1-2 WEOWAWTGRT EWOTHF EWING WEFEREWET WW. Equation 1 ilusteates that an object's weight vill pend on the leal acceleration of gravity os well as the object's tase, The tase wil be constant, but grav lay il depend on location, Mass and might st not the sane 4, ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY, Gravitational aczleration on the each’ surface i a ally taken as 32.2 f/se0 or B81 mn/©. These vale are Founded fon the mre pres values of 32.1740 ft/s ‘and 9.80065 m/s However, the new for greater accu- ‘ay must bo ovalusted ona prolemby: problem bas Ustlly tee significant gt re adeghate, since grav ‘tatlonsi aceertion te not constant anyway, bu llfeted by location (primarily Insieade and live) ‘and major geographical features, ‘The term standard gravity, gs desived from the acca. cation at ceentially any pot et sca level and approx Imately 45° lated I adtional aceursey = needs, the gravitational secleraton can be calclatod from Bq, 12. This equation negli the efx of large land ‘and woier mass. Is the late i degrees. Iaatar 9 (1+ (63024 x 10°} = (08x10 *jn28) f= 05080 fae 09 mie a 1 the efes of the earth's rotation are neglected, the srovitatioal aelaton tan alte halve the ‘hr surtace gen by Eq. 1 rs the earths suds = 3950 mi = 6378110 m 13 ‘5. CONSISTENT SYSTEMS OF UNITS Ase of units sod in calelation i aid to be cone. tentt ne converson actors are need Foe xu moment iy calclated as the product of a force and a lever ara length, Marr 1“ ‘A caloultin using Eq 14 would be onsntent if M was in newtonmeters F'vas im newton, and. was in ‘eters The cleuation would be inonsetent ICM wae In fekips, vas inks, and rvas in inches (beans a ‘conversion factor of 1/12 would be require). gm Tape sheet a dt dr ‘The concept of a consistent calulation canbe extended to.syatem of units A corsistent sytem of wis is one in which no conversion factor are ended fr any cle Ikton. For exampla, Newton's second ln of otion et be written withost conversion fnesrs. Neon secoxd Jaw simply staes thatthe force que to accelerate an bjet i proportional to the acceleration ofthe objet. ‘Tho constant of proportionality the cbjects mas, Pane 5 Equation 15 i F'= mo, not P= Wa/g or P= maf ‘Equation 1.5 i consent it require 10 conversion factors. This moana thot in e consent stem he ‘eonversion facto are aot Soe, nee the ut of and ‘a have been gelectad te una of ae Seed This tas the effet of establishing units of work and enety, power, id properties and soon ‘The decison to work with a consent set of units fs esrable Dut not necestary. Problens in uid fw and thermodynamics te routinely saved in the United Staten with ineonasene nits This omars bo more of f problem than working wlth Inches and lst whom ‘alenlting a moment. Tt is necemary nly tte the proper cover actor. 6. THE ENGLISH ENGINEERING SYSTEM ‘Through common and widespread use, pounds: (lin) sn pounds free (Ib) have boc the standard ‘nits for mace and foro in the English Enginesrmy Spstem. (The English Rnwinesring Sytem i ised I itis book) "Ther are subst in the Urited Staten in which the uo of pounds for mass firmly entrenched. For xamie ‘ost thermodynamics, id flow and fet. rant roblems have traditionally Deen solved wing the units of Iba? for density, Bru/lbm for eathalpy, and Buflin'F for spec heat. Unfortunately, some ogi tions contin both Ibarrlated and Ibfvlatd varia, ‘dos the steady Row conservation of energy eqaaton, ‘which combines enthalpy in tu/Tom with presen Io. "The units of pounds mass and pounde-oree are as ferent asthe units of gallons and fet, and they cance ‘be canceled. A tase convertion late, gt ded 2 ‘make tho equations containing It and Ibm dimension ally consistent. This factor is known asthe gravtaonl ‘onatan ad as vali of 92.1740 ltol/Ibbsee The ‘numeral valet same as he standard aorta cf gravity, but g, not the lca gravitational acca: tion, gg. a sonverson constant, ust as 120 is he ‘conversion factor batwee feet ae Inches ‘The English Englnering System Is an Inconsistent systom t dened according to Newton's sos le “sai peed tbe del est nie ean cpt meg Tet vot 229, Tay ee _pome caznot be written i 1b, Tom, and ft/sec? are the unite used, Tho gc term must be included. oe {rin tom) (in 5) 7 90 16, g.dos mare tan “the wit" Since sas ‘Pi of i, tly gee Ui uml A oe of pound i ot cain Ponca nom teat 08) epmangearrest eters eae aden ater ices ate b(t on Seite ‘Example 1 Calelat the weight bf of 1.00 Thm objet in a fgovilatnaal eld of 27.5 fect shin Frome 16, 8 (1m inmy(5 85) we 322 bee Beet = 0.864 Be 7. OTHER FORMULAS AFFECTED BY INCONSISTENCY, 1k aot a sgaifeant burden to include gin acaenlae ton, bt ity be dificult to remember When ge sould be used. Knowing when to Include the grevite- {onal constant canbe learned through repeated xpo- tre to the formulas in which iis noaded, but fs Safer to carey the unite along fn every calesation ‘The following isa roprsertative (but not exhaustive) sting of mula ths rogue the gta. Ip all aces, Wis sowed that the standard English Bngioering System ute wil be und ei ene (anny 7 2 Gan) " prams depth 228 ame) % SyerEwS FUMES 18 Example 1.2 A rocket that has a. mass of 4000 Tom travels at {ro five: What its netic energy in e157 Solution From a. 1.7, yt 420 (2.00 £)° 29. ay(s2 BES) = 453% 108 fee Bs 8. WEIGHT AND WEIGHT DENSITY, “Weiet W, i a fore oxeted on sn object de to its lncrcat ioe gravietionl eld Ia consistent set of nite bused, bg 1 ean beet calle the weight foe moss In the English Bugnowring System, however, aq. 110 aust be wed Both sides of Bq 1.10 can be divided by the volume of tm object to dative the weight deni, ofthe object. yomton st nouseie thet she weghe denaty (i tints of IM/f2) cam alo be called by muliying the mass density (0 unis of Ibm/fe) by «/a~ Since g tnd ge away have the same numerical valves, he only tif of Ba. 112 so change the nis of dens. FG) ie FOOe “Weight dove not occupy volume, Only mass has vlan, herent of neg enmty ta eed to sy ‘artim cantons particularly fd calelaions, For ‘rample,premre aa depts calculated rom Eq, 1.18 (Compute this wih Eq 10) pant ua ‘9. THE ENGLISH GRAVITATIONAL SYSTEM Not atl Eagsh sptems are inconsistent. Pound ean Nal Sse te unt ots mene ea pound ae Sot wal he nf na Soh in care the cian Baksh Crowttoa Stem sczeleaton sven in fs tho unite of mas for a ‘onsntentaystom of ult canbe determined froma News fonts sewond lav. he combination a units n Ea. 148 inown asa alg. gif ot eoded a all since cis syste ee1-4 WFEWAWTerC EWoTWEERIWO WEF: ‘s consistent. It wonld be neaod only to caver shgs to nother mas nl ants of F nls of ate BE Wise? ay a ie? luge and poundomate azo not the same, as Fig. 11 ‘strates. However, both are uate for the sme qua tity: mas, Bquation 1.15 will convert between slog and poundenas po. of Ibm ‘The umber of slugs is not deived by dividing the ‘numberof pousdosmase by the local gravity. 