (1956), for example, appeals both to writers and sports fans,
and Heywood Broun’s newspaper column “The Orthodox Champion” (1922) managed to
both celebrate and poke fun at the way boxing and literature are often conjoined.
To understand why writers, especially male writers (though not exclusively, Joyce Carol
Oates being an exception), are drawn to the sport, it is enough to know that boxers, more
than any other athlete, throw into relief the writer’s own sedentary and introspective
profession.
Bluntly put: one writes, the other fights.
The boxer engages in a visible struggle, with a designated opponent, whose outcome is
usually (though not always) resoundingly clear, while the writer’s struggle is always with
himself, and success is hardly the product of a unanimous decision.
Moreover, if the writer frets that his own experience is somehow less vital or real than
that of the man of action, boxing can symbolize this insecurity.
Given boxers’ well-developed physiques and the visceral reality of physical combat, such

men and the profession they engage in are a natural subject for painters and
photographers.
The French painter Théodore Géricault and the English painter John Constable portrayed

boxers, while such well-known Regency caricaturists as Thomas Rowlandson and Robert
and George Cruikshank trained their jaundiced eyes on the London Prize Ring.
American George Bellows vividly portrayed boxing matches in Stag at Sharkey’s (1909)

and Both Members of This Club (1909).
Bellows’s 1924 lithograph of Luis Firpo knocking Jack Dempsey out of the ring is
perhaps the most famous of all boxing scenes.
Other American painters of boxing include Thomas Eakins and James Chapin, both of
whom ably rendered the movement, power, and grace of men boxing, as well as the
fatigue and pathos that often attends the aftermath.
These same dramatic qualities appealed to filmmakers. In fact, the very first motion
picture using “actors” was a boxing exhibition filmed by Thomas Edison on June 16,
1894, using the Edison kinetoscope.
And in 1897, the championship fight between Gentleman Jim Corbett and Bob

Fitzsimmons became the first sporting event to be captured on film.
The power of such films was attested to when interstate commerce in footage of Jack
Johnson beating Jim Jeffries (July 4, 1910) was prohibited by federal law.
(The fact that Johnson was an African American and Jim Jeffries a white boxer had more
than a little to do with it.)
Johnson’s life would eventually be the subject of another boxing film, The Great White
Hope (1970, adapted from the Pulitzer Prize-winning play by Howard Sackler).
As for fictional movies about boxers, they outnumber all other sports films.
Although most early fight films followed a set pattern of a poor boy who battles his way
out of the slums only to fall prey to women and gangsters, their popularity really
depended on the built-in tension in every boxing match.
Not only is there danger with every punch thrown, there is anxiety in who shall prevail;
and when two boxers represent different constituencies of class, ethnicity, or nationality,
a championship fight becomes all the more significant.
A short list of notable fight films includes Rouben Mamoulian’s Golden Boy (1939);
Robert Rossen’s Body and Soul (1947), about an ambitious Jewish fighter’s rise from
poverty;
Robert Wise’s The Set-Up (1949) and Somebody Up There Likes Me (1956);
Mark Robson’s Champion (1949), loosely based on Ring Lardner’s short story of the

same name, and The Harder They Fall (1956), inspired by the rise and fall of Primo
Carnera;
Kurt Newman’s The Ring (1952), about a young Mexican American’s fight for respect in
and out of the ring;
Requiem for a Heavyweight (1962, adapted from Rod Serling’s Playhouse 90 production
of 1956);
John Huston’s Fat City (1972), which captured the unglamorous world of small-time

boxers;
Martin Scorsese’s Raging Bull (1980), based upon the life of the fighter Jake La Motta;
Sakamoto Junji’s Dotsuitaru nen (1989, Knockout), based upon the autobiography of

young welterweight Akai Hidekazu, who suffers brain damage from boxing but
eventually returns to the ring (Akai plays himself in this film);
the six popular but highly artificial Rocky movies (1976–2006), which tell the story of a
decent man who fights for a living;
Kitano Takeshi’s Kidzu ritān(1996, Kids Return), about two Japanese teen bullies who
take up boxing and learn about life in the process; Katya Bankowsky’s Shadow
Boxers (1999), a documentary featuring Lucia Rijker;
Karyn Kusama’s Girlfight (2000), an award-winning film about female pugilists;
Clint Eastwood’s Million Dollar Baby (2004), a drama that focuses on the relationship

between a female boxer and her aging trainer;
and David O. Russell’s The Fighter (2010), which follows two boxing half brothers as

