Cells

(Prokaryotic and
Eukaryotic)
(Plants and Animals
cells)
 Animal cells do not have a cell wall. When looking under a
microscope, the cell wall is an easy way to distinguish plant cells.
Plants are autotrophs; they produce energy from sunlight through the
process of photosynthesis, for which they use cell organelles called
chloroplasts. Animal cells do not have chloroplasts.
Animals cells Parts and
function
 Animals cells are mostly round and irregular shape
 Nucleus- The primary functions of the nucleus are to store the
cell’s DNA, maintain its integrity, and facilitate its transcription
and replication.
 Golgi body- The Golgi apparatus, or Golgi complex, functions as
a factoring in which proteins received from the ER are further
processed and sorted for transport to their eventual destinations:
lysosomes, the plasma membrane, or secretion.
 Vesicle- Vesicle are smaller cellular containers that perform a
variety of functions.
 Plasma Membrane- The plasma membrane regulates the
transport of materials entering and exciting the cell.
 Mitochondria- Mitochondria are membrane- bound cell organ
cells (mitochondria singular) that generate most of the chemical
energy needed to power the cells biochemical reactions.
 Cytoskeleton- The fundamental functions of the cytoskeleton are
involved in modulating the shape of the cell, providing
mechanical strength and integrity.
 Centrioles- The main functions of centrioles is to help with cell
division in animal cells. The centrioles also help in the formation
of the spindle fibers that separate the chromosomes during cell
division (mitosis).
 Lysosome- The function of lysosomes is to remove waste as well
as destroying a cell after it has died, called autolysis.
 Cytoplasm- Each of these components affects the functioning of
the cytoplasm in different ways, making it a dynamic region that
plays a role in, and is influenced by the cells overall metabolic
activity
 Vacuole- The main vacuole function is to store substances,
typically either waste or harmful substances, or useful substances
the cell will need later on.
  Cell membrane- Cell membrane is a protective covering that acts
as a barrier between the inner and outer environment of a cell.
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum- The majority of the functions of
rough ER is associated with protein synthesis. Rough
endoplasmic reticulum also plays a vital role in protein folding.
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum- The smooth endoplasmic
reticulum has a tubular form. It participates in the production of
phospholipids, the chief lipids in cell membranes and are
essential in the process of metabolism.
 Nucleolus- Animal cell nucleus function is to organize the
genetics uniqueness of an organism and serves in protein
synthesis, growth, cell division, and segregation.