9. ured ‘egal cf the local gravity. The conversion between feet and inces snot dependent on loal gravity; miter |s the coavetsion batwoen slugs aud pounds mass Since the English Gravitational System is content, Eq. L16 can bo wed to calculate wolght. The local irvitationa acceleration is usd 0. of eg: Wn t= mina & 116 10. THE ABSOLUTE ENGLISH SYSTEM ‘The cbcure Abole Btish System takes tho approach ‘that mis mt have alts of pound ma (Bm) an he tnt of ores can bo derived fom Nowrca's second le. ‘The units for Feannot be simpli any more than they are in Bq. 17. This particular combination of unis Kowa a poundal” A posal not the same as & pound, nits of F (nts of r)(units of «) =) bmi Poundals have not soo widespread sn in the United States The English Gravitational Sytem (ang sigs for mass) bas greatly eclipsed the Absolute English System in popularity. Both are consistent systems, but ther toems to be litle ood for poundals Ia madera engineering. Figtte 1.2 shows the poundal in comport, fom to other common sis of Sree 11, METRIC SYSTEMS OF UNITS. Strict speaking, metre sytem i ny system of units that is baved on meters or parts of meters. This broad efntion includes mis systems (based on meters, eWeE-WANURT Faw 1.2 Coren Fc is pound iso. ome at (ane s 8 ‘ograms, and seconds) as well es eas ystems (bce on cntimeters, grams and reconds) Metric systems avid che poundsmass versus pounds fore ambiguity in two wave, Pict, aunt of weight fot ertablshed at all All quantities of matter are spec fed se mass. Second, fee andl mas nits donot share ‘The term metric system sno explicit enough to define which unite are be used for aay given variable. Fo xample, within the cgs pct thar vaviation in how Stain local and magnetic: quantities ace Tepe Sentod (resulting inthe ESU and EMU systems) Aly ‘within the mks system, its common pratioe In some Indtres to tse Mocalories aa the ait of Urn herey wile the wit for thermal soergy ithe ule ‘Tiigthow alee of ora een wba the mace cated engipeerng community ‘Theorie parts of this book use ST, which Is the mcs, developed and coed of the so-called metre systems ‘There wil be occasional variances with cal engineering castom, bat ie difieul to anticipate ach variant within a book that nt iel be caeetent. 12, THE egs SYSTEM ‘Tho eg gstem is we widely by chemists and physh cists eis named forthe three primary units used © fartrict ts derive visable the centimeter te ram, andthe second, ‘When Newton's second law i writen in te eg syste, the flowing combination of units reaults ‘nits of force (m in =) («in SP) gen/t 18 Tie te ad sa? af Ua ae an cot oe he pt {20 pam the neiace mea be potas Oh ea {eee adie Coat ps) apron pe a che he 1h Theta Se whontefotaereartao, To eee peepee = ete tee ces acs tous ee ers Een ie athe calle Seca nce Sonate cee ae Se chases es dened ndnena alu wit ate gs se the Tas fee once thi net eu wo cot ath oh ws of lc a) Sa UNITS (THE mks SYSTEM) comptic an mks stem (9 aed eens it S18 clog, an scoal s bse wie). All Mee deed om the bese ull mich are ety sedi Table 1. Taste aly cone sree hae nel ee rng ei for ech siya eal (rb). Tl 145 8250 ns a sas ogra te i ond sce creat ‘ere a ‘cept see x om ofsebeacce mde mel cous et cand ‘a ‘Two types of unite are sad: base omits and deriva sunt Tho dase wits are dependent only on accepted “Standards or repvodutbi phenomena, ‘The dried units (Table 1.2 ond Table 13) are made up of combictions of base uate, Pela o 1095, radians and stradians were {Sasi a spplementary unt In addition, threo st of non SI units that may be ‘ed, Tis concson primal dueto the significance {td wdeprnd acceptance of these nis Use of the ‘ow uals isted in Table 1.4 wil usually create an Inconsitent expression ruling conversion factor. The ST uni of fore can be derived frm Newton's second law. Tis cebinaton of unit for ore = kaon te of xe (oi (aia 3) mten/t us Enemy vaiti fo Suits hve st of No, ‘guivalenty, kem"/2 Both of them combinations ace "© joule. Tho units of pomer are Joules per ‘eeond, equivalent toa wae SySTEWSOFUNITE 15S Table 12 Soe) erie Unis woh Spe Naes expe in vers of ter omy ane__oal “ante ‘reneney or ie tome Nei? pense pel Pk Nf Sopris oany jae Nm ‘iow powerretanifcx wait We Try ofseasaty, Salome het rg cats potmta, vl vo wa esa es, comet tee : excteapactan rsd ow SSuccaum om VIA Socouwes Sem $0 MV Segmtcfee weber Wa frogs deaty nT Whit ‘nese yA ttosow tee fomee Im : Sennen = Sin Asean finn Suloole pa 8.10 kg block hangs froma cable: Whats the fens in ‘he cable? (Standard gravity equals 981 m/s") Solution . 10 )(081 3) 1 tgm/s (818) Bxample 14 [A120 lg black is ented vortesly 3 m. What is the ‘aang potential energy? Sottion ae, hh 10 xp (281 8)(8 m 4 kot (294 3) 14. RULES FOR USING SI UNITS. In addition to having standardized units, the st of St nits aps rig eta rule for writing tho units and Combinations of units. Each sit & abbreviatad with a1-6 WEEWAWTSRC EWeTWEERTNO WEF: Table 13 Sane 51 Oerea Ute sanity desertion eymbol oe sirens "pede reer perwecnd je ‘aang ‘adi persond rd Coleaineioes treed a soured sectersion—nyular rain pet wood al sous est mss desty lope pe eae hm encentrsion sah preubie meter maf? (ofan of beta) spi volume cubicmterper fag Duntsane cont pesoae a? statue vieoity peed second Pa ownsticveouly — Squemees pers moment offre newton meter Nan See | epemee ee So ee ee erg came heute, hx he ; a Efmcrecty tater erin Wha Sway’ nar e iw Co opt ee wn ty coxlrb pe aqere Cj? fhuxdensty vermity fend px mtee Fn, erent desty sper peraquare A/a magi field stength ampere per mater Am bervity hem peter Hm ‘ola energy fouepernce — J/ct ‘oor enon, molar Jul ee mole Balin mal et copay radian Inety watt per stan Wr ‘specie symbol. The following rules for writing and ‘ombining these sybok shouldbe adhered to, “The expresions for derived units in symbolic form se obtained by using the mathematical signs of ‘aliliestion and divin, For example, unite of ay tem Ut tage ae Nm (tS Sealing of most units is done fa multiples of 1000. Table 14 cep Non Ute ataler tip gusty _eotne ‘Siew tu = eta b Hise ale ge tere) * pede ram gin spent dar CC toyemmate) poe cama) 8 vary Eire ew tha a lume at 1 rere Sie aml re Sct ove ich an sy ened win nd Sr Eager nt Ite Semel ct Ce appa wo sok we ‘bl renee self ry mney 4 The gmmbol are always printed in roman Sadie hee el ro fhe ony exception fo this the woof tho for ter whee these ofthe lower ea "cP () may bbe confced with the nimeral one (J). In tis east “Titer shoud be wren ow ia fal o he expt Cot ‘ised, (1 wal inthis book) © Symbols aro not praia: 45 hg (not 5 le). {© A poviod aftr a symbol snot used, exept whom the ‘Symbol osc at the end of sentence © When symbols consist of esters, ere must always bbe a fl space between the quastty andthe sya bok 45 kg (aot 4Skg). However, for planar angh designations, no space in le! 21748" oo: kas" All symbols ate wlten a lowercase, except wher ‘he unit is derived from a proper name: m for mets, * for wecond, A for ampere, Wb for weber, N fo newton, W fr watt Pes ote int cig Deen ‘prefix ood the uit symbol (eq, ka is the syed Terdlmeter) able 3 Ist ction pei, sjrmbels and thoi valves. ‘© Intex, when no number ie inva, the unt shoul be spelad out. Heampl:, Carpet i sold by tle square meter, ot by them |S Where a decimal fraction of a unit is weed, 9 20 should aivays he placed before the decal marr (0.45 (not 5k). This practice draws ettention ‘the decal mater and Wels avd eros of sae fel eee epee ee i L Apacs in some contri nt we comma as Sri aie Neh Ao ie lel Kington snd some ober eoutes se a prs the deca mae. Foie sete oe conten tat ee ie decal ae ype eae ed to did ong sis proape of tre, Becase of the ie unter EOE at be asl ed of feng Peper ie figs nto ely ri aks tne gt with expect he en ther 2 158208 rd 3. A space Cl sce tane) cpio ith» fourigt a Sri Bvorias The word or as ull sing In ha Und ErLd"ehnin ee shor tn o 200 tm Si esse tt) be. Beil, bo om, (ee a the Une ng by, fm nen U6 be) sl Aree nC 2220 ao be 0 ge 2 om). om (ee deci ln of fei eae tengo Ba a) Bul Me fine on of expan ower b pon Ere ene shen by 380 bm of ENT, me cd tara Convention as 10% cl GRO indir mt nad te des (ce rou dentin re ‘an sin She reg ton (neaetenan oe Toe ele oy 1098 yor scaly Salles wed mee Table 15 sper ped tytn on a = rs tm the oo é Xe Fry we te ‘ fn den) a “ t =m a See t Sv Tet