one tries to land his big break with training from the other, who is dealing with his own
crack cocaine addiction.
In books or in film, the climactic match often means salvation or redemption—a time-
tested formula hard to resist.
Arthur Krystal
Michael Poliakoff
Modified July 27, 2005
ASSOCIATION OF BOXING COMMISSIONS
REGULATORY GUIDELINES AND RULES FOR ALL
WORLD AND REGIONAL CHAMPIONSHIP BOUTS
The following regulatory guidelines and rules govern all championship professional
boxing competitions held within the United States of America , Puerto Rico, The Virgin
Islands, District of Columbia , and any Indian reservation.
In the event of a dispute regarding the guidelines, rules, or any other issue that is not
clearly covered under the ABC rules, the supervising Commission of the bout will be the
final authority.
General Rules
Licensees/Officials – Control
All licensees and officials involved in the actual conduct of an event shall be under the
direct control of the supervising commission assigned to regulate the event.
No official shall in any manner display partiality for one contestant over the other.
The Uniform Championship Rules shall be utilized in conjunction with these guidelines.
Physical Examinations
All boxers competing shall receive a pre-fight physical examination by a ringside

physician who certifies in writing whether or not the boxer is physically fit to safely
compete.
A true and correct copy of the event physician’s certification shall be provided to the
supervising Commission.
If the event physician’s certification fails to certify that the boxer is physically fit to
safely compete, the boxer shall not participate in any contest, and immediately be placed
on the National suspension list.
Unless the supervising Commission determines otherwise, all post-fight physicals shall
be conducted by the ringside physician after the final bout of the event.
Boxers shall also be required to meet all supervising Commission licensing and medical
requirements.
Prohibited Substances
Only discretionary use of petroleum jelly will be allowed on the face, arms or any other
part of the boxer’s body.
In the case of a cut, only the topical use of the following is allowed:
a. A solution of adrenaline 1/1000
b. Avetine
c. Thrombin
**All other solutions are prohibited.
Prohibited Drugs
Any/all boxers may be required to submit to drug testing, or any other testing as required
by the supervising Commission at the promoter’s expense.
Out of State Suspensions
All medical and administrative suspensions placed on contestants by other athletic

commissions will be recognized by the supervising Commission.
MEDICAL INSURANCE
Health Insurance
Each boxer shall be covered by health insurance that provides medical coverage for any
injuries sustained in the boxing event.
The recommended amount of health and accidental death benefit coverage per boxer is
$100,000.
The minimum amount per boxer shall be $10,000 health and $10,000 accidental death
benefits.
A certificate of health insurance must be provided to the supervising commission prior to

the match.
FEDERAL REQUIREMENTS
Federal Identification card
Boxers must be at least eighteen (18) years of age and possess a current Federal ID Card
in order to compete in a professional boxing match.
Federal Compliance
There shall be full compliance with the Professional Boxing Safety Act of 1996 and the
Muhammad Ali Boxing Reform Act (15 USC § 6301, et seq.) and any amendments made
thereto.
LICENSE
Licenses
All positions recognized by the supervising commission are required to be licensed.
License Fee Schedule
The supervising Commission shall use their current license fee schedule.

FEMALE BOXING RULES
Protective Equipment
Female boxers shall box in boxing shorts, abdominal guard, foul proof cup, body shirt,
shoes and a custom-made, individually fitted mouthpiece.
Breast protectors are optional.
Hair & Cosmetics
Boxers shall wear NO facial cosmetics.
Hair shall be secured with soft and non-abrasive materials when deemed appropriate by
an official from the supervising commission.
Weight Classes
The weight classes shall be the same as used by male boxers.
Number and Duration of Rounds
No female professional boxing contest shall be scheduled for more than ten (10) rounds.
Each round shall be two (2) minutes in duration and have a one (1) minute rest period
between rounds.
Female Bout Gloves Sizes
Glove weight shall be the same as used by male boxers.
Larger gloves may be used if agreed upon by both boxers.

Pregnancy Test
Negative pregnancy tests, not more than 14 days old, shall be provided to the
supervising boxing commission prior to each bout.