Plants cells Parts and function

 Cell wall- cell wall in plants is to give cells structure and rigidity. 
 Vacuole- Vacuoles provide turgidity in the plant cell. Even the dead
plant cell contains vacuoles providing space for air and water
columns. 
 Chloroplast- Chloroplasts are the organelles in the cell of the plant
that converts light energy through photosynthesis into stable
chemical energy. 
 Nucleus- The nucleus is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells and
functions as the holder of a cell’s blueprint. The nucleus often
referred to as the “brain” of the cell, is the largest and most prominent
organelle in the cell.
 Ribosome-
 Review for
Biotechnology
Microsoft and functions
 Eyepiece/Ocular Lens- magnifies the image produces by the
microscope objective.
 Eyepiece tube – holds the eyepiece
 Body Tube/Mechanical tube- connects the eyepiece to the objective
lens.
 Revolving nosepiece- holds different power into position.
 Objective Lenses- holds magnification power to see greater detail.
 Arm- supports all components above the base.
 Base- the base supports all the other parts of the instrument. The
foundation of the microscope.
 Stage- where the specimen is being observe.
 Stage clip- holds the specimen slide
 Movable Specimen Holder- holding your slide to secure and steady
during observation.
 Fine focusing Knob- used to achieve accurate focusing
 Coarse Focusing knob- brings the object element into rough focus
 Limit stop crew- helps the user to avoid damaging or breaking the
slide.
 Mirror- reflects an external light source
 Diaphragm- controls the intensity of light.
 Aperture- a measure of its ability to gather light and reduce fine
adjustment knob.
 Filter tray- can be swung out of the condenser to insert of a filter.
 Diaphragm Adjustments- controls the intensity of light.
 Condenser- helps in getting good image
 Abbe condenser- controls the light that passes through the specimen
prior.
 Review for Chemistry
(Quarter 1- Module 3)
Topic-Laboratory Apparatus and
Equipment in Biotechnology
- Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
- Protective clothing, gloves, goggles, other garments or
equipment designed.
- To protects our person’s body from injury or infection.
A. Inside the Laboratory
1. Do not eat, drink, or chew a gum in the laboratory. Do not use
laboratory glassware as containers for your food.
2. Always worn PPE, and also you should worn gloves whenever you use
chemicals that can cause skin irritations.
3. Observed the working areas if its clean, because works areas needs to
be clean and tidy all the time.
4. You need to know the locations and operating procedures of all safety
equipment.
5. Be alert and proceed with caution at all the times in the laboratory.
6. Dispose all the chemical wastes. Never mix chemicals in the sinks.
Sinks is for water only and those solutions designed by instructor.
7. Label and equipment instructions must be read carefully before use.
8. Keep hands away from your face, eyes, mouth, and body while using
chemicals. Wash your hands with soap after performing all
experiments.
9. If you spill acid or any other corrosive chemical on your skin or
clothes, immediately wash the area with large amounts of water.
10. After doing experiments check if:
 a) The main gas outlet valve is shut off.
b) The water is turned off.
c) The desk top, floor area, and sink are clean.
d) All equipment are cool, clean, and arranged properly.
B. Clothing.
1. Wear goggles or eye protector if necessary.
2. Dress properly during laboratory activity. Long hair, dangling jewelry,
and loose or baggy clothing are a hazard in the laboratory. Wear an
apron. Shoes must completely cover the foot.
C. Accidents and Injuries.
1. Reports any accidents or any untoward incidents to your teachers.
2. If chemical should splash in your eye(s), immediately flush with
running water from the eyewash station for at least 20 minutes.
Notify your teacher immediately.
D. Handling Glassware and Equipment.
1. Inserting and removing glass tubing from rubber stoppers can be
dangerous. Always lubricate glassware (tubing, thistle tubes,
thermometer, etc.) before attempting to insert it in a stopper. Always
protect your hands with towels or cotton gloves when inserting glass
tubing into, or removing it from, rubber stopper. If a piece of
glassware becomes “frozen” in a stopper, take it to your instructor for
removal.
2. When removing an electrical plug from its socket, grasp the plug, not
the electrical cord. Hands must be completely dry before touching an
electrical switch, plug, or outlet.
3. Examine glassware before each use. Never use chipped or cracked
glassware. Never use dirty glassware. Do not immerse hot
glassware in cold water; it may shatter.
4. Report damaged electrical equipment immediately. Look for things
such as frayed cords, exposed wires, and loose connections. Do not
use damaged electrical equipment.
E. Heating Substances.
1. Should the flame of the Bunsen burner go out, immediately
turn off the gas at the gas outlet valve. If you wish to turn off
 the needle valve and barrel. Never reach oven an exposed flame. Light
gas burners only as instructed by the teacher.
2. Never leave a bit burne3d unattended. Never leave anything that is being heated
or visibly reacting unattended. Always turn the burner or hot plate off when not
in use.
3. Do not point the open end of a test tube being heated at yourself or anyone else.
4. Heated metals, glass, and ceramics remain very hot for a long time. They should
be set aside to cool and then picked up with caution. Use crucible tongs or heat-
protective gloves if necessary. Determine if an objects hot by bringing the back of
your hand close to it prior to grasping it.

Basic Apparatus and Equipment

1. Microscope
- An instrument that can produces enlarged images of small objects
- Close view of minute structures at a scale for examination analysis.
2. Incubator
- A heated, insulated box that maintains optimal temperature
- It is a device used to grow and maintain microbiological cultures or
cell cultures.
3. Micropipette
- Standard type of laboratory equipment that is used to measure the
small volumeso0f liquids (usually in microliters).
- Micropipette is also used to transfer a small values of liquids,
accurately from one vessel to another.
- And also micropipette works on the principle of air displacement.
4. Forceps
- Made of high-grade carbon-steel, which ensures they can withstand
repeated sterilization in high-temperature autoclaves.
5. Centrifuge
- A laboratory device that is used for the separation of fluid, gas, or
liquid, based on density.
- Centrifugal force pushes heavier materials to the outside of the
vessel.
6. Petri dish
- Shallow transparent lidded dish.
- Alternative known as a petri plate or cell- culture dish that biologists
use to cultures cells, such as bacteria, fungi or small mosses.
7. Mortar and pestle
- It is used to grind, mesh or crush various substances.
- Compliments one another, a bowl, typically made of hard wood,
metal, ceramic, or hard stone.
8. Beaker
 - A cylindrical container with a flat bottom.
- It is used for stirring, mixing, heating or for measuring liquids in a
variety of laboratory applications.
9. Digital scale
- Used to measure the mass of a substance in a remarkably high
degree of precision.
- Transparent enclosure with doors so that dust does not collect.
10. Bunsen burner
- Named after Robert Bunsen, a common pieces of laboratory
equipment that produces a single open gas flame
- It is used for heating, sterilization, and combustion.
- And also it is used to sterilize tools for the transfer of bacterial
colonies from one agar plate to another.
11. Dropper pipette
- Glass tube tapered to a narrow point and fitted with rubber bulb at
the top.
- It is used to transfer with precision small volumes of liquids.
12. Thermometer
- A device that measures temperature gradient using a variety of
different principles.
13. Goggles or safety glasses
- Forms of protective eyewear that usually enclose or protect the area
surrounding the eye.
14. Beaker tongs
- To pick up laboratory items including, hot evaporating dishes,
beakers, crucibles, and other laboratory apparatuses.
15. Ring stand
- Consists of heavy base and vertical rod, both usually made of metal
- The iron stand supports the iron ring when heating substances or
mixture in a flask or beaker.
16. Test tube
- Test tube are used in biology and related in
sciences for handling and culturing all kinds of live
organism, such as molds, bacteria, seedling, plants
cutting, and many more.
17. Funnel
- Used of transferring or guiding liquid or powder
into small opening.
- Tube or pipe that is wide at the top and narrow at
the bottom.
18. Gloves
 As a form of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), gloves defend the user’s
hands from general risk.
19. Lab gown
  The lab coat will protect the biotechnologist’s personal clothing and exposed
skin (such as on arms) from contaminants.
20.Graduated cylinder
 Used to measure liquids volumes accurately.
 ATP Production
 Autotrophs – organism that can produce their own food.
 Heterotrophs- organism that cannot make their own food.
 ATP is a high energy particle found in cells of human body, creatures,
plants, and others.
 Provides energy required by cells.
 Energy currency of cell “molecular unit of currency”