nea Se SDSS wus se 15. UNCOMMON UNITS ENCOUNTERED IM THE UNITED STATES. ‘Table 16 ls some units and thie abbreviations that ‘ay be encountered inthe United Sta. ‘These wits ‘found Ls specific industries and engineering specialty ‘eis Insome cscs, they may be atcha SS OO rr rr SysrewsorUMTe 17 Table 18 uncorrn Unie reoriented Ses Memeo stbvevason Srepmil mesaig a ‘elec ohms (Seon) e uae et, = re ft Tors maf arg ruses (10-* sae rete) BaV bles (10% of ectronrali (5 GeV) re andres of square et. SBn thom of Der pe our (ambi) MDa thous of Bt per Bou (anigvows) Nev los (10% of laren vos fab reco of os (I sleres) fun lon 10" of Bus per bose Severe TO cane ft (eo) 16. PRIMARY DIMENSIONS. egal of the sytem of wlis chosen, each viable representing phyical quantity wil have the sane mary nets Pr a, ey at Expres inal per bour (ph) ct meters pee second {fala but both unts have dimension of length per wit {nv Length an Ute reo of tho primary dimetsiors, 1 neler can be broken down into more basis dimen- flons The consep of primary dimensions i uefa when uverting iti tmad varales between direst ystems Sans ell sn correlating txpercatal ro (Ge. dimensional anays) “Thege ate thee diferent sets of primary dimensions in thes i the MLOT sytem, tho primary dimensions are Thnae (I); length (23, me (2, and temperature (7). ‘hi symbols ae upperease In Cede to avoid confusion freee tine gd tepernbure, the Greak Ieee theta is sve forte” ‘All oterpiyscal qugtities can be derived fom thee Frzsry dimensions” or example, workin SI is has les of Nn, Sines a newton ea kgam/e, the primary ‘Ghmeatlons of were are ML-/@. The primary dimensions for many inporant engineering variables ave chown im ‘Tate 17, is mace convenient to stay with trade lol English ult, e my bo more desirable to work the PALATE apse (crete ella te enpincering ‘dmensional ston). This system aks te pinay ‘inenvions of foro (F) end heat (Q). Work (Reb i the Englah syste) Hes the primary dimensions of FL oem ofa the Fasano Sued Fab hem cen ag haa me of omy in he ‘detonate iy ee eepetinalimtendet Andina wer iwc oa Ey ear nthe ra a Sr in he ht ite, omy et1-8 WECWANTEAT ENGINFERTWO REFERENCE WAWUAT Aimensina sytem alae (Common bo) wort _FucTog. ‘as (5) Mw RAL OM fee (F) mye PP eng (0) Z z 1 tine (er). ‘ ‘ ‘ temperate (1) ete week (W) mye LL est (@) Me Lg. seein (6) ve yee froqecey (nf) ye yee wea (4) fe ee tet ee fooficmnt thermal PTT. ‘exzanson (8) sty) my Rays fdmensooaleenaant = Ld 1.0L @ spices atemtant DIET eT gir preawe (gat Soetant vone (6) aa tance eine MOT eT QT (i over (0) power (7) mje rye Lo It Bow ente(Q) MBI Lye gio Mnenotiewiwsty (0) 2/8 LB Lye am Bowrae(@) MO FUL MIB Peechaneal eguvantof = = LQ (0) pre (9) meee farce tention o) MIP IL FID fuer vdocty (a) Ye Tolumeicfow rate Ye we 0 (p= i) cooducivity (MYT RIOT QiteT enmal aiets(e) Je 8 vet (9) ye aft U8 roy abt.) MLA Pa? rele (¥) PoP OP (Compas this withthe primary dimensions for work in {he MEAT system.) Thormodyaemie variables ae sink Tnsy simpli Dimensional analysis wil e more conveniently caread tout when one ofthe four-cmenson ssteme (MLAT ot LOT) is wool, Whether the MLBT. FLOT, or FMLBTQ ‘stem ib used dopands on what is boing dived and ‘who wil be using and wheter or nots coneent set ‘ot versbes Ss desie, Conversion constants sich as ge fand J will almost certainly be required If the ALT Sytem Is used to generate Varies for use in the se the FIMZ#TO system when working In the thermodynamics, fh flow, heat transfer, and s0 on 17, DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS A dimensionless group i derived as a ati of two ores ‘or othr quastitin Considerable ie of cunensinles {groupie made in certain subjects, notably Muld mech. fics and beat transfer For example, the Reynolds ‘umber, Mech number, and Froode number ee used toditgush between datiactly diferent fow regimes {n ppe flow, compresible ow, ad opea chanel ow, repostively. ‘Table 18 contain information about the most common dimensiones groups used in Nut mechani and heat transfer 18, LINEAL AND BOARD FOOT MEASUREMENTS ‘The tenn linet is often mistaken as a typosraphical crror for Hines. Although “geal has its own spec ‘neaning very dfn: fom “inoar,” the to are often tid intoreaageably by engineer!” The edjective Uiea! fe ofen encounter in she balding te (et, 12 lineal fet of lumen), where the tent is used to Stags frm bowed fet measurement A. board foot (obbreviatod bd) is nt momure of length Rather, i a measure of Volum used wit, umber. Spetiealy, « board fot is equal to 144 in? Gein 1) The name deve on the volume ‘fated 1 fot squire and Loch tick In tat see {paral inconept to the acre fot- Since umbe ast Eat narnia’ | oe font | Foon | ros . 5 ao as cee es a ere etanme | s tent Sees lait samtes | Pe eee eet en ee Ea a ate fentome | = | ane mee oe swore | ae oo = % ae cee ttm | | ee = fermen | we sae "Wap den ei, mn ce pt art fl ow eee wee1-10 WEeWRNTEAE ER ‘The second step is to write « fanetional reatonship beter the deer val wa the inked: We He 30).0150) 120 ‘This fonction can be expressed a8 an exponeniatd series. The Cy ty by oo Eq. 1.21 are unkown ovaiabas ht Cappy Rt 12 “The key to solving Eq. 1.21 is that each term on the Figh-hand se most have the same dimensions 8 Staulanoous equations are used to determine some of ‘the a By and 3, Experimental dace are reqied to etermine the C, snd remaining exponents. In most ‘analy, tf assimed thatthe ©, b for #3 2 Since this method requlres working with rm diferent Warlablos and diferent independent dinensfonal quan tis (ch 86 Af, £, 8 and T), an cases method Gasrale. One simpideetion isto combine them vk bles into dimensionless groups called pegroupe. (See Tube 17) If thee dimensionless groups are sepreseted by my ‘a, ty the oquaion expressing the relationship Deke the varias i givom by the Zuchinghar Meats) =0 122 kem—n 12 ‘The dimensiones groups aro usually found frm the ‘variables according tan inlive proses. Example 1.5 Asli sphere rolls down @ submerged incline. Find an nton forthe velo Solution Assume thatthe vloity depends onthe force, dete tgaviy, the dameter of the spate, the dent of the fii, p, and the viscosity of the ud, YAP, Di a) = CPD ptut ‘his equation can be waiten in terns of the primary Amersions ofthe vasabes aoe) 2) a Imatb-3e-4 (1) Sn. may ii o 20-4 (6) Herd (M) Sling simultanoonsly ye eral ~2 va crept yh EG) (Cond « must be determined experimentally. Engineering Drawing Practice 1. Normal Views of Lines and Planes a Ioereting and Perpendicular Lins... 2-1 5 Type of Views a 4 Poinipal (Orthograpi) Views. 22 5 Anilry (Orthographic) Views. ceed 8: Obilae (Orthographic) Views 2 7 Reqamette (rho Ogu) "Views 8, Perpoatve Views 23 9. Sections. 24 10. Panesar 7 24 UL Tolerances. 