BOXING RULES
Weigh-Ins
Scales
The scales used for weigh-ins shall be provided by the promoter and approved by the
If more than one scale is used, each boxer shall be weighed on the same scale as his/her
opponent.
Weigh-In Procedures
Boxers shall be weighed within twenty-four hours prior to the scheduled event, at a time
and place chosen by the promoter and approved by the supervising Commission.
The weigh-in shall take place in the presence of the supervising Commission and the
promoter or the promoter’s representative.
Once weigh-ins commence, the scales shall not be moved until all boxers have been
weighed and weigh-ins are completed.
Weigh-ins within 24-Hours
When weighs-ins occur within twenty-four hours, but not less than twelve hours prior to
an event’s scheduled start time, the boxer shall not exceed the weight specified on the
boxer/promoter contract.
If a boxer exceeds the weight specified in the boxer/promoter contract, the supervising
commission shall cancel the contest unless the boxer:
1. Loses the weight exceeded in the boxer/promoter contract at least twelve hours prior to
the event’s scheduled start time;
2. Loses all but two pounds of the weight exceeded in the boxer/promoter contract at least
twelve hours prior to the event’s scheduled start time and loses the final two pounds at
least six hours prior to the event’s scheduled start time; or,
3. Renegotiates the boxer/promoter contract.
Boxers who weigh-in twelve to twenty-four hours prior to the scheduled event shall be
required to re-weigh two hours prior to the scheduled event start time and will not be
allowed to exceed the weight specified in the boxer/promoter contract by more than ten
pounds.
Weigh-ins within 12-Hours
When weigh-ins occur less than twelve hours prior to an event’s scheduled start time, the
boxer shall not exceed the weight specified in the boxer/promoter contract.
For safety purposes, no boxer shall be permitted to lose MORE THAN two pounds
within twelve hours of a contest.
If a boxer weighs more than two pounds over the weight specified in the boxer/promoter
contract, the supervising commission shall cancel the contest unless the boxer:
1. Loses up to two pounds at least six hours prior to an event’s scheduled start time and
renegotiates the boxer/promoter contract; or,
2. Renegotiates the boxer/promoter contract.
Weight Classes, Weight Differences and Glove Weight Guidelines
The following guidelines shall be used for contests unless the ABC waives the weight
difference allowance in writing.
Weight Class Weight Difference Glove

Allowance Weight
Mini Flyweight Up to and including 105 Not more than 3 pounds. 8 oz.
pounds.
Light Flyweight Over 105 to 108 pounds. Not more than 3 pounds. 8 oz.
Flyweight Over 108 to 112 pounds. Not more than 3 pounds. 8 oz.
Super Flyweight Over 112 to 115 pounds. Not more than 3 pounds. 8 oz.
Bantamweight Over 115 to 118 pounds. Not more than 3 pounds. 8 oz.
Super Over 118 to 122 pounds. Not more than 4 pounds. 8 oz.
Bantamweight
Featherweight Over 122 to 126 pounds. Not more than 4 pounds. 8 oz.
Featherweight
Lightweight Over 130 to 135 pounds. Not more than 5 pounds. 8 oz.
Super Lightweight Over 135 to 140 pounds. Not more than 5 pounds. 8 oz.
Welterweight Over 140 to 147 pounds. Not more than 7 pounds. 8 oz.
Welterweight
Middleweight Over 154 to 160 pounds. Not more than 7 pounds. 10 oz.
Middleweight
Light Heavyweight Over 168 to 175 pounds. Not more than 7 pounds. 10 oz.
Cruiserweight Over 175 to 200 pounds. Not more than 12 10 oz.
pounds.
Heavyweight Over 200 pounds. No limit. 10 oz.
Bout Approval
1. No boxing contest shall be allowed unless approved by the supervising Commission.
The decision of the supervising Commission is final.
2. The supervising Commission may approve the contest if the following information
about each boxer is similar and the supervising Commission does not have undo concern
for the safety and welfare of either boxer proposed for a contest.
a. Boxing record;
b. Boxing experience;
c. Boxing skill; and
d. Physical condition.
3. The supervising Commission shall notify the matchmaker and promoter when a boxing
contest is approved by giving preliminary approval to the matchmaker and by approving
of the advance notice submitted by the promoter.
Only bouts approved by the supervising Commission will be allowed, and their decision
is final.
Duration of Rounds
No professional boxing contest shall be scheduled for more than twelve (12) rounds for
males or ten (10) rounds for females.
Each round shall be three (3) minutes in duration for male boxers and two (2) minutes for
female boxers and have a one (1) minute rest period between rounds.
Approved Ring Attire
Boxers shall box in boxing shorts, abdominal guard, foul proof cup, shoes and a custom-
made, individually fitted mouthpiece.
In addition, female boxers shall wear a body shirt while breast protection is optional (see
Female Boxing Rules).
Hand Wraps
Hand wraps shall be restricted to no more than twenty (20) yards of soft gauze, not more
than two (2) inches wide.
The gauze shall be held in place by no more than eight (8) feet of adhesive tape, no more
than one and one-half (1 ½) inches wide.
The adhesive tape shall not cover any part of the knuckles when the hand is clenched to
make a fist.
The use of water, or any other liquid or material, on the tape is strictly prohibited.
Hand wraps shall be applied in the dressing room in the presence of a Commission
representative and, if requested, one representative of the other boxer.
Gloves
Gloves must have the distal portion of the thumb attached to the body of the glove so as
to minimize the possibility of injury to an opponent’s eye.
A glove, or set of gloves, shall only be used once during each boxing event.
All gloves are subject to inspection by the supervising Commission.
Gloves found to be twisted, manipulated, altered, unfit or ill-fitting, shall be replaced.

