STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

Introduction to the English Language (reviewer)

The term "language" has been derived from the Latin word "lingua" which implies tongue.
Language is a means or vehicle for communicating ideas, thoughts, feelings, experiences,
and emotions.
⮚ Language is not inborn rather it can earn and learn
⮚ Language is acquired by the people from the people or society.
⮚ Language is conventional, traditional, and a result of evolution.
⮚ Language is dynamic in character.
Grammar
Rules of a language govern the sounds, words, sentences, and other elements, as well as
their combination and interpretation.

Characteristics of English
Pragmatics

⮚ The study of the relationship between signs in the context and the text.
⮚ Language USE

Morphology

⮚ the study of the smallest meaningful units in speech and writing

⮚ WORDS and FORMS

Morpheme

⮚ the smallest unit of language that has its own meaning, either a word or a part of a
word

Free morpheme - can stand alone with a specific meaning

Bound morpheme - cannot stand alone

AFFIXES
An "affix" is a bound morpheme that occurs before or after a base.
⮚ Prefix - before a base
Examples: re (again): regain rewind pre (before); preorder, preassembled un
(opposite) unhappy
⮚ Suffix - after a base
Examples: able - comfortable, manageable ed - danced en - golden er - healthier est
- nicest

SYNTAX

⮚ It is a set of rules that are used to describe and explain the ways in which words are
related in sentence clauses, sentences, and grammar.

SEMANTICS
 ⮚ meanings and kinds
⮚ Conveys meaning

PHONETICS

⮚ It examines the sounds in speech, the way they're made, how they're heard, and how
they make up speech and language sound production

FAMOUS LINGUIST
Noam Chomsky
⮚ He is the father of modern linguistics
⮚ And has authored over 100 books on varied topics, such as politics, linguistics, and
war.
Enoch Powell
⮚ British politician, linguist
⮚ Rivers of Blood
Steven Pinker
⮚ Canadian - American linguist, cognitive psychologist, and popular science author.
⮚ Language Learnability and Language Development.
Noah Webster
⮚ American textbook pioneer, lexicographer
⮚ Father of American Scholarship and Education
J.L Austin
⮚ considered a pioneer of the theory of speech acts

TYPES OF SENTENCES

Sentence - a group of words that expresses a complete thought.

1. Declarative Sentence
2. Interrogative Sentence
3. Imperative Sentence
4. Exclamatory Sentence
Declarative Sentence (telling)

- A declarative sentence is one that makes a claim, offers information, explains

something, or makes a statement. Declarative statements are another name for
these kinds of sentences. This type of sentence ends with a period (.).

Examples:

- Neneng is pursuing a degree in psychology.

- Biology is my favorite branch of science.

Interrogative Sentence (asking)

- A question-posing sentence is referred to as an interrogative sentence. An

interrogative statement can be direct or indirect, start with or without pronouns, and
include tag questions, alternative questions, or yes/no interrogatives. Interrogative
pronouns are frequently used at the beginning and end of interrogative statements.
The "wh" words who, what, when, where, why, which, whose, and whom are
examples of question words. This sentence ends with a period (.).

Examples:

- Who made this cute little dress?

- Did you meet Jason last week?

Imperative Sentence (ordering/requesting)

- An imperative statement is one that directly commands, requests, invites, forewarns,

or instructs the reader. This sentence may end with a question mark (?) or a period
(.) or sometimes an exclamation point (!).

Examples:

- Wash your hand before and after eating.

- Can you hand me my red bag?
- Stop right there!

Exclamatory Sentence (showing strong emotion)

- A remark that conveys a strong emotion is called an exclamatory sentence, also

known as an exclamation sentence or an exclamative phrase. Exclamatory phrases
in English grammar typically end with an exclamation mark, sometimes known as an
exclamation point (!).
 Examples:

- This is crazy!
- This is breathtaking!

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

Subject – tells whom or what the sentence is all about (noun or pronoun).

Predicate – part of the sentence containing a verb and stating something about the subject.

⮚ The naming part of a sentence is called the complete predicate and the telling
part of the sentence is called the predicate.

Examples:

1. Leo is sleeping in class.

Complete subject – Leo
Complete predicate – is sleeping in class
2. The cauldron of bats attacked the hunters.
Complete sentence – The cauldron of bats
Complete predicate – attacked the hunters

⮚ The most important word in the complete subject is called the simple subject. It is
usually a noun or pronoun that names who or what the sentence is about. The most
important words in the complete predicate are called the simple predicate. It a verb
that either tells an action or it links the subject into another word. (Cramer, McCarthy,
Najimy, et.al.)
1. Leo is sleeping in class.
Simple subject – Leo
Simple predicate – sleeping
2. The cauldron of bats attacked the hunters.
Simple sentence – Cauldron of Bats
Simple predicate – attacked
KINDS OF SENTENCE

- Kinds of sentences according to their structure

1. Simple sentence
2. Compound sentence
3. Complex sentence

Simple Sentence

- Expresses a complete idea only or expresses a complete thought as an independent

clause.
- Can have a compound subject and compound predicate,
- Simple sentence does not contain a dependent or subordinate clause.

Example:

- The Titan God of Time Cronus castrated his father Uranus

S – Cronus
P – castrated
- They created the fabric of each life and scheduled its end.
S – They
P - created, scheduled (compound predicate)

Compound Sentence

- Expresses two or more complete ideas that are related and equal in importance.
- Requires the use of connectors or linking words, such as conjunctions to connect
simple sentences to compound sentences.
- Coordinating conjunctions are used in this kind of sentence (F A N B O Y S)
- for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Example:

- The Trojan war lasted for ten years, and Troy was destroyed.
First independent clause – The Trojan has lasted for ten years.
Second independent clause – Troy was destroyed.
Conjunction used – and
- Justin wanted to eat fried chicken, but Jane wanted to try grilled pork.
First independent clause – Justin wanted to eat fried chicken.
Second independent clause – Jane wanted to try grilled pork.
Conjunction used – but
Complex Sentence

- One independent clause, also known as the main clause, and one or more
dependent clauses, also known as subordinate clauses, make up a complex
sentence. A comma connects the clauses when the dependent clause comes first in
the sentence. Other complex sentences utilize subordinating conjunctions like
"when," "how," and "if" to connect the independent and dependent clauses.

Examples of Subordinating Conjunctions

Even Whenever Than Rather than If If when

though

After Whereas Unless Supposing Now since If then

Although Where if Until Before Now that If only

As While Since Because Now when Just as

So that Whoever provided Just as As soon as once

Example:

- Even though they do not have a college degree, they manage to be successful.
Dependent clause – Even though they do not have a college degree
Independent clause – they manage to be successful
Subordinate conjunction – Even though
- Marisol came home late because she attended a birthday party.
Dependent clause – because she attended a birthday party
Independent clause – Marisol came home late
Subordinating Conjunction – because