24 1, Surface Fish 2 4. NORMAL VIEWS OF LINES AND PLANES, ‘A normel view of line i «purpendicalee projection of ‘he ae onto» viewing plane parallel othe lin. Inthe ermal sie pint of the ne ape est frm he cher. Therefore, the trv length of a ine Bs ‘wed a can be measure ares, hovvs ne il iw fom ane pst and wil eppene shorter thant actally eral vw cas be eonstrcted by drawing an etary Wow from the etkegreie ew" (See So. 23.) Stnlay, 2 normal vw ofa plane gue perpen. lar proection ofthe fre oat ovewing ple paral to tle plane of the igre All pots of the plano are fepicitant ftom the otserver. Tatts, tho’ rue sae {bd shape of any figure in the plane ca be determined 2, INTERSEGTING AND PERPENDICULAR, LINES A sug orthographi view isnot sufient to determine whether too ics inersects However, f two of more es hy no ving ee rg it crossing atthe same potion fn space), then the line inte. Ta Fig 1, the subueipts Pand Teefer {eoat and tap views, rapes Arg to the ependee og pile wo lua ins eppear perpenicaler nly in & nor ‘ew of eltbr one o bt tenes, Converc to ss appear perpendicular in any ww, the Linas are ‘pence only i the view i & normal view of one ‘rbot of th es. Bice or main noma vw cording se tnteg ta Se {ebnweecing Het (8 onineseting es 3. TYPES OF VIEWS, Chick om teed hel A oat ust tesa Sonam mene ree Table 24 Typeset Vos of Obj oethogrepie views pin ws Slay views ‘Slee ewe fabiat pole uoephic projection Tome reece ws le perspective nga perpectne "The diferent types of views ae easly distinguished by ther projectors (se, proections of parallel nes om the ‘hjeet). Por a cabo, ther aro thre sets of precios Corresponding to the three perpendicular ates, In an ‘rlhogranhic orthogonal) view the projects are par Set ina perspective (central) view, some oral ofthe projets converge to plu, Figure 22 iustrates the Prahogropic aud perspective views ofa block ipsa of pone ew drnig en ample of ep ‘tm sup he raving ees2-2 WECHANIERDEWOIWEE: Powe 22 crtogn ana Pepsin Vso «Bock iar fase NX NI rojo it ~ <- LY la onbosrapi (rpaepetve 4. PRINCIPAL (ORTHOGRAPHIC) VIEWS Jn principal view (ako known sa planar wes) one of the ote of proctor is normal to the view. That ise ‘of the plants of tho objact ls sen ine norma yew. The other two sets af peojectors ate ertgonal and ae et aly oriestod herzantally and versely cn the paper Decause bacground does of an object may et be ‘sl ino princpal view, iti nesesary to lave a east ‘thee penal views to somapleteyiatrate syne eal objet. At most ax principal ews wl be eeded to ‘lastrate complex objets. ‘The relative postions of the sc views have been san- rid and are showa in Fig 23, whieh as dines the width (also known as depth) ett aa lento the object: The views that are nt naoded to Hutte ew tures or provide dimensions (se, redndan! wis) ean ‘be omitted. The usval combination selected const of the top, fou, and rat side views ‘Rowe 23 Foster of Stance Omowraaic Vw co me | eS wont mo em th) na en 1. is common to refer tothe font, se, and back views 5 elevations ond tothe top and betzom Views as pla ‘ews Thao tems ace ot beoluta sine ny Plane ca eseleted as the font 5. AUXILIARY (ORTHOGRAPHIC) VIEWS. ‘An auciory ww 6 needed when an object has ar inane plane or curved feature or when there aze mote details th can be shown in hes principal views Ae withthe ether rthogrpkieviows, the suslany view ‘nocmal (fan) view ofthe nelined plane, Figure 24 Mista en sian view Fg 24 sai Vow & ‘The projectorsin an aueiry view are perpendicular to only ne ofthe dretions in which» principal view i ‘steered, Accordingly, oaly one ofthe thre dimensions of width, heleht and depth ean be maureen) n't profile auaidery mew, the object’ width can be ieasire, In a honcontl uatary view ontiary cle- ‘ation, the cbjec's hight can bo messured. Ina ron ‘al eusiary view, the depth of the object can be eased 6. OBLIQUE (ORTHOGRAPHIC) VIEWS the objet turn so tha three prnepal panes are isl ican be completly Uhstrated by 9 single oque ew Ta an oblique view, the dieston fran which the ject i bere ot (asec) poral to sty ef {he directions fom which prnepal aol sulay Was te ols, 1 two common methods of oblique ilustation, one of the view planes coincides with aa orthographic view Plane. ‘Two ofthe drawing aves ate ight angles ‘ach ether: one of then ls vertical and the tier (the ‘bligue ax) i oneted ¢ 30° or £6 (orginally chosen ‘to ctincie with standard drawing tangs). The ratio cof scales used forthe barzatal, vers), and abligae fees can be EL of Lis. The later rato helps ta ‘overcome the visual distortion due to the abeence of Derspectve inthe oblique drcties, ie oe aie eter dni ‘feu bes they Ge deh tothe eos seg ute (8 gp sad 11 ea) ed Cot ee wed 1 er) pre: Ha ae aes See ae gating api ew fan ange mere a use ale be Se Te eet ong cnpapie ee ta ero as Sas Sen: pata ree 2 Cove and Cast Obtue Drawings a ‘brent (eewatr 7. AXONOMETRIC (ORTHOGRAPHIC. (OBLIQUE) VIEWS, 1m asonometse views, the view plane i not parallel to ‘ny ofthe pincpal orcbograpie lanes. Figur 2.6 is- eka type of mxonometee sews for a pees clbe ‘Rxonontrie views and axonotrtse Qrawugs are ot ‘een: Ins view (projection) one or mors ofthe face lengths frsboctned. Tp © drawing, the lengths are Grown fal length, seeling Ia a dstored nation. ‘Tae 27 ts the poper ratios tat should be cbserved. Inn ssometric ies the thre projectors intersect at ual angie (1207) withthe plate. This simplifies con- Sthction with standard 0” drawing tangles. Alot the eau re orerhortened by the same amount, to 2/3, or approximately 1.6% ofthe sro logth. ina dimelric ‘an, the proton intersect a equal anges, aod ‘nly two of the fas are equally roducod in length. In 8 ttimetric view all thre intersection angles ae diferent, sd all thee faces are reiucd by diferent amounts, 8. PERSPECTIVE VIEWS. i. pein on ope meoramri iets pede ect ta ee en rs Spat anew tt ee eae poet pam alte en Topeka tacpereter te sli mepentafiie thence Soo nlae Siac pe ctor ‘Figure 28 ype ot sont ews Se terme Tale 22 Assent Fereraronng view ___inteton salen Tomes 120 2, 120" Gieioe 18035, 19125, 9710 9, 10838 see temette P28, EIB, FI 134, ne, 10 owe 27 Type of Persoct Vis (stpwatl 23 ote Tamos0s2 nue Yefer 1h wh werouer9. SECTIONS, ‘A ceationis an imaginary cat talon through an objet to ‘reveal the shape or interior constriction * Figure 28 iustazes the ssandard symbol ora sectioning ot and the resulting sotona view. Section arrows are perpen- ale to the eting ple eat the wig Fie 28 Sietning Cu yb a Sesto! Vow A eS @ 10, PLANIMETERS: A plonimete is tablemounted devi nd to measre imegila areas on a map, photograph or ilusteation ‘yough mechan ater. (Soe Fie 29) Tp tally has two armas, The poe arm rotates fly exound the’ pole, whieh i Svat om the table. The tenor sem rotates aroun tho pict, which x were jis the pol frm. The painter the other en of the tracer rma is ted to trace the perimeter of thereon, Near the pot ia wheel which simpy rolls and ses log te abe In operation, tho ars to be measured ls traced cock: With te tence As the aren it traced, the messing (wheel roils and accumulates the total dance on 8 di An optional supper esl may manga blancs. Tae umber of turns recorded en the dal s proportional to the ars ofthe region traced out Green's theorem (Green lou) rate «double integral tyes elosed vgion tou lin integral oer its bonny ‘Although the mathematics nsenary to prove how Dio: rimeters measure area fonctions ean be compl, the ‘etal usage ls aot. Equation 2 is Ue governing bt toa of pnimetr aro. ris thera ofthe wheel, Wis Tieurm aienp ale olin ga com aim ety See A Seem ef ae 29 Paiste the number of wheal evolutions, and Zs the ngth of the tracer ar, The traced area, A, has the ame unite fe rand L. This area ie mulfpied by the uguare of the ‘station see to determine the fesare's tie area. Ante 2 14, TOLERANCES. ‘The tolerence for disnsion ts the total permissible ‘aration or eifereneeeteen the acoptaie imi ‘The tolerance fora dine ea he pert in ee Wwajst eter abe general rue In the le Dock (eg, $1001 is urls others speed) orm pei limi that are gen with cach dimension (eg 2575 £0.05 412, SURFACE FINISH, ANSI B46 specifies surface nish bya combination 0 parameters The base symbol for designating thee fectrs Is shown in Fig. 210. Inthe symbol Ale the sain roughness height ines, B is the optiona ‘minimum rougnest height, C i the peaksto-alley Hotness hepa, ithe optional peak-fo-valey wat ress spacing (wid) rating, B 8 the optional rough hess