The promoter shall provide one set each of eight-ounce and ten-ounce gloves to the
supervising Commission prior to the start of the first contest for use in case gloves are
damaged during a contest.
Promoters shall supply gloves that are whole, clean, sanitary, and in good condition.
The gloves may not be twisted, manipulated or altered in any manner.
The promoter shall provide new gloves for all main event and title bouts.
When two boxers in a contest are above and below the weights described in the
subsection entitled “Guidelines for Boxing Weight Classes, Weight Difference and Glove
Weight,” both boxers shall wear the gloves required for the higher weight.
Ring Occupants
No person other than the contestants and the referee shall enter the ring during a bout.
For non-title fights there may be no more than three seconds.
Between rounds, one second may be inside the ring and the other (2) on the ring apron.
For a championship fight there may be four seconds.
Between rounds, one second may be inside the ring and two (2) of the seconds on the ring
apron, with the fourth second remaining off the apron on the floor.
The physician may enter the ring if asked by the referee, the supervising commission or
the inspectors to examine an injury to a contestant.
No contestant shall leave the ring during any one-minute rest period between rounds.
The referee may, in his/her discretion, stop a contest or exhibition if an unauthorized

person enters the ring during a round.
Fouls
A foul is an action by a boxer, identified by the referee, that does not meet the standard of
a fair blow or the conduct of a responsible professional fighter.
Fouls may include, but are not limited to, the following types of contact or acts:
1. Hitting an opponent below the navel or behind the ear;
2. Hitting an opponent who is knocked down;
3. Holding an opponent with one hand and hitting with the other;
4. Holding or deliberately maintaining a clinch;
5. Wrestling, kicking or roughing;
6. Pushing an opponent about the ring or into the ropes;
7. Butting with the head, shoulder, knee, elbow;
8. Hitting with the open glove, the butt or inside of the hand, or back of the hand, the
elbow or the wrist;
9. Purposely falling down onto the canvas of the ring without being hit or for the purpose
of avoiding a blow;
10. Striking deliberately at that part of the body over the kidneys;
11. Using the pivot blow (pivoting while throwing a punch) or the rabbit punch
(punches thrown to the back of the head and neck areas);
12. Jabbing the eyes with the thumb of the glove;
13. Use of abusive language;
14. Unsportsmanlike conduct causing injury to an opponent that does not meet the
standard of a fair blow;
15. Hitting on the break;
16. Intentionally spitting out the mouthpiece;
17. Hitting on or out of the ropes;
18. Holding rope and hitting;
19. Biting/spitting;
20. Not following referee’s instructions;
21. Stepping on opponent;
22. Crouching below opponent’s belt;
23. Leaving neutral corner; and
24. Corner second shouting.
Injuries sustained by Fouls
A. Intentional fouls.
1. If an intentional foul causes an injury, and the injury is severe enough to terminate the
bout immediately, the boxer causing the injury shall lose by disqualification.
2. If an intentional foul causes an injury and the bout is allowed to continue, the referee
will notify the authorities and deduct (2) points from the boxer who caused the foul.
Point deductions for intentional fouls will be mandatory.
3. If an intentional foul causes an injury and the injury results in the bout being stopped in
a latter round, the injured boxer will win by TECHNICAL DECISION if he is ahead on
the score cards or the bout will result in a TECHNICAL DRAW if the injured boxer is
behind or even on the score cards.
Partial or incomplete rounds will be scored.
If no action has occurred, the round should be scored as an even round.
4. If boxer injures himself while attempting to intentionally foul his opponent, the referee
will not take any action in his favor, and this injury will be the same as one produced by a
fair blow.
5. If the referee feels that a boxer has conducted himself in an unsportsmanlike manner
he/she may stop the bout and disqualify the boxer.
B. Accidental fouls.
If an accidental foul causes an injury severe enough for the referee to stop the bout
immediately, the bout will result in a NO DECISION if stopped before three (3)
completed rounds in bouts scheduled for four rounds. Rounds are complete when the bell
rings signifying the end of a round.
If a bout is scheduled for more than four (4) rounds and an accidental foul occurs causing
an injury severe enough for the referee to stop the bout immediately, the bout will result
in a NO DECISION if stopped before four (4) completed rounds.
If an accidental foul causes an injury severe enough for the referee to stop the bout
immediately, after three (3) rounds have occurred in bouts scheduled for four rounds, the
bout will result in a TECHNICAL DECISION, awarded to the boxer who is ahead on the
score cards at the time the bout is stopped.
If a bout is scheduled for more than four (4) rounds and an accidental foul causing an
injury severe for the referee to stop the bout immediately, after four (4) rounds have
occurred, the bout will result in a TECHNICAL DECISION, awarded to the boxer who is
ahead on the score cards at the time the bout is stopped.
A fighter who is hit with an accidental low blow must continue after a reasonable amount
of time but no more than five (5) minutes or he/she will lose the fight.
Penalty for Fouls
Disqualification for fouls to the body can only occur if the referee feels that these fouls
are flagrant and/or continual.
The referee may order a deduction of points for any illegal blow to the body and may, at
his/her discretion, give a rest period of up to five (5) minutes for the injured boxer to
recover.
The referee may ask the ringside physician to examine the boxer before granting the rest
period.
If the referee rules the foul accidental and the injured boxer is unable to continue after the
five (5) minute rest period, the rules governing accidental fouls shall apply.
A boxer who is hit with an accidental low blow must continue after the five- (5) minute
rest or he/she will lose the bout.