In a metabolic procedure, its either adenosine monophosphate (AMP)

to Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP).

Two biological process to produce which generate ATP are

photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

Photosynthesis

o Occurs in chloroplasts by which living plant cell absorbs solar energy.

RM (raw materials) = water, carbon dioxide in chlorophyll

 Light energy forming glucose.
 Release oxygen as waste product.
 Oxygen is produce in photosynthesis and used in
chemical energy to be connected in ATP- (usable
energy).
Reactions in Photosynthesis
  Light reaction- photosynthesis (to separate hydrogen/ oxygen
 Photophosphorylation – forms ATP/ NADPH2 (nicotinamide
adenosine dinucleotide hydrogen phosphate)
 Dark Reaction - Calvin cycle (Carbon Fixation)
- ATP and NADPH are sources of energy to
fix and reduce carbon dioxide.
 Cellular Respiration (C.R.) - series of chemical reactions
during which ATP is made. - Nutrient molecules – in presence of
oxygen.
 Aerobic – oxygen dependent
 Fermentation- do not breath but makes ATP
 Glycolysis (initial series of reaction of C.R.)
 Aerobically – does not require oxygen.
 The Cell Membrane
Homeostasis and Cellular
transport

Function of the Cell Membrane

 Cell membrane separates the components of a cell from its
environment- surrounds the cell.
 “Gatekeeper” of the cell
 Regulates the flow of materials into out and cell- selectively
permeable.
 Helps to maintain Homeostasis- stable internal balance

The cell membrane and

Homeostasis
 Responsible for maintaining homeostasis (home-E-O-Stay-sis)
within the cell.
 A stable, internal environment
 Cell membrane maintains homeostasis through balancing the pH
(potential of hydrogen) , temperature, glucose(sugar
intake), water balance
 It does this through active and passive transport
PH and Homeostasis
 The pH of a solution tells how acidic or basis it is.
 pH ranges from scale to 0-14
 0-6 are acidic
 8-14 are basic
 pH of 7 are Neutral
 If a solution’s pH is unbalanced with a buffer.

Cell membrane aka the

Phospholipid Bilayer
 All cells have a cell membrane made of Phosphate, proteins,
and lipids

All cells have a cell (plasma membrane)

 Prokaryotes (have a cell wall + cell membrane)
 Eukaryotes:
a) Animal Cells ( cell membrane only)
b) Plants Cells ( cell membrane + cell wall)

The Cell Membrane in detail

 Double layer (bilayer) of phosphates, and fats (lipids)
  Single phospholipid has hydrophilic (water loving) phosphate
heads and Hydrophobic (water hating) fatty acid tails
 Both repels and attracts water through the membrane at the same
time.

Passive Transport
 A process does not require energy to move molecules from a high
to low concentration while Active transport needs energy.
 Diffusion
 Facilitates Diffusion (uses Proteins to push particles across)
 Osmosis
 Diffusion is the movement of small particles across the cell
membrane like the cell membrane until homeostasis is reached.
 Facilitated diffusion requires the help of carrier and channel
proteins.
 Diffusion
 Examples of Diffusion: spraying aerosols, and perfumes.
 Low concentration- when sprayed, the molecules are released to a more free
environment
 The particles Spread out
 Osmosis- the movement of water through a selectively
permeable membrane.
 Water moves the cell membrane form an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.

Osmosis Concentration
 Hypertonic: the water or solution OUTSIDE of the cell is salter
that the inside of the cell.
 Hyper= “more” or “above”
 This will cause it to shrivel, and shrink
 Ex. Pouring salt on a slug will cause it to shrink
 Hypotonic: water or solution OUTSIDE of cell
 Hypo means “less that” or “below”
 A hypotonic solution will cause the cell to take in water, and swell

 Isotonic: the water outside of the cell has an equal amount of salt as
the water INSIDE of the cell.
 Iso means ‘equal”
 Will cause NO CHANGE in cell size