width eof (roughness sampling length, Fisthe Tog, and G's the roughese width, Unless minim: are specified all parametore ure maximum allowable ‘value, ant al leser values are perttod Since the roughness varios, the waviness height i sx fathuetic average within » sampled square, andthe ‘esigantion ie known as the roughness igh Ry? Valse ase normally given in micrometers (in) raerinches (jin) SI or etatomary US. unite, rexpee ‘Uvey. A value for the ronghness width cute? of jin om at lite pains, ara at) (We nan csp rae manera eel st wth Ah tan rg a (Cain oe) est ne anda) su oer eee pee ure 230 Suto Ph Desitns A> roughnser lg (Srna avooge) = minimum ought * Sit (> eughnes width Tay grocion (howe HEERIWS- DRAWING FRACTION 25 (280 mim (0.08 in) is assumed when Bis not speci ‘Other standard values ia common. use are 0.25 mm {0.010 in) and DOS mam (0.008 fs). The lay symbol, fan be = (parle to indicated surface), (perpenic: tar), © (Grea), M(ulldectonal),P (piste), (ail, or X(eesbatch, Ie sul eles pled et tho A poston, no machining {a"allowed and only east, forged, dlecist, injetion: ‘molded atl other unfinished sees are acepiabeAlgebra 1. Introduction a 2 Byte Und in THs Book. a E Grask Alphabet... oe {Types of Numba a Sinica Digits 31 6 Equations 32 4 Bandamental Algebraic Laws 33 & Polynomials 3 9, Rowts of Quadratic Baxations 2 10, Roots of General Polynomials 53 1, Bxteanoous Roots a 12, Dears” Fle of Signs u 18: Roles for Exponent and Racal .0000101. 25 TE Logarta 3 16, Logaithan Tet 53 Pata Frections 35 ‘Smalteneoor Lncar Bqetions 36 Complex Numbers a7 (Operations on Complex Nusbes 33 Limits 2 Seuss and Progrione Ho Stondaed Sequences ut Applation: Growth ates on Sere. un ‘Tens for Series Convergence sn Serie of Alternating Signs 28 4. INTRODUCTION Engincers working in design and analysis encounter ‘asthematienl problems ona lly bss. Although ale tre and simple tigorometry are ftes sufflent for ‘outine caultions, thre are many instances when Crain sdveneed cubjecs ace nended, Thin chapter ‘td the flowing, in adltion to supporting theealealie tons usd in other chapter, consolidate the mathemat- el concepts most often needed by engines 2. SYMBOLS USED IN THIS BOOK Many aa Gone a represent variable nthe formas ied rout this beck "Thee symbols and charscters are defied in the ‘omenciature sation of each cheptr. However, some of ‘he other symbo i ths boo re lst in Teble 32. 3. GREEK ALPHABET Table 31 lst the Gren alphabet. ‘le 21 The Goch Apabet ‘A @ abe Novo BS tee ze a Poy gamma =O 6 enn sb ae" on zp rr er are) 2 ae Bo ign Bon ea TF ta ee Tt ee o 6 mi Kos be Xe AX inmbts 8 8 Bd Mono een ‘TYPES OF NUMBERS the numbering system coasts of three types of mum ter: rel, imaginary, and complex Real mambers far, consist of rational umber and srational mtn fare Rotional real umbersaze numbers that ca be ition asthe ratio of two inter (ea 4,5, and 3) Irrational real number ae ponterinating, onrepes- ing umbers tha eanngt ba expres asthe aio of two integers (e+ € nd ¥/2), Rel numbers ean be postive cor nezatve, Imaginary munbersaresqaer acts of negative numbers ‘The symbole end j ave bth wed to epraent the square root of 2 Fer example, V-5 = ViV—1 = YBi. Come ‘le numbers eo of combinations of ral and image Stary nutbers (eg, 3 ~ 79 5, SIGNIFICANT DIGITS "The signifeant digit in ¢ number include the leftmost, omaro digits to the rghtmnst digit written, Final fewer: from computations should be rounded off to the number of decimal paces justified by the date ‘The answer can be no more accurate then the least courte nuntber inthe data. Of cours, rounding should ‘Bede on final ealultion resus ony. Hshoud not be one om Satrim reals, ‘There are two ways thet sgnicant digits can affect {alealatioas, Por the operations of malkiplication and (vison the final stoner fe rounded to tho umber of Renee reer See agers ere ac Fees a ere wees9-2 HECHANTEAL EWOIWETRING WEFERENEE WANU gmbol__ ame we bene feet ‘hoe vale ‘Snity pponimstely eq > proportion piel ny ase ngs areata ‘ponent power syananne a phasor or se a =e senaten Z sve Keeton Bite z siento fname at ange nquntiy ter bar serage rae re dot er ine tm orl) Soe ered at er 9! on aelating pertain dont. nl ied a sieiiant digits ia the east skint mulipicand, {Uvor or divdeod. So, 20 % 132 = 28 ance tho fist Shultipcnad (2.0) bas two sgniSeant digits only. or the operations of addition and subtraction, tho final newer ie rounded to the postin of tho latsiguicant fipt in the aldende, minvend oc ublabend So, 20+ 13:2 152 because both addenda are sigiicant to the ‘enti’ postion but 2 | 134 = 15 dace the 2 is 3g ‘ificatalyIn tho ones position ‘The mulbiplisstion rule sould not be used for sition Crsubtesction, at this ean result strange answers. For eample h would be sneorect 0 round 1700 + 0.1 to Shoo simply because 01 as ony one signieant dig Table 3.3 pines examples of egnicant dato Table. 29 Exompe of Soren’ Opts Nien signee Spt tid range a (SOS an 3 Ererrg sca, 3 oom 0085 sani, 3 smaio9a 5x0, wai? 8 dass S510 ‘ai a “i385 sa" a woo s-si10s ano 4 Sioos- 24h “ite pm o sin 900” t dating the amber em i eri a asbough tery oe Pere wow 6. EQUATIONS. An. equation isa mathematical statement of equality, uch as 5 = 3-4 2. Algebraic equations ace writen ‘erm of vials Inthe equation 9 = 2+ 3, te value tf ranable y dapends on te value of variables: Ther- Sone the dependent arableael zs the independent tale. The dependency of yon 2 dearer when the ‘uation is wetten in fictional orm: y= fe) A parametric equation wee one ot more independent ‘tables (parameters) to decribe a function’ For trample, the parameter @ can be used to wile Qe [ramets equations of © unt circle. pact a y=sind a ‘Aut cgle ean ako be desebod by a nonparamet ‘equation Byer 3 Scene ‘eam ‘Siete be ‘ig Gow an poate pect he tion fia ee, ‘Shen horns acti i teen abi ‘Stein Coton etn om 7. FUNDAMENTAL ALGEBRAIC LAWS. ‘igh provides th rls that allow complex ate Ales? Rtibip 1 be expanded of condensed. ‘gael uwy nny be applind to comploe numbers, ‘Alege land rel sambere The goneal rls fr YAR omn of athena earship ate ren commutative aw fo dion: AL B= BLA a commutative law fr maliplcation: AB= BA 35 «© asecitive la for adit A+(BHO}= (444 ae + ssociatve la for mation: A(BO)=(AB)C a 4 dintetbative law A(8+ C)= AB+ AC se @. POLYNOMIALS | poynomt ea atonal exprsion—usually the sn ‘Teva variable teins known ar monomials—that fea nt sovalve divron. The dapre of he polynomial Ee Riine poner to which a arable in the eros: flonase. The fellowing standard paloma forms [re uel when tying to nd the reos of en equation, (a+ d(e-H=at-P 29 (or bPaes rns? 210 Wa Bath Sait an le (@avya(erHereed4%) 912 Sas woe) ee {otsaay pate ee a0 ene «+o( nee ”) cee (xs any positive oa trae au Tee toma core dine ayo of he orm (OO oh 4 ng tbs et + Goin gy tage bt ere FCM etna as om =o. a maf “The ooefclents of she expenslon can be detennined ‘ulckly from Posels iangie—each entry isthe sum ihe two eases cluety above 1 (Seo Fig. 8.1) Powe 2 Pasa’s rangle via Teo the independent variable = ‘het step a polywamial equation f(2) = Oar known a roots or serosof the polyno. polynomial of degree ‘vith reel coeicests wil have at most meal rots, though they neal not all be distinct diferent, 9, ROOTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS, A guedrate epation san equation of the geveral form G24 bet c= 0 [af OTe roots, 2, and 2 of the ‘uation ave the two wales ofthat satisfy it abs Vio an " tant ae an=t ste ‘The types of roots ofthe equation can be determined from te discriminant (se the quantity unde the rad ‘alin By 317) 16 — tar > 0, the