When an intentional foul causes an injury and the bout is allowed to continue, the referee
will notify the authorities and deduct two (2) points from the boxer who caused the foul.
Point deductions for intentional fouls are mandatory.
Determination of a Knockdown
It shall be ruled a knockdown when, as a result of a legal blow or series of legal blows, a
contestant:
1. Touches the floor with any part of the body other than his/her feet;
2. Is being held up by the ropes, or
3. Is hanging on, through, or over the ropes without the ability to protect him/herself and
cannot fall to the floor.
Knock Down Eight Count
In the case of a knock down, the eight (8) count is mandatory.
A contestant who is knocked out shall be suspended for a minimum period of sixty days
and a contestant who loses by technical knock out shall be suspended for a minimum
period of thirty days from participating in any boxing activity.
A referee may terminate the count and the bout at any point when he/she decides that the
safety of the downed boxer is at risk.
In the event of a knockdown, the downed boxer will be allowed a ten count in which to
rise unassisted.
Should a contestant arise before the count of ten is reached and go back down
immediately without being struck by the opponent, the referee shall resume the count
where he/she left off.
A referee may count a contestant out who is hanging defensively on, through, or over the
ropes or on the floor.
When a knockdown occurs, the downed boxer’s opponent shall go to the furthest neutral
corner and remain there while the count is being made.
The referee may stop counting if the opponent fails to go to the neutral corner, and
resume the count where he/she left off when the opponent reports to or returns to the
neutral corner.
Bout Termination Due to Injury – Technical Knock-out (TKO)
When a cut is produced by a legal punch and the fight is stopped because of that cut, the
injured boxer shall lose by Technical Knock-out, and the Commission shall inscribe in
the records the letters TKO (loss by technical knock-out).
Any boxer losing by way of a TKO resulting from head blows shall receive a medical
suspension and shall not participate in any boxing activity for a minimum of a thirty (30)
day.
Bout Termination Due to a Knock-Out – Knock-out (KO)
When a boxer loses by way of a knock-out or is unable to rise by the count of ten, he/she
shall lose by Knock-out (KO), and the Commission shall inscribe in the records the
letters KO (loss by knock-out).
Medical Suspensions
A boxer losing by way of a Technical Knock Out (TKO) resulting from head blows shall
receive a medical suspension and shall not participate in any boxing activity for a
minimum period of thirty (30) days.
A boxer losing by way of a Knock Out (KO) shall receive a medical suspension and shall
not participate in any boxing activity for a minimum period of sixty days.
At the discretion of the physician, longer suspension periods may be issued for either the
TKO or KO.
Boxers shall receive a mandatory seven-day rest period after competing in an event.
Day 1 of the mandatory rest period shall commence on the first day following the event.
A physician may issue a medical suspension any time he/she believes it to be in the best
interest for the safety of a boxer (i.e., high blood pressure at pre-fight physical).
In any/all cases, the decision by the physician to issue or extend a suspension is final.
EQUIPMENT
Ring Size
The ring shall be no less than sixteen (16) or more than 20 feet square when measured
inside the line of the ropes.
The apron of the ring shall extend beyond the ropes not less than two feet.
The ring shall be equipped with four ropes with two spacer ties on each side of the ring to
secure the ropes.
Medical Equipment Required
There shall be an ambulance and duly licensed EMT’s or paramedics with appropriate
resuscitation equipment at ringside at all times.
SECONDS
Requirements and Restrictions
Every person serving as a second must be licensed if the supervising commission licenses
seconds.
Entering Ring
Seconds shall not enter the ring to assist or move a boxer who has been knocked-down or
injured until instructed to do so by medical personnel.
Chief Second and Corner Duties
No more than three seconds can assist a boxer during a non-title contest, one inside the
ring and two on the ring apron.
For championship contests, four seconds may be utilized, one inside the ring, two on the
ring apron, and one at ground level.
A boxer may lose points or be disqualified for the conduct of his/her chief second or
corner(s).
1. Before a contest begins:
a. The chief second and other corner men for each boxer shall be identified for the
inspector and the referee.
Only those so identified shall be allowed in the boxer’s corner.
b. Before putting on gloves, the boxer shall present his/her wrapped hands for inspection
by the supervising Commission.
c. The corner shall present the boxer, ready to box, when the referee calls the boxers to
ring center for final instructions.
d. Sealed sport drinks must be presented to the Commission for examination before the
bout or they may not be used.
2. During the round, seconds:
a. Must remain seated.
b. Must not mount the stairs or apron or enter the ring until the bell indicates the end of a
round.
c. Must refrain from excessive coaching of his/her boxer.
d. Shall signal the referee to stop the fight by mounting the ring apron rather than
throwing towels, sponges or anything else into the ring.
Only the Referee can stop the contest, and he/she may consult with the ringside physician
on the physical condition of either boxer at any time.
3. During the one minute rest period, a second:
a. May coach his/her boxer.
b. May treat cuts/abrasions and/or swelling.
c. May provide water, ice, approved sports drinks, or other cooling-down techniques.
d. Must leave the ring at the sound of the timekeeper’s whistle that is given ten seconds
before a round begins.
e. Shall remove all items in the ring and on the ring platform prior to the bell sounding
the beginning of the round.
PHYSICIANS
Physician Required at Ringside
There shall be at least one (1) physician at ringside at all times.
The physician must be a licensed medical doctor or a doctor of osteopathic medicine.