rots are real and unequal ‘+ IF = 4ae~ 0, th rots are veal and oqual. This known as a double rt, + IP dae < 0, the roots are complex and unequal, 10, ROOTS OF GENERAL POLYNOMIALS ‘is dificult to find roots of cubic and higher degree Polynomials boroute few general tchniqacs exit. Car- Zano's formula (method) tase Cseé-orm equations 9 Jaboriosly enlelate rots fer general cubic (Bd degree)9-4 WESHANTORE eWOTWETI polyomils,Compromiae methods are usd when so Hone are necad an the spot © inspection end trial and error: Fling roots by Itapectio is eqivalent to making rescoable guest tout ibe rots and aubetating nto tho polypemial ‘raping If the value of polynomial 2) i eal {tte and plated for diferent vanes of an aprox: ‘ate vai ofa root can be deters as the vale ‘of zat which Ue plot crosses the 2a Jaton Uf leet one root (say, 2~ 7) of «poy foal (2) is known, the quantity 2+ ean bo factored oat of f(2) by long divsen. The resulting ‘quotient wl blower By one degree, and te reali= ‘ng rots tay be easier to deternine. Ths method 5 Datu applicable ithe polynomial isn one of the standard forms presented in See. 3.8 special cases: Certain polynomial forms can bes Died by substitution o solved by standard frm Tas they are recogni ws blag special cases. (The ‘andar solution tothe quadratic equation isch a Special ease) For exomple az bette = O ean be ‘df pom odee’2the ssie tion's = 2s made. 1 rumerca method: 1 an approximate vale ofa root {2 loon, tumerial methods (bizction method, Newton's method. ete) can bo used to refine the ‘lun Ths ane eifeiot tana are oo comple Tbe performed by hand 41, EXTRANEOUS ROOTS With szpte equates, may appear pasible to deve roots by tase nlgebraie manipulations.» However nu Tipping each sie of an equity bya powor of variable {hay liteeduee estreneow root Shen reote do not Seti. the original equation even though they are ‘dnved secording tothe rues of algebra. Checking 2 ‘lca fot is always a good ide, bat i partcalany tcenaty I the equation hes been multpio by one Keen varables, Example 8.1 ‘Use lgcbraic operations to determine a vlue that ate- fie the flowing oqution. Detrmine ifthe val is ‘ido extranesus Too! Verba yae2 Sotto Square bth sides. Bo Ra rt hyEtd [ip ie mate, era aso snc wo pens Sass cel gn uy two egrets eed am es Succ sa tegen ‘Slag hee so nactn pot Faing eran os ere ebeh te edges bp th SREP EREROE WEROAT Subtract rom each side and combine the constants. sye=-6 Solve for = 9 4 Substitute x= 0/4 into he original equation fran fea cae rH Site ty ted, = Ohi 412. DESCARTES! RULE OF SIGNS Descartes ral of signa detains the masdznum nan= ‘er of pov (ad sgatve) real rons that poly- til wil have Dy comnting the numberof gn reversas (Ge, changes in en from ope tenn to the nex) inthe pobynomial: The polynomial (2) = O mst ave ce ‘elit and mt be azangod in terms of descending powers of ‘© ‘Theme of paltive eos ofthe polynomial equ tion f(a) = 0 wil not exceed the number of sgn ‘+The difrence betwon the numbor of ign reverse Gan the mmber of postive rots san even ambi. © The number of negative rots of the polynombl ‘uation 2) =O wl ot excoal the nuber of gn fevers inthe polypomia 7(-2). ‘© The diference between the numbor of sign reverse Ca stent nate natn cr Example 82 Determine the porible mmabers of postive and netic ros that saity the following pelyomlal equi. AP set 32-8 224820 Solin “Thete ate four sgn reversal, 2 up to four postive ots ‘Out To hep the difrence between the number of positive rote and the numberof ig reversals an xe umber, the numberof postive real rots ls ited to eo, eo, and Tour Substituting ~2for xin the polynomial results in M48 — 5st 30) 82 4 2248 = ‘There only one sign reversal, So the numberof ee ‘hen rots cannot exces one. Ther must be exact we hegeive real fot in oder to keep the diference toa even muber (arn this ese) 49, RULES FOR EXPONENTS ANDRADICALS tn the expeion #"= 6 bis known asthe Sos and nt aM ponent ox power. InBq, 820 through Ea. 3.8, & the ped cae ony el Mumbers with iatatlons Usted. a0, 2 (pe ot bea se reer sa wi AT = (" 325 wre sas area an Baw 4s) sa oa Vob= favi= alee = (0H! sor G- (bea ae Voom Van 999 14, LoGaRITHMS, Logarts can be considered to be exponents. For ‘rnp the exponent nin the expeson B= ais Ue legarim of at th base There, che two exprer sib logia= mand 8” = a are elle ‘The bese for common logs p10, Usual og” will be ‘writen when common logs ae dsred, although “oie” ‘appear ocensonlly, The bas for nara (Napicran) legis 2.71828. numer whic given the sol ‘Wen antral gaa desir, wsualy a" wl be we ten, aldsogh "og? ao uot Moc. oaritims wil contain on integer pat (the char steric) ad a deta pat (che mates) The ea os and oturl logarithms of any number ess then cert emi ene hn ee ‘onmon and tural logritims are postive. Although the loguitam may bo negative, the antas e alwayt ees For meee bts the rca xvesing the logartn as the sum of ‘epi sarscertic and a ponkive mane Te crn tn Ie gmon pt oatenpen e esheets ie se PE a at te mr 3-5 ogetive and equal to one more than the number of ‘eos lnmeintly flowing the decial point, 1a negative lgaith i toe usd in 2 eatin, ist fist be conversed to operational form by adding The ehuacterstic nad taunt. The operational form Shou be wed i all caleaations ands the form di lyed by sdentife aeslators. ‘The logarithm of « nogative number is & complex number Example 2.3 ‘Use logarithm tables to determine the operational form of ogo 05. Solution Stace the number is Jess than ono and there is one Tending so, the ehareteritic i found by observation tobe 22 Pom a book of tgarthm tbls, he mantissa £5.08 D6DD. Two wing of expresing the combination tf manssea and characteristic are we. method 1:7.690 method £8090 ~10 "Te operational frm ofthis logarithm is -2 + 0699 = atan 46, LOGARITHM IDENTITIES. rior to the widespead availabilty of calelating vies, logarithm Mens wer usod to ole complex ‘alulations ty reducag the solution method go table Ttokeup, eiton, aed eabéraction. Logarithin Went are sil sel in simplifying contin xponentils end other ngerthma: ta Eq 8-34 through Badger by lz> lad y>o togsb=1 ao voes1=0 os basi" a log2"= alogs oar logy = log 2" = 982 aa M0 2 = ant nog 2) ae pena vn 20 dogsy= bg toey out fn tog— ey oe log = logs — og eg, = ay 06 as Inzn0bgyt =2902005n2 Sat loge bogghzenOAsing 3453-6 MESWANTEAT EWOTHFERIWS _WEFEREROE WANUAT Example 34 ‘The surviving faction, fof radioutive iotope fs aiven by f= ¢ 280" For what value of t wil the Surviving perontage be 196 Sohition fo 007 = te Take the natral og ofboth sides. mnpor rom Ba. 6, ne -266=-oouse 22 ‘Therefore, 16. PARTIAL FRACTIONS ‘The method of part fractions ie used to transform @ prvpet polyuolal fraction of two pelynomias nto & fun of Sinpler expression, a proceduze uown as reso lation” The teenie ea be conser fo be the ae ‘of nadaing” a sum to obtain ll ofthe sddends, Suppose M2) is proper polynomial fection of the {orm F(2)/Q(2). ‘The eject of the raction i termine ths pt cos tty ad 9, woot eae = nee y= FE 2 6 Om ay ata : ‘The form ofthe depot polnomia a) wit be han factor i eterna th for of Pa frocions Pe tak of ting the and spied Ioretogoring the pombe am ef Ge ease: Qe) factors int nailer nea term. (2 ei)-—-(2— an) er oye Ste ‘ cut 9 nent a te Qa) = (2 a){z~ 0)--- (2a) a9 ne, H)=$ 350 ‘ Ste ay ‘$e bea proper poiynorie be degre of te musta nt Ee So Se haere eae Se Sees ae ee twee Lahr arms tenga sept ease8: Ql) factors into m diferent quadratic terns, Popst a ‘Then, AaB, WO" Lene a eased: Qfa) factors into m identical quadratic terms, Pinte The, wef Aeee Mel seme g e ‘Once the ganeral forms of the pata fractions have ban Aeteminad fom inspection, the methed of wndsem mined coeficiens is osed. The pata fenton te ‘Fema dain ae we denote id satires a und by uti A) atl te Beample 35 Resolve Hf) into partial factions 4243 abr Soletion Hare, (2) = 28 + 2 +22 factors into 22 + 2 2, ‘This is comtunetion of eee 2 and 3. Aydt, Abas ie = Ai A 5 An Aa ages Bata Cros maltipiying t9 obtain a comanion dencminate viele (A+ ADE 4 (dn dat Aa (24a + Ade 494, Feet ae ‘hice the orginal numerator i known, tho following ‘Simultaneous equations el ‘Thesolutions are Ay = 0.25; Ap = 150; y= -O.76 and Apa 035 wads dees Wn gt as TPs ea 47, SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS cates s pees A treet eseibing © geometric shape in mspace. A ieee re eee! wnt ae enna ieeeere eeiiesee teens eee teint sseeucomrttee acticin sermon Jtanonus equations dot slvays have unique solve Su and some have soe all Tn addition toeening $e fyoce ine can be pact or they can be the same JEectorched node equstion mat n, cepene dane cqutons). In sme css, prasad per dene ean be detained ly inspect. In ost cass wove mntsn and ether edvancd methods mt be toa to determine whether 9 sluen exits. A tof Tox eqstons with no nutans tition kon tS an ieonsstent stem Several methods est for ving Hear equations si taneous by han” © eaphing: The eatation ae plotted and the inte. SiEen ol laser tho grap. hie metiod ‘aad only with two-dimensional problems. ‘© sabatcution: An equation i rearranged so that one Tarlabe expreted af combinetion ofthe other Yalaies. The expresion is then substituted into {ho remaining equations wherever the slated var she appears 1 redution: All erms in the equations are muspied by constants chou to eliminate one o ore vac ‘lier when the equations are added cr cutie ‘The reeling sum ean son be cole forthe other variables. Tht mathod is ano known a8 eliminating the unknowns: Cremer’ ral: Tiss proslue in nar algebea that calculates determinants of the orginal coer ‘ent matrix A and ofthe m mates rsultlag fom ‘hesystematie replacement of shun A by the com ‘ant matt B Example 2.6 Save tho following set of near equations by (a) sub- station and () seduction, t+ay=12 Eat) 3e+4y=8 tba. ‘Rion ene a aals ne eve os uty sco, SESESRA 3-7 Soltion (o) From Eq, se for variable x 6~ 1.59 ea. Substture 6 — 1.Sy lato Bg I wherever = appears (ayo 159) 445 18 5y44 y= Substitute 20 for yin Ba ~ (1.5)(20)= 24 ‘The solution (—24, 20) shouldbe cock to verify that it stiles both original oquations () Eliminate verable zy multiplying Bq, I by 9 and gli by 2 9x By b6r+9y=95 (BN 2 Bg. Te 62+8y= 16 a.) Subtract Eq I rom Ee. y= 2 Ba —Bo tt) Subettute y= 20 into Ee I. 62+ 9)0)= 90 a ‘The soltion (24, 20) should be ceckod to verify that tis both orignal equations 16, COMPLEX NUMBERS ‘A complee number, Zt » combination of real and imaginary numbore. When expressed as 2 sim (@, (bythe complex number isd tobe in ectanguler te tnigonomete form ‘The complex number can) be plotted on the reslaglaary coordinate sytem known [she complee plane, a itanrated in Fig 32. gue 22 8 Corp Nmbarin te Corie Pane9-8 WECHAWIEAT EWOTWEERIWG_HEFEREWCE WANUAL ‘The complex number Z = a + bi can aso be expressed ‘n enponental form The quantity rs known asthe odds of 2; 81 the argurent at tinre re moda= VeeP a Similaty, the phasor form (alo known 5 che polar form) zero 286 ‘The rectangular form ca be determine from r and 8 eot0 + isn) 29 “The cis form i shorthand method of writing a cam plex number in ectangular (rgonometi) for, Bie (e008 + isa) = rei 20 vers eqution, as shown in Ba, 9.61, expresses the rai of complex numbers in exponential and trig ometre form a0 ase Example 3.7 What isthe exponential form of the complex number gestae Solation 419, OPERATIONS ON COMPLEX NUMBERS, Most algebraic operations (addtion, multiplication, ‘exponentiation, te) work with complex number, but flail exceptions are the ioequalty oparators. The Concept of one cnaplex number beings Wan OF (ster than another complex number is meanness. ie am al pa form el eon ‘steers When adding to complex numbers, real parts are bilded to ral pare, and iaginary pats ae aed fo inasiney pare (014th) + (4 th) =(0140) +i +h) 908 (0,4) — (ont) = (a=) +i) 946 Mutiplction of two complex numbers in rectangular form accomplish! byte seo the algebraic dsl ‘tv law acd the defaton Division of complex mumbo jn rectangular fom Fequtes we of the compe sonjugete. Tho ccmplhx Conjugate ofthe compler number (a-+ bis (a ~ 8). ‘By matipying the numerator and the denominator 2y ‘the complex soajugata, the denominator will be eae ferted tthe eal umber at +B This technique Is own ng rationalising the denominatar andi se frat in EX 3). DMoitipiston and division are often more convenient ‘when the complex numbers aren exponential o pace orm, a Bg. S67 and Eq. 3.8 show. (oehinemenrt® a-G)* ‘Taking rowers and soot of complex numbers rogues {de Motre’s theorem, Ba, 469 aed Bg 3.70 Ba (oes =e? 500 vt ren = freon) = 0nQcnme a) 870 Example 8.8 Pesform the fllowing complex arithmetic (@arg+era (7 +296-30) 24.38 oP Solution © BHD+e+ (b) (7+ 215—39 = (NIG) ~ 78) + 2918) 200) =35- 21+ 101-0 = 35-1 +108 (6)(-1) =a-ui r fo) Molly the minrtor and deromiator by the Mi i a te don (2494+ 84) | 74231 Gers) 243% 20, LIMITS 1A init (limiting value) isthe value a function oeches won en independent variable approsches (lege vale, For exam supose the aloe of y= {.dndned as 2 eppronches 5 This ould be written a ig? ‘The power of imi tory Is wasted on simple clear tion gu a this buts appreciated when the functlon is Uodeind the targes value The object of iit theory [Stodetermie the lit withoat having t evaluate the Fascton atthe target ‘Te general ease of amit evel ied ae napproaches the args value is writen as ingle) an Tes not neceeacy forthe seul value J() to edt for the limit to be cdeulated. The funtion f(a) may be Undellned at point © However wo seseoary Ua (3) be defied en both sides of point for the iit to ox. JG) i unctind on one ie, orf /() is dacontine goto sm a(ain Fig S3(2) and F318), he it ine 93 Eile fit writen” Je (chit oes nat ws (tii ws LK ee {tin ota nota wx 3-9 “The following theorems can bo usd to simplify expres lone when clefting Limits lige an ene +6) = mat an i a7 lin (AFC) = Pe) an + tin] Fu) 5 PD nC) 5 fm) 977 ‘The following identities can be wod to simplify limits of trigonometric epresons a) ad ‘Ta lining standard mth (is) can ese o etermins lit. 1¢ Ifthe limit in taken to Snfaty, all toms can be tivided by the largest power of rin the expresion ‘Ths will leave atleast one constant. Any quantity Aided by a power of 2 vanishes as 2 approaches ‘ana. 1 Ifthe exproson i quotient oft oxprosions, any fomaion factors shld be eliminated from the ‘namerstor and denominator + Lopate Ea 8, sou wel hen te rumertor sid dencmlnalor of the expression both Spoach zo or both approsch ity. P (2) and (Qi(2) ace the ith derivatives ofthe Fenetions P(2) fad Qo respectively. (LiHopitals mle can be ‘plied epeatedly ae recired Be) 9(52) ig a) Soe ae ES pe ets i bie eee pepe3-10 HECHEW Bxample 3.9 Brant the following Init, tony (22 w.n(e) om(G354) Sation (4) Poor the numerator and denominator. (L'Hepital’s fuleean aio be used) aches) (FSS) P+ (00) +9 33 <9 (b) Divide thos by the largest power af 2 (Hp tals rue ean abo be sed) = (c) Use L Hopital’ rule. (Foctoring ean also bo used.) ‘Take the Best derivative of the numeratce and denominatr. i D+ @a-3 =5 21. SEQUENCES AND PROGRESSIONS: A sequence, {A}, is an ordered progression of umber, fcurh a, 4,9, 16,25,.., The fermsin a sequence can ball poe all negative, or of altarating sms. ys own asthe gencral term of the sequence, {A} = {019 08, 80,-2504) see ‘A. soquenoa is sid to diverge (La, be divergent) if the ‘teem approach infty oF the ters fal to approach ny fine value and i sald to converge (Le, te fanserpen) if the tenas approach aay frite vahe (Gnelading wero). That i, the soquene converge ifthe limit defined by Ba, 3.89 exit converges If the Limi is Sine mon diverges if the limit is infinite 33 i or doesnot exist ‘The mae ase asccntd with a sequence ie determining the next (or the general) tar. Tf sovoral forms of a Sequence te known, the next (unknown) term mut ‘tly te found by ittvely devermining the pater ofthe sequence. Te some cass, though, tbe meshed Fueordr differences can be wel to delerine the nest teem, This method condita of eubtracting each ter from the flowing term to obtnn a set of illernca. Ifthe differences ze sot all equal, the next order 3f diferenes ean be clout, Example 3.10, What the genera tam ofthe sequnce (4)? ={s, 2, %, & y= fa 3. 2, Sp Soon “Te soon s prety stave, Te uma es tid asa power seo bnod on the umber 3 Poe Snominaier Is recognised ab the factorial sequen ‘The gone term Example 3.11 ind she sch term in the equence (}= (7, 1629, 46 Ga) Soltion ‘Thesiath term snot intl cbvios, so the method of Rivorder ciferences i tid. "The pattern Is 08 ‘Shows bom the fist order dieence, bt the sctod ‘order difeences ae al Example 812 Doe the eacnce with general term e'/n converge divers? Sotation eof tbe imi exists. in@)- Soce 20/0 is inconelucve, apply L'Hopita’s rule Take Ae daetve of both the numerator and the denomic ator with respec 0m al “The sequence diverges. 22, STANDARD SEQUENCES, “Thee ae for standard sequences the geometric ate ‘nei, haronte, and psequeate. 1 seometrc sequence: The geometric sequence con fates for “I'<'r <1 and diverges otherwise. Ther a he it fer owe a the common zample:{1,2,48,18,32) (0 1 arthmatic sequence: The arithmetic sequence always Alves, aecas(neye [COME rem] gg Rea NE To 1,8 dean example: (2,7,12,17,22,27) ( armani sequence: The harmonie sequence always coverg web ena socd example: 1, Yh, fe, Ho) eequence: The psequence converses If» = 0 and Evergesifp < 0, (This diferent fram the pris ‘howe cnvorgonce depen on He cum of ts terms) wed wean = ‘example {1,4 Yo, Yi Yas, Ys} (= 2) aUSESes 9-11 23. APPLICATION: GROWTH RATES [Norele of population groth commonly assume asi tee gx georeri growth rates over Limited periods of time.” Aridetic growth rat, also called constant ‘growth rate and linear grouth rete is appeoprite when population ncrese involv limited resources or cent of epee Intervals, Moone of sobstencs, soc {eas of farmable land by generazon, and badges find enrollments by year, for example, are eommoaly fssuned to iteaseavtheticay with time. Asi nec pronth is equvalnt to spe intrest compound ing. Given population stating population Pe that Inerosae tery period by a. constant growth rate ftmount, R he population ser € periods is Pim Py+1R shes] see ‘The ererage annual growih rate is conventionally defined an rane = PS FO rong = Bx ami = EPO ore = Bx 10% Geometric growh (Mabhusien grout) i appropriate ‘when resources #0 aupport growth ae init. The Population changes by s fed growth rate fraction, *, Both period. Genetic growth is equivalent to Alsrets period Interest compounding, and (F/?P, rie, ) eco ome interest fecore can be used. The population at inet (lo afer psios) i Dem Pull br)" = PA(PIF,% A) gomtse| 250 Gometic roth can bn expres in tems of tne ‘ontants7y, amcifed with specie bass b Com Stolp, en thre bass zee For b= 2,7 the (loubling tine, T For b= fs, 78 the halle fy. For ber is the esoling tine. o Jus fe constant Baus prot show on exponential growth rie taneous grouth Is opproprate for eatinnogs groves (aot dete tine pers) and is equivalent to conte Si ners compounding Pre PAC r= Poe = Pala” a sor ‘Teking the lognihi of Eq. 2.90 results ina gtncar form kag linear functions graph as stexght lines. log Palos Po + tlog(h +r) 8 24, SERIES ‘seis the wm of termina sxqunc. Thre te PFS nd te seas an ine number ot “io yp oo fae (tae cre9-12 WEEWANTERT-EWOTNEERING REFERENCE MANUAL ecm The sin tacks associated with sere are deter: ting the sum of tho terme and whether the ree converges. Aerie i aid to conterge (be convergent) Ite fom, Sy of ts term exists! A Bit sci Is slays converge. ‘The performance of series based on standard sequences (ete in Se- 8.22) swell mown, © geomsini series [Srtesind 9.88, aa cre © rime serie: The infinite seis verges unless ae se Berio a2 satel ae harmonic series: The infte sres diverges. © p-series: The infinite sees diverges if p < 1, The nite series converge if p > 1. (Thies ifonent fom the pssquenve ows convergence depends aly fn the at term). 25. TESTS FOR SERIES CONVERGENCE 1 ls obvlour thot all fino sores (Ley series having a Fite murber of terms) cverge That i, the Sum, Sy defined by Ea, 3:90 exists, seaDou 395 Convergence ofan infinite series ean be determined by {ling the tof the sum. If the limit exits, the series converge; obbenin, st averaee tad 1 In most casas, the expression fr the general term dy willbe known, but tere wil be no simple expression Tbr the suun Sy Therefore, Bq, 337 cannot be wsed to Getermine convergence. It pf, but not conc ‘Sve, to lnok st the limit of the goneral term. TF the Timit, ae defined is Eq. 3.98, is nomsero, the sors ‘Se ter infinite seis doe ot imply the eum efi. Rin aematiaett Aivorges If the Unit equals er, the sees may’ either onverge or diverge. Additional testing i needed that eae. 0 inconclusive a8 £0 civerges| ‘Two tests canbe wad indepondotly or aftr Eq. 38 tas proven inconehsive the rtio abd comparison st The rtp test calles the limit ofthe vaso cf to <1 converges 1 inconclusive a8 D1 diverge ‘The comparvon test sen indict mothe of determi lng convergence of an unknown crea. 1t compare & ‘aniard sees (geometric and pscie are commonly the) agune the ulon sce ell ers it 8s thee standard series ae smaller than the tomas ite Uinkaown sees und the standard sein diverges, (ie Unkcoen seis mst ls diverge. Similarly, Wall ors Sn the standard ses are larger than th terms in tie Unlenown series ad tho standard sores comveres, en ‘theta sees aso converges Tn mathemati terms i A and B are both series of Delve terms sch that dy < fy forall values of then (6) Beaver if A verges, a (0) A converses iB converges Example 3.13 ‘ees the infinite series A converge or diverge? 2.7.81, seh+i eB Solstion ‘The general tern wt found in Ex. 3.10 to be Since luis of fctovis are not euly determined, xe ‘the ratio tes, Since the limit is lew than 1, the infinite sis convergt. Baample 14 ‘es the infsite nie A converge or diverge? Saks ato Sotson By observation the goneral tem is Lin However, 1s the harmenle srs. Saco the harmonic fers i divergent aud this sves js larger than the tonic sci (by the tem 1), he oti eo divergs E313 26, SERIES OF ALTERNATING SIGNS’ Some suis contain both postive and negative terms. ‘The ratio and comparizon tests can both be wed to Aetermine fa sro with alternating signs converges, Its see conteining all postive term conver, then the sare seis with some nealive ters lo converges. Therefore, the al-pestive series shouldbe tested for onvergen If the el postive sree converge the oie inal eres ani fo bo absolutely convergent. (1 tho al ostve sexes dverges and tho rgial series converaes fhe orignal seis ssab tobe conditionally converge) ‘Alterntively, the ratio ast can be used with the abo ‘hte value ofthe ratio. The sime enteria apply. c= = 1. inconlisive 3.00 D1 diverge $a sag ye in gh it mony