The physician must be legally authorized to practice medicine by the state in which the
boxing event is being held unless an exemption is granted per state statue.
REFEREES
Referee’s Responsibilities Before the Bout
1. Meet with each boxer and his/her chief second in their dressing room and:
a. Warn the seconds about violations of seconds rules, and if they do not comply, the
referee shall warn them that further violations will result in disqualification of their
contestant, and/or disciplinary action.
b. Identify the belt/hip line and clarify that the equipment shall not extend above this
imaginary line.
c. Explain what you will do when the warning sounds, indicating that the end of the
round is near, and when the bell sounds ending the round.
d. Explain to the chief second that he/she is expected to manage the corner (clean up
spills and/or ice, wipe off excess petroleum jelly, and ensure that the boxer has his/her
mouth piece in place before the start of each round).
e. Share how you will direct the boxers to break (i.e., “punch” or “get out” and, if
necessary, “hold your punches” and step in and break the boxers.
f. Review fouls and how you will issue cautions and/or deducts points.
g. Inspect and sign hand wraps (unless the commission establishes some other process).
h. Ask the boxer and chief second if they have any questions.
2. Meet with the physician(s) to:
a. Determine his/her ringside experience.
b. Determine where the physician(s) will be located at ringside during the conduct of the
bouts.
c. Inform/remind the physician that he/she is not to enter the ring unless directed to do so
by the referee or the commission.
d. Specify the signal the referee will use to call the physician into the ring.
e. Specify the signal the referee will use to call the physician to a neutral corner.
f. Direct the physician to mount the ring apron quickly if called to examine a boxer
during the bout, make a quick examination (no more than five to ten seconds), and
communicate with the referee.
Determine in advance how the physician will communicate his/her findings with the
referee.
g. Direct the physician not to make any statements after examining a boxer that could
change the dynamics of the bout, such as “Let it go one more round.”
h. Discuss the boxers and some of the things the physician may see during the fight (i.e.,
one boxer usually bleeds from the nose).
i. Obtain pre-fight medical exam.
3. Check the condition of the ring to ensure that everything is ready for the bout (buckets
and stairs in red and blue corners, rope tension, ring floor and canvas condition, etc.).
4. When boxers enter the ring:
a. Inspect the gloves of the contestants and make sure that no foreign substances have
been applied to the gloves or bodies of the contestants that might be detrimental to an
opponent.
b. Inspect the gloves, trunks, shoes (double knot and/or taped), hair, mouthpiece, safety
equipment (re-establish the belt line), and check for jewelry.
c. After the announcer makes introductions, call the boxers to center ring, give final
instructions, direct boxers to return to their corners, and clear the ring and ring apron in
preparation for the contest.
d. Before starting each bout, check each judge, the timekeeper and the physician(s) to
determine if they are ready before signalling the timekeeper to start the contest.
Referee’s Responsibilities During the Bout
1. Ensure the safety of the boxers.
2. Enforce all the rules of the Commission that apply to the execution of performance and
the conduct of contestants’ seconds while he/she is in the ring.
3. Maintain control of the fight at all stages and issue cautions and/or deduct points as
appropriate.
4. Whenever the gloves of a contestant touch the canvas floor, whether by accident or by
knockdown, physically inspect the gloves and wipe them clean before the bout proceeds.
5. If a boxer is cut, the referee may interrupt the bout to consult the ringside physician to
determine if the injured boxer can continue or not.
6. If the ringside physician steps on the ring apron, the referee may call time-out and have
the injured boxer examined by this physician.
Final authority to stop or continue a bout rests with the referee.
7. Immediately stop a contest to inform the commission and boxers of an injury caused
by a head butt or foul, determine if the act was intentional or accidental, and determine if
the bout can continue.
8. Instruct the judges to mark their scorecards accordingly when he/she has assessed a
foul upon one of the contestants.
9. If the contestant taking the count is still down when the referee calls the count of ten,
or, if in the opinion of the referee, the contestant who was knocked down is in no
condition to continue, the referee shall wave both arms to indicate a knockout.
10. If both contestants go down at the same time, counting shall be continued as long as
one of them is still down. If both contestants remain down until the count of ten, the
contest shall be stopped and the decision shall be a technical draw.
11. At the end of each round, pick up the score cards from the judges and turn them into
the commission (unless some other process has been arranged for the bout by the
commission).
Referee’s Responsibilities After the Bout Ends
1. Pick up the scorecards from the judges and turn them into the commission.
2. Inspect the hand wraps of both boxers after their gloves have been removed.
3. Call the boxers to center ring and raise the hand of the winner after his/her name is
announced.
4. Maintain control of the ring, boxers, and seconds until the winner has been announced
and they have all exited the ring.
Referee Approval
The commission shall name the referee and its decision shall be final.
Referee – Sole Arbiter

The referee is the sole arbiter of a bout and is the only individual authorized to stop a
contest.
JUDGES
Number of Judges
The scoring shall be done by three judges, approved by the Commission.
The referee, also approved by the Commission, will not score the contest.
Scoring criteria
The scoring shall be done on a TEN POINT must system.
Judges are to score each round using the following scoring criteria:
1. Clean punching (power versus quantity).
2. Effective aggressiveness.
3. Ring generalship.
4. Defence.
Incomplete or partial rounds
In the event that the bout is stopped in the middle of the round, the judges shall score
ALL incomplete or partials rounds as if they were a complete round.
Knockdowns
Judges shall deduct points for knockdowns only when they are called as such by the
referee.
Point deductions
Judges may only deduct points for fouls when they are instructed to do so by the referee.
General guidelines for the “10 Point Must System”
Judges should avoid scoring a round even.
(Complete concentration and application of the scoring criteria will allow Judges to pick
the winner of each round.)
The basic scoring concepts are:
• Round ends, no clear winner 10-10 (Rare)
• Close round/Winning of the round by effective boxing – 10-9
• One knockdown and a winning of the round – 10-8
• No knockdowns, but a clear dominating winning of the round – 10-8
• Two knockdowns – 10-7
• One knockdown and one point deduction to the same boxer – 10-8 (minus 1) = 10-7
• More than two knockdowns – 10-6
• Two knockdowns and one point deduction – 10-7 (minus 1) = 10-6
Record Keeping
Within forty-eight (48) hours after the contest, the Supervisor’s Checklist, a form
provided by A.B.C., and the results shall be completed and returned to A.B.C. by the
Bout Agreements
1. Bout agreements shall contain:
a. Date, time and location of the event
b. Date, time and location of the weigh in
c. Contracted Weight
d. Amount of Purse
e. Specify any/all fees that will be deducted.
f. Specify the number of Rounds in the bout.
2. The boxer and promoter must sign and date the bout agreement.
A copy of the bout agreement must be provided to the boxer and supervising commission
prior to the weigh in.
Financial Disclosures
Pursuant to the Professional Boxing Safety Act of 1996 and its subsequent amendments
in the Muhammad Ali Boxing Reform Act, financial disclosures are required from the
promoters, sanctioning organization, and ring officials.
Surety Bonds
Every promoter, as a condition for conducting a professional boxing event, shall file with
the supervising commission a surety bond in an amount to be determined by that
supervising commission, but not less than ten thousand dollars.
Said surety bond is conditioned upon the faithful performance by the promoter of the
provisions of these guidelines, the payment of the commission tax, officials, and
contracts as provided for herein and the observance of all rules of the supervising
commission.

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BOXING DICTIONARY

The sport of boxing has its own, unique language.

Typically both fighters are warned to be careful, but no fighter is penalized.

Below the Belt:

A punch that strays low, below the waistband of a boxer’s trunks.

Bleeder: A boxer who gets cut easily.

Bob and Weave:

Typically used to distract an opponent, it is a punch that is thrown in a circular motion

“Bolo” means machete in the Filipino language.

A word used to describe a boxing match.

A boxer who is scheduled to face a champion or the favoured fighter.

The fighter who holds the title.

This is the coach or trainer who is in charge of the corner.

A coach, cutman or person responsible for tending to a fighter between rounds.

Shop All Corner Supplies

This is a defensive move employed by a fighter to avoid getting hit.

Professional boxing competition is divided into weight divisions in order to provide a

This is a technique that involves limiting an opponent’s movement by stepping side to

He automatically loses the bout.

Down and Out:

It is typically made of stainless steel that is cooled by placing on ice.

To fight to the final bell or the duration of an entire fight.

An offensive strategy focused on attacking the mid-section or abdominal region, as

An occurrence where neither fighter is knocked out or stopped.

When two fighter’s heads collide or come together.

This occasionally happens by accident or is sometimes employed as a blatant foul.

Professional boxing competition is divided into weight divisions in order to provide a

Any boxer weighing over 200lbs is classified as heavyweight.

This is also called “inside fighting” or exchanging punches at close-range.

Improve Close-Range Punching

Professional boxing competition is divided into weight divisions in order to provide a

Professional boxing competition is divided into weight divisions in order to provide a

Professional boxing competition is divided into weight divisions in order to provide a

Professional boxing competition is divided into weight divisions in order to provide a

It is, in essence, “the man who beat the man.”

The most recognizable or main fight on a card.

(awarded by the majority of the judges)

Professional boxing competition is divided into weight divisions in order to provide a

Professional boxing competition is divided into weight divisions in order to provide a

A bump or isolated area of swelling on a fighter’s face.

A piece of protective equipment that is constructed of a dense rubber material, molded to

Each of the two fighters are assigned a red or blue corner.

They remain there while a count is administered by the referee.

Whether purposely, as a defensive technique, or he is forced to fight from this position by

A punch that is delivered in an arching motion, traveling downward on the opponent.

Mike Tyson was famous for employing this type of style.

A heavy-footed, slow fighter who consistently moves forward is considered “a plodder.”

This is a type of defensive-counterpunch combination used against a fighter who takes

Pull Your Punches:

When a punch is not delivered at full force, but held back.

The amount of money a boxer earns or is being paid to fight.

It is an illegal blow, due to being highly dangerous.

Ring/Round Card Girls:

This informs or reminds the audience which round is coming up next.

This term applies to running, jogging or sprinting that fighters do in cardiovascular

Roll with the Punches:

When an opponent uses “questionable” offensive tactics, is highly physical and

Saved by the Bell:

Second: One of a fighter’s cornermen.

When you move your head to avoid getting hit.

Slang for a left-handed fighter or someone who is left hand dominant.

This is used for training and preparation in the gym.

Split Decision Draw:

Stick and Move: