See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/262685972

Structural features of oilfield W/O emulsions

Book · January 2012

CITATION READS

1 702

1 author:

Igor N. Evdokimov
Gubkin Russian State University of Oil and Gas
112 PUBLICATIONS   1,086 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Igor N. Evdokimov on 29 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Evdokimov I.N.

Structural features of oilfield W/O emulsions: A Textbook. — Moscow:

RGU Publishing Centre, 2012. — 477 p.
ISBN 978-5-91961-056-4

Annotation. Modern concepts of petroleum science and practice are employed to

discuss the mechanisms of stabilization and flocculation of water droplets in oilfield
W/O emulsions. The existence of multiple structures of the dispersed phase in these
emulsions is confirmed by numerous experimental data. Outlined are the conditions
for the existence of such structures and their influence on the measured properties of
emulsions. The analysis of oilfield data reveals an obvious impact of dispersed phase
structures in emulsions on important parameters of oil production.

THE MAIN TEXT OF THE BOOK IS IN RUSSIAN.

BELOW IS THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF TABLE OF CONTENTS
AND THE LIST OF ENGLISH-LANGUAGE REFERENCES.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………… 10

Part 1. CONDITIONS FOR EMERGENCE OF MICROSCOPIC

STRUCTURES IN THE DISPERSED PHASE OF OILFIELD W/O
EMULSIONS. PRINCIPAL TYPES OF THE OBSERVED
STRUCTURES……………………………………………………………. 17

Chapter 1.1. Methods of emulsion classification and the employed

terminology…………………………………………………………… 18
1.1.1. «Direct emulsions» and «reverse emulsions»….…………… 18
1.1.2. «Dilute», «concentrated» and «highly concentrated»
emulsions…………………………………….………………………… 21
1.1.3. «Loose», «medium» and «tight» emulsions…………………… 24
1.1.4. «Stable» and «mesostable» water-in-oil emulsions.
Dispersions of «entrained water» in crude oils and «unstable»
W/O dispersions…………………………………..…………………. 26
1.1.5. «Emulsion phases», «thermodynamic phases» and
«aggregate states»……….………………………………………… 28

Chapter 1.2. Particular mechanisms of water drop stabilization in

oilfield W/O emulsions…………………….………………………… 32

Chapter 1.3. Conditions and mechanisms of water drop flocculation

in oilfield W/O emulsions…………………..……………………… 45

Chapter 1.4. Principal dispersed phase structures in oilfield water-in-

oil emulsions…………………………………………………………. 52
1.4.1. Freely dispersed systems………….………………………… 52
1.4.2. Percolation threshold……………………………………….. 56
1.4.3. Bonded disperse systems…….………………………………. 59
1.4.4. Some features of mechanical dispergation
processes………..………………………………………………….. 66

Part 2. EFFECTS OF MICROSCOPIC DISPERSED PHASE

STRUCTURES ON THE PROPERTIES OF FRESHLY PREPARED
W/O EMULSIONS AT QUIESCENT CONDITIONS…..……………….. 70

Chapter 2.1. Experimental evidence for inapplicability of traditional

methods for calculating the properties of water-oil emulsions based
on material balance equations and on the additivity rule. Density
anomalies in emulsions………………………………………………. 71

2
 2.1.1. Traditional methods for calculating the properties of water-
in-oil emulsions…,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,…... 71
2.1.2. Investigated water/oil systems…………………………….. 72
2.1.3. Nonlinear dependencies of the emulsion density on water
content…………….……………………………………………… 73
2.1.4. Effects of water content and of temperature on the relative
excess density of water-in-oil emulsions…………….……………… 75
2.1.5. Obvious effect of particle size in "ingenious oil surfactants"
on the excess density of water-in-oil emulsions………………..……. 76
2.1.6. Molecular mechanisms of density anomalies in water-in-
crude oil emulsions…………………….……………………………. 79

Chapter 2.2. The need to abandon stereotype concepts in

investigations of oilfield emulsions…………………………………... 83
2.2.1. Distortion of experimental density measurements of oilfield
emulsions for "confirmation" of stereotype concepts…..………….. 83
2.2.2. Rejection of stereotype concepts allows to reveal the non-
additivity properties in commercial water-in-oil emulsions of any
geographical origin…….…………………..……………………… 85

Chapter 2.3. Effects of dispersed phase structures on the thermal

properties of oilfield water-in-oil emulsions at quiescent
conditions……..……………………………………………………… 87
2.2.1. Anomalies of thermal expansion coefficients………….……. 87
2.3.2. Anomalies of pour points………………….……………….. 90

Chapter 2.4. Microscope imaging and particle size analysis of

freshly-prepared water-in-crude oil emulsions with different
structures of the dispersed phase….………………………………….. 92
2.4.1. Methods of particle size analysis….…………...……………. 93
2.4.2. Photomicrographs of freshly prepared emulsions with
different structures of the disperse phase………………………….. 99
2.4.3. Parameters of number size distributions for water droplets
formed by mechanical dispergation………………………………. 104
2.4.4. Genetic diagram of number size distribution parameters for
population of water droplets formed by mechanical
dispergation……………………………………….………………….. 113
2.4.5. Volume (mass) size distributions in studied water-in-crude
oil emulsions………………………………….…………………… 119

Part 3. EFFECTS OF DISPERSE PHASE MICROSCOPIC

STRUCTURES ON THE PROCESSES OF EMULSION
DESTABILISATION AT QUIESCENT CONDITIONS….……………… 122

3
 Chapter 3.1. Natural destabilization (aging) of mesostable emulsions 123
3.1.1. Visually detected features of destabilization and “rag layer”
formation in the studied emulsion…………………………………… 124
3.1.2. Time dependence of the amount of free water released
during destabilization of the investigated emulsion……………..… 127
3.1.3. Structure of the residual stable emulsion – the basis of “rag
layers” in aged samples..………………………………………… 128

Chapter 3.2. Mechanisms of microwave interaction with liquid

media……………………………….………………………………... 134
3.2.1. Thermal and non-thermal effects of microwave radiation….. 134
3.2.2. Absorption characteristics of the microwave radiation in
continuous liquid media……………………………………………. 136
3.2.3. Absorption characteristics of the microwave radiation in
water-in-crude oil emulsions…………………………………….. 141

Chapter 3.3. Experimental studies of microwave-induced

destabilization in water-in-crude oil emulsions with various dispersed
phase structures…………………………………….………………… 145
3.3.1. Changes of emulsion temperature in course of microwave
irradiation…………………….……………………………………… 145
3.3.2. Effects of the initial disperse structures in emulsions on the
parameters of microwave absorption.…………………………….. 148
3.3.3. Effects of the initial disperse structures in emulsions on the
heating rates and on parameters of emulsion destruction under
microwave irradiation…………………………………………… 151
3.3.4. Effects of the initial disperse structures in emulsions on the
effectiveness of microwave demulsification……………..………….. 161
3.3.5. Apparent impact of the dispersed phase structures in
emulsions on the efficacy of traditional thermal methods of oil spill
remediation……………………..…………………………………. 162

Part 4. EFFECTS OF DISPERSE PHASE MICROSCOPIC

STRUCTURES ON THE PARAMETERS OF AGING IN STABLE
WATER-IN-CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS………….……………………. 164

Chapter 4.1. Equilibrium states of stable emulsions after long-term

aging………………………………………………………………….. 165
4.1.1. Main characteristics of the studied emulsions……………….. 165
4.1.2. Effects of the initial dispersed phase structures on the
parameters of emulsion stratification after long-term settling
(aging)……………………………………………………………………. 167
4.1.3. Composition of crude oil subphases in aged water-in-oil
emulsions…………………..………………………………………... 171

4
 4.1.4. Dispersed phase structures in various layers of the aged
water-in-crude oil emulsions………………………………………... 179

Chapter 4.2. Aging (settling) kinetics of stable water-in-oil

emulsions…………………………………………………………… 183
4.2.1. Visually detected movement of inter-layer boundaries in
settling emulsions………………………………………………….. 183
4.2.2. Analysis of the experimental results on the basis of
theoretical models of “colloidal gel” sedimentation…….……….. 193

Part 5. RHEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF STRUCTURED WATER-

IN-CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS. EVOLUTION OF MICROSCOPIC
DISPERSED PHASE STRUCTURES IN FLOWING EMULSIONS
EMERGENCE OF MACROSCOPIC FLOW STRUCTURES..………… 210

Chapter 5.1. Methodology of rheological studies with water-in-crude

oil emulsions. Characteristic features of flow curves.....…………….. 211

Chapter 5.2. Rheological parameters of emulsions with the initial

freely dispersed structures…………..………………………………. 218

Chapter 5.3. Rheological parameters of emulsions with the initial

bonded disperse structures of “porous gels”…………………………. 225
5.3.1. Features of the initial portions of flow curves. False
evidence of "Newtonian" properties of emulsions in short-term
measurements. “Radial flow banding” in emulsions…….…….…. 225
5.3.2. Universal laws governing the structures of porous gels in
flowing………………………………………………………………… 233

Chapter 5.4. Rheological parameters of emulsions with the initial

bonded disperse structures of “continuous gels”……..……………… 239
5.4.1. Continuous gels with a loose packing of water droplets……. 239
5.4.2. Plastic continuous gels with a dense packing of water
droplets……………………………………………………………………. 242
5.4.3. Experimentally observed viscosity of brittle continuous gels
with a dense packing of water droplets. False conclusions about
the "phase inversion" in oilfield W/O emulsions……………… ….… 243
5.4.4. Experimental evidence of "cracking" in brittle continuous
gels with a dense packing of water droplets. “Vorticity flow
banding” in such emulsions….……………………………………. 247
5.4.5. Possible mechanisms of plastic-to-brittle transition in
concentrated water-in-crude oil emulsions……………………..… 251
5.4.6. Features of thixotropy in W/O emulsions with initial
structures of continuous gels………………………………. 256

5
 Chapter 5.5. “Flow phase diagrams” of oilfield W/O emulsions in
rheological studies…………………………………………………… 258

Chapter 5.6. Rheological evidence of common dispersed phase

structures in oilfield W/O emulsions from different regions of the
world………………………….…………………………………….. 263

Chapter 5.7. Effects of temperature on the rheological parameters of

structured water-in crude oil emulsions. Participation of paraffin
colloidal particles in flocculation mechanisms of water drops….……. 268
5.7.1. Effect of emulsification temperature on emulsion viscosity at
a standard flow temperature………………………………….……….. 268
5.7.2. Effects of flow temperature on the viscosity of emulsions
with various dispersed phase
structures……………………………………………………….. 274

Part 6. EFFECTS OF STRUCTURAL STATES IN OILFIELD

EMULSIONS AND DISPERSIONS ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF
CRUDE OIL RECOVERY AND ON THE FUNCTIONING OF
OILFIELD PROCESS EQUIPMENT…………………………………….. 281

Chapter 6.1. Features of the flow of water-and-oil emulsions and

dispersions in horizontal pipelines ………………………..…………. 282
6.1.1. Flow characteristics of statically unstable dispersions of
water and oil………………..………………………………………. 283
6.1.2. Flow characteristics of statically stable water-in-crude oil
emulsions………………..…………………………………………. 290

Chapter 6.2. Features of the flow of water-in-crude oil emulsions in

porous media…..…………………………………………………….. 294
6.2.1. Flow of preformed emulsions in porous media…..………… 294
6.2.2. Evidence of a potential formation of W/O emulsions during
the joint flow of water and oil in porous media…..………………. 299

Chapter 6.3. Influence of structural states in W/O emulsions on the

characteristics of crude oil production processes at individual wells... 304

Chapter 6.4. Identification of the effects caused by emulsion

structuring in production data bases for multiple wells…………….… 313
6.4.1. Methods of revealing common patterns in bases with a
significant scatter of the data…..………………………………... 313
6.4.2. Analysis of databases on oil production rates for multiple
wells in individual oilfields………………………………………… 320
6.4.3. Analysis of a "superbase" of production data for petroleum
companies with multiple oilfields………………………………….. 328
6
 Chapter 6.5. Identification of the effects caused by emulsion
structuring in data bases for the performance of downhole pumps and
of oilfield flowlines……………………………………………..……. 332
6.5.1. Downhole rod pumps…………………………………………... 332
6.5.2. Downhole electric submersible pumps………………………… 341
6.5.3. Rate of corrosion in oilfield flowlines…………………………. 345

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………. 347

7
 ENGLISH-LANGUAGE REFERENCES

Abend, S., Bonnke, N., Gutschner, U., Lagaly G. 1998. «Stabilization of

emulsions by heterocoagulation of clay minerals and layered double hydroxides».
Colloid & Polymer Science, 276(8): 730-737.
Abivin, P., Henaut, I., Chaudemanche, C., Argillier, J.F. Chinesta, F., Moan, M.
2009. «Dispersed Systems in Heavy Crude Oils». Oil & Gas Science and Technology
– Rev. IFP, 64(5): 557-570.
Ali, M.F., Abbas, S. 2006. «A review of methods for the demetallization of
residual fuel oils». Fuel Processing Technology, 87(7): 573-584.
Ali, M.F., Alqam, M.H. 2000. «The role of asphaltenes, resins and other solids
in the stabilization of water in oil emulsions and its effects on oil production in Saudi
oil fields». Fuel, 79(11): 1309-1316.
Alwadani, M.S. 2009. Characterization and Rheology of Water-in-Oil
Emulsion from Deepwater Fields. MsSci Thesis, Houston TX: Rice University. – 121
p.
Ancey, C., Coussot, P., Evesque, P. 1999. «A theoretical framework for
granular suspensions in a steady simple shear flow». Journal of Rheology, 43(6):
1673-1699.
Arirachakaran, S., Oglesby, K.D., Malinowsky, M.S., Shoham, O., Brill, J.P.
1989. «An Analysis of Oil/Water Flow Phenomena in Horizontal Pipes». SPE Paper
18836, SPE Professional Product Operating Symposium, Oklahoma.
Ashby, N.P., Binks, B.P. 2000. «Pickering emulsions stabilised by Laponite
clay particles». Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 2(24): 5640-5646.
Aste, T., Di Matteo, T., Delaney, G.W. 2009. «The pursuit of loosest packing».
American Institute of Physics Conference Proceedings, 1145(1): 203-206.
Auernhammer, G.K., Butt, H.-J., Vollmer, D. (Eds.) 2008. Surface and
Interfacial Forces - From Fundamentals to Applications. Berlin: Springer Verlag. –
158 p.
Aven, N.K. 2011. Investigation of plugging mechanism and characterization of
wettability alteration by emulsion treatment of porous media. MsSci Thesis. Norman,
Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma. – 146 p
Aveyard, R., Binks, B.P., Clint, J.H. 2003. «Emulsions stabilised solely by
colloidal particles». Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 100-102: 503-546.
Baas, J.H., Best, J.L., Peakall, J., Wang, M. 2009. «A Phase Diagram for
Turbulent, Transitional, and Laminar Clay Suspension Flows». Journal of
Sedimentary Research, 79(4): 162–183.
Babylon Dictionary. 2010. Online Glossary of Petroleum Industry. Internet
publication: [http: // dictionary. babylon. Com / reverse_emulsion/]
Baptista, M.S., Tran, C.D. 1997. «Electrical Conductivity, Near-Infrared
Absorption, and Thermal Lens Spectroscopic Studies of Percolation of
Microemulsions». Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 101: 4209-4217.
Barnes, H.A. 1997. «Thixotropy - a review». Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid
Mechanics, 70(1-2): 1-33.

8
 Barre, L., Jestin, J., Morisset, A., Palermo, T., Simon, S. 2009. «Relation
between Nanoscale Structure of Asphaltene Aggregates and their Macroscopic
Solution Properties». Oil & Gas Science and Technology – Rev. IFP, 64(5): 617-628.
Basheva, E.S., Gurkov, T.D., Ivanov, I.B., Bantchev, G.B., Campbell, B.,
Borwankar, R.P. 1999. «Size Dependence of the Stability of Emulsion Drops Pressed
against a Large Interface». Langmuir, 15(20): 6764-6769.
Basu, S., Nandakumar, K., Masliyah, J.H. 2000. «A study on daughter droplets
formation in bitumen/glass/water contact line displacement due to instability». Fuel,
79(7): 837-841.
Batchelor, G.K. 1977. «The effect of Brownian motion on the bulk stress in a
suspension of spherical particles». Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 83(1): 97-117.
Batchelor, G.K., Green, J.T. 1972. «The determination of the bulk stress in a
suspension of spherical particles to order c2». Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 56(3):
401-427.
Becher, P. (Ed.). 1983. Encyclopedia of Emulsion Technology (vol 1): Basic
Theory. New York: Marcel Dekker. – 725 p.
Becher, P. (Ed.). 1987. Encyclopedia of Emulsion Technology (vol 3): Basic
Theory, Measurements, Applications. New York: Marcel Dekker. – 452 p.
Bécu, L., Manneville, S., Colin, A. 2006. «Y i e l d i n g a n d f l o w i n
adhesive and non-adhesive concentrated emulsions».
Physical Review Letters, 96(13): 138302.
Benito, S., Bruneau, C.-H., Colin, T., Gay, C., Molino, F. (2008) «An elasto-
visco-plastic model for immortal foams or emulsions». The European Physical
Journal E: Soft Matter, 25(3): 225-251.
Bennion, D.B., Chan, M., Sarioglu, G., Courtnage, D., Wansleeben, J., Hirata,
T. 1993. «The in-situ formation of bitumen-water stable emulsions in porous media
during thermal stimulation». Proceedings of the CIM Annual Technical Conference,
Calgary, Canada: Petroleum Society of CIM. Paper No. CIM 93-46, p.1-16.
Berg, K., Siores, E. 2001. «Vaporisation of Liquid Fuel using Microwaves».
In: Proceedings of The 8-th Intrnational Conference on Microwave and High
Frequency Heating. Germany: University Bayreuth. – 11 p. Publication available at
Internet: [www.kjbengineering.com.au/vap.pdf] (Site visited at 11.02.2011)
Berli, C.L.A., 2007. «Rheology and phase behavior of aggregating emulsions
related to droplet-droplet interactions». Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering,
24(2): 203-210.
Berli, C.L.A., Quemada, D., Parker, A. 2003. «Gel transition of depletion
flocculated emulsions». Colloids and Surfaces A, 215(1-3): 201-204.
Bibette, J., Mason, T.G., Gang, H., Weitz, D.A. 1992. «Kinetically Induced
Ordering in Gelation of Emulsions». Physical Review Letters, 69: 981-984.
Bibette, J., Morse, D.C., Witten, T.A., Weitz, D.A. 1992b. «Stability criteria
for emulsions». Physical Review Letters, 69(16): 2439–2442.
Bibette, J., Mason, T.G., Gang, H., Weitz, D.A., Poulin, P. 1993. «Structure of
adhesive emulsions». Langmuir, 9(12): 3352-3356.
Binks, B.P. (Ed.) 1998. Modern aspects of emulsion science. – Cambridge:
Royal Society of Chemistry. – 430 p.
9
 Binks, B.P. 2002. «Particles as Surfactants - Similarities and Differences».
Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science, 7: 21-41.
Binks, B.P., Lumsdon, S.O. 2000. «Catastrophic Phase Inversion of Water-in-
Oil Emulsions Stabilized by Hydrophobic Silica». Langmuir, 16(6): 2539-2547.
Binks, B.P., Rocher, A. 2009. «Effects of temperature on water-in-oil
emulsions stabilised solely by wax microparticles». Journal of Colloid and Interface
Science, 335(1): 94-104.
Binks, B.P., Dong. J., Rebolj, N. 1999. «Equilibrium phase behaviour and
emulsion stability in silicone oil+ water+ AOT mixtures». Physical Chemistry
Chemical Physics, 1: 2335-2344.
Binks, B.P., Dyab, A.K.F., Fletcher, P.D.I. 2007. «Contact angles in relation to
emulsions stabilized solely by silica nanoparticles including systems containing room
temperature ionic liquids». Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 9(48):6391-6397.
Binks, B.P., Fletcher, P.D.I., Thompson, M.A. 2010. Optimising Non-
conventional Emulsions. Internet publication: [http:// www.hull.ac.uk /scg / fletcher /
Thompson%20project.htm]
Blijdenstein, T.B.J. 2004. Microstructure, rheology and demixing in emulsions
flocculated by polysaccharides. PhD Thesis. Wageningen, Netherlands: Wageningen
University. – 122 p.
Blijdenstein, T.B.J., van Vliet, T., van der Linden, E., van Aken, G.A. 2003.
«Suppression of depletion flocculation in oil-in-water emulsions: A kinetic effect of
β-lactoglobulin». Food Hydrocolloids, 17(5): 661-669.
Blijdenstein, T.B.J., van der Linden, E., van Vliet, T., van Aken, G.A. 2004a.
«Scaling Behavior of Delayed Demixing, Rheology, and Microstructure of Emulsions
Flocculated by Depletion and Bridging». Langmuir, 20(26): 11321-11328.
Blijdenstein, T.B.J., van Winden, A.J.M., van Vliet, T., van der Linden, E., van
Aken, G.A. 2004b. «Serum separation and structure of depletion- and bridging-
flocculated emulsions: a comparison». Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical
and Engineering Aspects, 245(1-3): 41-48.
Bordi, F., Cametti, C., Di Biasio, A. 2000. «High-frequency dielectric
polarization mechanism in water-in-oil microemulsions below percolation». Progress
in Colloid and Polymer Science, 115: 44-49.
Bouhadda, Y., Bendedouch, D., Sheu, E., Krallafa, A. 2000. «Some
preliminary results on a physico-chemical characterization of a Hassi Messaoud
petroleum asphaltene». Energy and Fuels, 14(4): 845-853.
Brambilla, G., Buzzaccaro, S., Piazza, R., Berthier, L., Cipelletti, L. 2011.
«Highly Nonlinear Dynamics in a Slowly Sedimenting Colloidal Gel». Physical
Review Letters, 106(11): 118302.
Brauner, N. 2003. Liquid-Liquid Two-Phase Flow Systems. Tel-Aviv, Israel:
Tel-Aviv University. – 61 p.
Bremond, N., Thiam, A.R., Bibette, J. 2008. «Decompressing emulsion
droplets favors coalescence». Physical Review Letters, 100(2): 024501.
Brinkman, H.C. 1952. «The viscosity of concentrated suspensions and
solutions». Journal of Chemical Physics, 20(4): 571.

10
 Briscoe, C., Song, C., Wang, P., Makse, H.A. 2010. «Jamming III:
Characterizing Randomness via the Entropy of Jammed Matter». Physica A, 389(19):
3978-3999.
Brooks, B.W., Richmond, H.N. 1991. «Dynamics of liquid–liquid phase
inversion using non-ionic surfactants». Colloids and Surfaces, 58(1-2): 131-148.
Brujic, J. 2004. Experimental Study of Stress Transmission Through
Particulate Matter. PhD Thesis. Cambridge, UK: University of Cambridge. – 202 p.
Brujic, J., Edwardsa, S.F., Hopkinson, I., Makse, H.A. 2003. «Measuring the
distribution of interdroplet forces in a compressed emulsion system». Physica A, 327:
201-212.
Bryan, J., Wang, J., Kantzas, A. 2009. «Measurement of Emulsion Flow in
Porous Media: Improvements in Heavy Oil Recovery». Journal of Physics:
Conference Series, 147: 012058 (16 p.)
Buckley, J.S., Wang, J. 2002. «Crude oil and asphaltene characterization for
prediction of wetting alteration». Journal of Petroleum Science and. Engineering,
33(1-3): 195-202.
Bullard, J.W., Pauli, A.T., Garboczi, E.J., Martys, N.S. 2009. «A comparison
of viscosity-concentration relationships for emulsions». Journal of Colloid and
Interface Science, 330(1): 186-193.
Cametti, C., Sciortino, F., Tartaglia, P., Rouch, J., Chen, S.H. 1995. «Complex
Electrical Conductivity of Water-in-Oil Microemulsions». Physical Review Letters,
75(3): 569- 572.
Canevari, G.P., Fiocco, R.J. 1997. «Crude Oil Vanadium and Nickel Content
Can Predict Emulsification Tendency». In: Proceedings of the 1997 International Oil
Spill Conference. Fort Lauderdale: American Petroleum Institute. p. 309-314.
Capuzzi, G., Baglioni, P., Gambi, C.M.C., Sheu, E.Y. 1999. «Percolation
phenomenon of calcium bis.2-ethylhexyl. sulfosuccinate water-in-oil microemulsions
by conductivity and dielectric spectroscopy measurements». Physical Review E,
60(1): 792-798.
Cates, M.E., Wittmer, J.P., Bouchaud, J.-P., Claudin, P. 1998. «Jamming,
Force Chains, and Fragile Matter». Physical Review Letters, 81(9): 1841-1844.
Chan, C.-C., Chen, Y.-C. 2002. «Demulsification of W/O emulsions by
microwave radiation». Separation Science and Technology, 37(15): 3407-3420.
Chen, S., Ku, C., Rouch, J., Tartaglia, P., Cametti, C., Samseth, J. 1993.
«Structure and dynamics of dense water-in-oil microemulsions below percolation
threshold». Journal de Physique IV, France, 3(C1): C1-143 - C1-161.
Chen, T., Chakrabarty, T., Cullen, M.P., Thomas, R.R., Sieben, M.C. 1991.
«Laboratory And Field Evidence of Emulsion Flow In Porous Media». In:
Proceedings of SPE Annual Technical Meeting. Banff: Petroleum Society of Canada.
Paper No. 91-78.
Christov, N.C., Danov, K.D., Danova, D.K., Kralchevsky, P.A. 2008. «The
Drop Size in Membrane Emulsification Determined from the Balance of Capillary
and Hydrodynamic Forces». Langmuir, 24: 1397-1410.

11
 Chung, K. 2001. Impact of Fine Solids on Refinery Operation. Presentation of
Syncrude Research, Edmonton: Canadian Crude Quality Technical Association. – 17
p.
Clark, D.E. 1996. «Microwave processing of materials». Annual Review of
Materials Science, 26: 299-311.
Clausse, M. 1975. «Theoretical conditions for the existence of a dielectric
relaxation due to Maxwell-Wagner effect in heterogeneous binary systems and
especially in emulsions». Colloid and Polymer Science, 253(12): 1020-1024.
Consiglio, R., Baker, D.R., Paul, G., Stanley, H.E. 2003. «Continuum
percolation thresholds for mixtures of spheres of different sizes». Physica A:
Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 319: 49-55.
Corlett, A.E., Hall, A.R.W. 1999. «Viscosity of Oil and Water Mixtures». In:
Proceedings of the 9-th International Conference of Multiphase Technology
(Multiphase 99). Cannes: France. p. 595-603.
Couette, M. 1890. «Etudes sur le frottement des liquids». Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 6: 433–510.
Coussot, P., Ovarlez, G. 2010. «Physical origin of shear-banding in jammed
systems». The European Physical Journal E, Soft Matter and Biological Physics,
33(3): 183-188.
Coussot, P., Tocquer, L., Lanos, C., Ovarlez, G. 2009. «Macroscopic vs. local
rheology of yield stress fluids». Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 158(1-
3): 85-90.
Craig, D.Q.M., Barker, S.A., Banning, D., Booth, S.W. 1995. «An
investigation into the mechanisms of self-emulsification using particle size analysis
and low frequency dielectric spectroscopy». International Journal of Pharmaceutics,
114(1): 103-110.
Cristini, V., Guido, S., Alfani, A., Blawzdziewicz, J., Loewenberg, M. 2003.
«Drop breakup and fragment size distribution in shear flow». Journal of Rheology,
47(5): 1283-1298.
Crombie, A., Halford, F., Hashem, M., McNeil, R., Thomas, E.C., Melbourne,
G., Mullins, O.C. 1998. «Innovations in Wireline Fluid Sampling». Oilfield Review,
10: 26-41.
Czarnecki, J., Moran, K. 2005. «On the Stabilization Mechanism of Water-in-
Oil Emulsions in Petroleum Systems». Energy and Fuels, 19: 2074-2079.
Czarnecki, J., Moran, K., Yang, X. 2007. «On the "rag layer" and diluted
bitumen froth dewatering». The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 85(5):
748-755.
Czarnecki, J., Tchoukov, P., Dabros, T. 2010. «Possible role of asphaltenes in
stabilization of water–in–crude oil emulsions». In: Proceedings of the 11th
International Conference on Petroleum Phase Behavior and Fouling. Jersey City,
NJ: Petrophase XI–2010. Paper O-24.
Dabros, T. 2002. «Bitumen Froth and Slop Oil Tailings». Internet publication.
[http: // www.nrcan.gc.ca / es / etb / cwrc / English / AST / Areas / Bitumen /
bitumen_e.html] (Site visited at 16.01.2004)

12
 Dabros, T., Yeung, A., Masliyah, J., Czarnecki, J. 1999. «Emulsification
through Area Contraction». Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 210(1): 222-
224.
Dalmazzone, C., Noik, C., Clausse, D. 2009. «Application of DSC for
Emulsified System Characterization». Oil & Gas Science and Technology – Rev. IFP,
64(5): 543-555.
Debye, P. 1929. Polar Molecules. New York: The Chemical Catalog Company.
Dechaine, G.P. 2010. Solubility and Diffusion of Vanadium Compounds and
Asphaltene Aggregates. PhD Thesis. Edmonton, Canada: University of Alberta. – 256
p.
Dehmoune, J., Manneville, S., Decruppe, J.-P. 2011. «Local Velocity
Measurements in the Shear-Thickening Transition of Dilute Micellar Solutions of
Surfactants». Langmuir, 27(3): 1108-1115.
de la Hoz, A., Díaz-Ortiz, A., Moreno, A. 2005. «Microwaves in organic
synthesis. Thermal and non-thermal microwave effects». Chemical Society Reviews,
34(2): 164-178.
de Luna, V.G. 2005. Estudo da Separação de Sólidos do Óleo Produzido na
Retortagem Conjunta de Xisto Betuminoso e Borracha de Pneus Usados. Dissertação
de Mestre em Processos Químicos. Curitiba: Universidade Federal do Paraná. – 70 p.
Denkov, N.D., Ivanov, I.B., Kralchevsky, P.A., Wasan, D.T. 1992. «A Possible
Mechanism of Stabilization of Emulsions with Solid Particles». Journal of Colloid
and Interface Science, 150: 589-593.
Derec, C., Senis, D., Talini, L., Allain, C. 2003. «Rapid settling of a colloidal
gel». Physical Review E, 67(6): 062401.
DeRoussel, P., Khakhar, D.V., Ottino, J.M. 2001. «Mixing of viscous
immiscible liquids. Part 2: Overemulsification—interpretation and use». Chemical
Engineering Science, 56(19): 5531-5537.
DeRoussel, P., Khakhar, D.V., Ottino, J.M. 2001a. «Mixing of viscous
immiscible liquids. Part 1: Computational models for strong-weak and continuous
flow systems». Chemical Engineering Science, 56(19): 5511-5529.
Dhont, J.K.G. 1999. «A constitutive relation describing the shear-banding
transition». Physical Review E, 60(4): 4534-4544.
Dhont, J.K.G., Briels, W.J. 2008. «Gradient and vorticity banding».
Rheologica Acta, 47(3): 257-281.
Dhont, J.K., Lettinga, M.P., Dogic, Z., Lenstra, T.A., Wang, H., Rathgeber, S.,
Carletto, P., Willner, L., Frielinghaus, H., Lindner, P. 2003. «Shear-banding and
microstructure of colloids in shear flow». Faraday Discussions, 123: 157-172.
Dhont, J.K.G., Kang, K., Lettinga, M.P., Briels, W.J. 2010. «Shear-banding
instabilities». Korea-Australia Rheology Journal, 22(4): 291-308.
Dias, P.M., de Faria, D.L.A., Constantino, V.R.L. 2005. «Clay-porphyrin
systems: spectroscopic evidence». C l a y s a n d C l a y M i n e r a l s , 53(4), 361-
371.
Dickinson, E. 1992. «Interfacial interactions and the stability of oil-in-water
emulsions». Pure and Applied Chemistry, 64(11): 1721-1724.

13
 Dickinson, E., Golding, M. 1997. «Rheology of Sodium Caseinate Stabilized
Oil-in-Water Emulsions». Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 191(1): 166-176.
Dimitrova, T.D., Gurkov, T.D., Vassileva, N., Campbell, B., Borwankar, R.P.
2000. «Kinetics of Cream Formation by the Mechanism of Consolidation in
Flocculating Emulsions». Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 230: 254-267.
Divoux, T., Tamarii, D., Barentin, C., Manneville, S. 2010. «Transient Shear
Banding in a Simple Yield Stress Fluid». Physical Review Letters, 104(20): 208301.
Dluzevska, E., Stobiecka, A., Maszewska, M., 2006. «Effect of oil phase
concentration on rheological properties and stability of beverage emulsions». Acta
Scientiarum Polonorum - Technologia Alimentaria, 5(2): 147-156.
Dong, K.J., Yang, R.Y., Zou, R.P., Yu, A.B. 2006. «Role of Interparticle
Forces in the Formation of Random Loose Packing». Physical Review Letters,
96(14): 145505.
Doukkali, A., Saoiabi, A., Zrineh, A., Hamad, M., Ferhat, M., Barbe, J.M.,
Guilard, R. 2001. «Separation and identification of petroporphyrins extracted from
the oil shales of Tarfaya: geochemical study». Fuel, 81(4): 467-472.
Dow, D.B. 1926. Oil-Field Emulsions. Washington: US Bureau of Mines. –
112 p.
Eggersdorfer, M.L., Kadau, D., Herrmann, H.J., Pratsinis, S.E. 2010.
«Fragmentation and restructuring of soft-agglomerates under shear». Journal of
Colloid and Interface Science, 342: 261-268.
Eicke, H.-F., Meier, W. 1996. «Interfacial charge transport in water-in-oil
microemulsions stabilized by ionic-non-ionic surfactant mixtures». Biophysical
Chemistry, 58: 29-37.
Ekott, E.J., Akpabio, E.J. 2011. «Influence of Asphaltene Content on
Demulsifiers Performance in Crude Oil Emlsions». Journal of Engineering and
Applied Sciences, 6(3): 200-204.
Ekulu, G., Nicolas, C., Achard, C., Rogalski, M. 2005. «Characterization of
aggregation processes in crude oils using differential scanning calorimetry». Energy
and Fuels, 19(4): 1297-1302.
Elseth, G. 2001. An Experimental Study of Oil / Water Flow in Horizontal
Pipes. PhD Thesis. Porsgrunn: The Norwegian University of Science and
Technology. – 270 p.
Elsharkawy, A.M., Al-sahhaf, T.A., Fahim, M.A., Yarranton, H.W. 2005.
«Characterization of asphaltenes and resins separated from water-in-crude oil
emulsions formed in Kuwaiti oil fields». In: Conference Proceedings of AIChE
Annual Meeting. Cincinnati, OH: American Institute of Chemical Engineers. pp. 697-
718.
Esbesen, K.H. 2002. Multivariate Data Analysis - in Practice. Ålborg: Camo
Process AS. – 592 p.
Ese, M.-H., Kilpatrick, P.K. 2004. «Stabilization of Water-in-Oil Emulsions by
Naphthenic Acids and Their Salts: Model Compounds, Role of pH, and Soap/Acid
Ratio». Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 25(3): 253–261.
Evdokimov, I.N. 2007. «T-C Phase Diagram of Asphaltenes in Solutions».
Petroleum Science and Technology, 25(1-2): 5-17.
14
 Evdokimov, I.N. 2008. «Fine Phase Transformations In Petroleum - The Basis
for Emerging Nanotechnologies». Chapter 11 in: Petroleum Science Research
Progress, Editor, K.L. Montclaire. New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. p.235-
259.
Evdokimov, I.N. 2010a. «Importance of Asphaltene Content in Petroleum –
Revision of Some Persistent Stereotypes». Petroleum Science and Technology, 28(7):
756–763.
Evdokimov, I.N. 2010b. «Importance of Asphaltene Content in Petroleum II -
Multi - Peak Viscosity Correlations». Petroleum Science and Technology, 28(9): 920-
924.
Evdokimov, I.N., Losev, A.P. 2011. «Thixotropy in Native Petroleum
Emulsions». Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 32(8): 1206-1212.
Evdokimov, I.N., Novikov, M.A. 2007. «Structural features of industrial water-
crude oil emulsions. Microwave studies». Chemistry and Technology of Fuels and
Oils, 43(1): 46-50.
Evdokimov, I.N., Eliseev, N.Yu., Eliseev, D.Yu. 2002. «Peculiarities of
rheology of crude oil and bitumen emulsions at industrially-important temperatures».
In: Proceedings of the 3rd World Congress on Emulsion (CME 2002). Lyon: CD-
Rom edition. – 6 p.
Evdokimov, I.N., Eliseev, N.Yu., Eliseev, D.Yu. 2004. «Effect of asphaltenes
on the thermal properties of emulsions encountered in oil recovery operations». Fuel,
83(7-8): 897-903.
Evdokimov, I.N., Eliseev, N.Yu., Iktisanov, V.A. 2005. «Excess density in
oilfield water - crude oil dispersions». Journal of Colloid and Interface Science,
285(2): 795-803.
Evdokimov, I.N., Eliseev, N.Yu., Losev, A.P., Novikov, M.A. 2007.
«Emerging Petroleum-Oriented Nanotechnologies for Reservoir Engineering». In:
SPE Russian Oil and Gas Technical Conference and Exhibition 2006: Technology for
world class resources. Vol. 1. Curran Associates, Incorporated: West Chester, USA,
2007. pp. 370-378.
Evdokimov, I.N., Efimov, Y.O., Losev, A.P., Novikov, M.A. 2008.
«Morphological Transformations of Native Petroleum Emulsions. I. Viscosity
Studies». Langmuir, 24(14): 7124-7131.
Fahim, M.A., Al-Sahhaf, T.A., Elkilani, A. 2010. Fundamentals of Petroleum
Refining. Amsterdam: Elsevier. – 656 p.
Fattaccioli, J., Baudry, J., Emerard, J.-D., Bertrand, E., Goubault, C., Henryb,
N., Bibette, J. 2009. «Size and fluorescence measurements of individual droplets by
flow cytometry». Soft Matter, 5: 2232-2238.
Feldman, Y., Kozlovich, N., Alexandrov, Y., Nigmatullin, R., Ryabov, Y.
1996. «Mechanism of the cooperative relaxation in microemulsions near the
percolation threshold». Physical Review E, 54(5): 5420-5427.
Feldman, Y., Kozlovich, N., Nir, I., Gart, N. 1997. «Dielectric spectroscopy of
microemulsions». Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering
Aspects, 128: 47-61.

15
 Feldman, Y., Skodvin, T., Sjöblom, J. 2001. «Dielectric Spectroscopy on
Emulsion and Related Colloidal Systems - A Review». Chapter 6 in: Encyclopedic
Handbook of Emulsion Technology, Sjöblom, J., ed., New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
p. 109-168.
Fielding, S.M., Olmsted, P.D. 2003 «Flow phase diagrams for concentration-
coupled shear banding». The European Physical Journal E: Soft Matter, 11(1): 65-83.
Fingas, M. 2005. A Review of the Emulsification Tendencies and Long-term
Petroleum Trends of Alaska North Slope (ANS) Oils. Ottawa, Canada: Environmental
Technology Centre. – 99 p.
Fingas, M. 2008. «A review of knowledge on water-in-oil emulsions». In:
Proceedings of the 2008 International Oil Spill Conference. Savannah, Georgia,
USA: IOSC. p.1269-1274. [http://www.iosc.org/papers/2008%20216.pdf]
Fingas, M.F., Fieldhouse, B. 2003. «Studies of the formation process of water-
in-oil emulsions». Marine Pollution Bulletin, 47: 369-396.
Fingas, M.F., Fieldhouse, B. 2004. «Formation of water-in-oil emulsions and
application to oil spill modelling». Journal of Hazardous Materials, 107: 37-50.
Fingas, M.F., Fieldhouse, B. 2006. «How to Model Water-in-Oil Emulsions».
In: Proceedings of the Environment Canada's 29th Arctic and Marine Oilspill
Technical Seminar. Vancouver, Canada: AMOP. – 8 р.
Fingas, M., Fieldhouse, B., Mullin, J.V. 1996. «Studies of water-in-oil
emulsions: Stability studies». Spill Science and Technology Bulletin, 3(4): 189-190.
Fingas, M., Fieldhouse, B., Lane, J., Mullin, J.V. 2000. «Studies of water-in-oil
emulsions: Long-term stability, oil properties, and emulsions formed at sea». In:
Proceedings of the 23rd Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar,
Vancouver, Canada: AMOP. p. 145-160.
Fingas, M., Fieldhouse, B.G., Mullin, J.V. 2001. «Environmental Emulsions».
Chapter 18 in: Encyclopedic Handbook of Emulsion Technology, Sjoblom J., Ed.,
New York: Marcel Dekker Inc. p. 409-442.
Fingas, M.F., Fieldhouse, B., Lambert, P., Wang, Z., Noonan, J., Lane, J.,
Mullin, J.V. 2002. Water-in-oil emulsions formed at sea, in test tanks, and in the
laboratory. Environment Canada Manuscript Report EE-169. Ottawa: Environment
Canada. – 81 p.
Fischer, P., Kaufmann, S.F.M., Maag, N., Maruyama, K., Cramer, C., Windhab,
E.J. 2001. «Investigation on the Drop Break-up under Controlled Mixed Shear and
Elongational Flow Conditions in Combination with the Morphology of Emulsifiers at
the Drop’s Interface». Chemie Ingenieur Technik, 73(6): 740-741.
Fisher, H.F. 1931. «Microscopic Study of California Oil-field Emulsions and
Some Notes on the Effects of Superimposed Electrical Fields». Petroleum
Transactions AIME, 92: 359-375.
Fletcher, P.D.I., Grice, D.D., Haswell, S.J. 2001. «Partitioning of p-nitroaniline
between pseudo-phases within a water-in-oil microemulsion. Effects of temperature
and microwave irradiation». Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 3: 1067-1072.
Ford, R.E., Furmidge, C.G.L. 1967. «The formation of drops from viscous
water-in-oil emulsions sprayed through fan-jet nozzles». British Journal of Applied
Physics, 18(4): 491-501.
16
 Fort, R.J., Moore, W.R. 1966. «Viscosities of Binary Liquid Mixtures».
Transactions of the Faraday Society, 62: 1112-1119.
Foster, K. 2000. «Thermal and Nonthermal Mechanisms of Interaction of
Radio-Frequency Energy with Biological Systems». IEEE Transactions on Plasma
Science, 28(1): 15-23.
Frost, R.L., Carmody, O., Kokot, S., Xi, Y. 2008. «Selected adsorbent
materials for oil-spill cleanup – a Thermoanalytical study». Journal of Thermal
Analysis and Calorimetry, 91(3): 809-816.
Fujii, M., Yoneda, T., Sanada, Y. 1999. «Study on the Micelle Size of
Asphaltenes in Vacuum Residue by Dielectric Loss». ACS Fuel Chemistry Division
Preprints, 44(4): 738-742.
Fulem, M., Becerra, M., Hasan, A., Zhao, B., Shaw, J.M. 2008. «Phase
behavior of Maya crude oil based on calorimetry and rheometry». Fluid Phase
Equilibria, 272(1-2): 32-41.
Gao, S. 2010. Stability of water-in-diluted bitumen emulsion droplets. Ph.D.
Thesis, Edmonton: U n i v e r s i t y o f A l b e r t a . – 1 8 7 p .
Gao, S., Moran, K., Xu, Z., Masliyah, J.H. 2009. «Role of Bitumen
Components in Stabilizing Water-in-Diluted Oil Emulsions». Energy and Fuels 23:
2606-2612.
Gaudin, A.M., Fuerstenau, M.C., Mitchell, S.R. 1959. «Effect of Pulp Depth
and Initial Pulp Density in Batch Thickening». AIME Transactions, 214: 613-616.
Gawrys, K.L. 2005. How Asphaltenes Aggregate: Role of Chemistry and
Solvent. PhD Thesis. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University. – 437 p.
Goual, L., Firoozabadi, A. 2002. «Measuring Asphaltenes and Resins, and
Dipole Moment in Petroleum Fluids». AIChE Journal, 48(11): 2646-2663.
Gradzielski, M., Hoffmann, H. 1999. «Rheological Properties of
Microemulsions». Chapter 11 in: Handbook of Microemulsion Science and
Technology, Kumar, P., Mittal, K.L., eds. New York: Marcel Dekker. p. 357-386.
Gu, G., Zhang, L., Wu, X., Xu, Z., Masliyah, J. 2006. «Isolation and
Characterization of Interfacial Materials in Bitumen Emulsions». Energy and Fuels,
20(2): 673-681.
Guenette, C.C., Sveum, P., Bech, C., Buist, I. 1995. «Studies of In-situ Burning
of Emulsions in Norway». In: Proceedings of International Oil Spill Conference.
Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute. p. 115.
Guo, B., Song, S., Chacko, J.,Ghalambor, A. 2005. Offshore pipelines. Oxford:
Elsevier. – 286 p.
Hannisdal, A. 2006. Particle-Stabilized Emulsions and Heavy Crude Oils.
Characterization, Stability Mechanisms and Interfacial Properties. PhD Thesis,
Trondheim, Norway: Norwegian University of Science and Technology. – 154 p.
Hannisdal, A., Hemmingsen, P.V., Sjöblom, J. 2005. «Group-Type Analysis of
Heavy Crude Oils Using Vibrational Spectroscopy in Combination with Multivariate
Analysis». Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, 44: 1349-1357.
Hannisdal, A., Ese, M.-H., Hemmingsen, P.V., Sjoblom, J. 2006. «Particle-
stabilized emulsions: Effect of heavy crude oil components pre-adsorbed onto

17
stabilizing solids». Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering
Aspects, 276: 45-58.
Havre, T.E. 2002. Formation of Calcium Naphthenate in Water/Oil Systems,
Naphthenic Acid Chemistry and Emulsion Stability. Dr. Eng. Thesis, Norwegian
University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway. – 71 p.
Havre, T.E., Sjöblom, J. 2003. «Emulsion stabilization by means of combined
surfactant multilayer (D-phase) and asphaltene particles». Colloids and Surfaces A:
Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 228(1-3): 131-142.
Hayward Gordon. 2010. Produced Water Chemical Treatment (Technical
Brochure). Toronto, Ontario: Hayward Gordon Ltd. – 6 p.
Hemmingsen, P.V., Auflem, I.H., Soether, O., Westvik, A. 2006. «Droplet Size
Distributions of Oil-in-Water Emulsions under High Pressures by Video
Microscopy». Chapter 18 in: Emulsion and Emulsion Stability, ed. J. Sjöblom. Boca
Raton: Taylor & Francis. p. 631-650.
Herzig, E.M., White, K.A., Schofield, A.B., Poon, W.C.K., Clegg, P. S. 2007.
«Bicontinuous emulsions stabilized solely by colloidal particles». Nature Materials,
6: 966-971.
Hodge, S.M., Rousseau, D. 2003. «Flocculation and coalescence in water-in-oil
emulsions stabilized by paraffin wax crystals». Food Research International, 36(7):
695-702.
Hofman, J.A.M.H. 1990. Flow of Dilute Emulsions through Porous Media.
PhD Thesis, Eindhoven: Technische Universiteit. – 134 p.
Holtze, C., Sivaramakrishnan, R., Antonietti, M., Tsuwi, J., Kremer, F., Klaus
D., Kramer, K.D. 2006. «The microwave absorption of emulsions containing aqueous
micro- and nanodroplets: A means to optimize microwave heating». Journal of
Colloid and Interface Science 302(2): 651-657.
Hong, J.-H., Kim, B.-S., Kim, D.-C. 2004. «Demulsification of Oil-Water
Emulsions by Microwave Irradiation». Korean Chemical Engineering Research,
42(6): 662-668.
Horozov, T.S., Binks, B.P. 2006. «Particle-Stabilised Emulsions: A Bilayer or
a Bridging Monolayer?». Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 45: 773-776.
Horváth-Szabó, G., Masliyah, J., Czarnecki, J. 2003. «Emulsion Stability
Based on Phase Behavior in Sodium Naphthenates Containing Systems: Gels with a
High Organic Solvent Content». Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 257(2):
299-309.
Iida, P.H., Scheer, A.P., Weinschutz, R., dos Santos, B.M. 2007. «Estudo do
Efeito da Agua em Emulsoes de Petroleo (Study of the Effect of Water in Petroleum
Emulsions)». In: Proceedings of 4 Congresso Brasileiro de P&D em Petróleo e Gás,
Campinas, SP, Brazil. Paper 2.3.0080-1.
Ioannou, K. 2006. Phase inversion phenomenon in horizontal dispersed
oil/water pipeline flows. Ph.D. Thesis. London: University College. – 214 p.
IPRC. 2010. Microwave Separation Technology (MST) Overview. Internet
publication: [http://www.iprc.com/oil-recovery-technology.php] (Site visited at
07.02.2011)

18
 Ishida, H. 2010 «Kinematic Viscosity of Mechanically Emulsified A-Heavy
Oil». Research Reports of Nagaoka National College of Technology, 46(1): 25-29.
Izquierdo, P., Esquena, J., Tadros, T.F., Dederen, J.C., Feng, J., Garcia-Celma,
M.J., Azemar, N., Solans, C. 2004. «Phase Behavior and Nano-emulsion Formation
by the Phase Inversion Temperature Method». Langmuir, 20(16): 6594-6598.
Janssen, J.M.H., Meijer, H.E.H. 1993. «Droplet breakup mechanisms: Stepwise
equilibrium versus transient dispersion». Journal of Rheology, 37(4): 597-608.
Jenkins, P., Snowden, M. 1996. «Depletion flocculation in colloidal
dispersions». Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 68: 57-96.
Jestin, J., Simon, S., Zupancic, L., Barré, L. 2007. «A Small Angle Neutron
Scattering Study of the Adsorbed Asphaltene Layer in Water-in-Hydrocarbon
Emulsions: Structural Description Related to Stability». Langmuir, 23(21): 10471-
10478.
Johansson, D., Bergenståhl, B., Lundgren, E. 1995. «Water-in-triglyceride oil
emulsions. Effect of fat crystals on stability». Journal of the American Oil Chemists'
Society, 72(8): 939-950.
Kaminsky, R.D., Wattenbarger, R.C., Lederhos, J.P., Leonardi, S.A. 2010.
«Viscous Oil Recovery Using Solids-Stabilized Emulsions». In: Proceedings of SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition. Florence: Society of Petroleum
Engineers. Paper No. 135284-MS.
Kamp, S.W., Kilfoil, M.L. 2009. «Universal behaviour in the mechanical
properties of weakly aggregated colloidal particles». Soft Matter, 5(12): 2438-2447.
Kappe, C.O. 2004. «Controlled Microwave Heating in Modern Organic
Synthesis». Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 43: 6250-6285.
Khristov, K., Taylor, S.D., Czarnecki, J., Masliyah, J. 2000. «Thin Liquid Film
Technique - Application to Water-Oil-Water Bitumen Emulsion Films». Colloids and
Surfaces A-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 174: 183-196.
Kerr, R.C., Lister, J.R. 1991. «The effects of shape on crystal settling and on
the rheology of magmas». Journal of Geology, 99: 457-467.
Kerstein, A.R., Law, C.K. 1982. «Percolation in combusting sprays I:
Transition from cluster combustion to percolate combustion in non-premixed sprays».
In: Nineteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion, Vol. 19, Issue 1.
Pittsburgh, PA: The Combustion Institute. pp. 961-969.
Khasanov, M.M., Bulgakova, G.T., Telin, A.G., Akhmetov, A.T. 2011. «Non-
equilibrium and Nonlinear Effects in Water-in-Oil Emulsion Flows in Porous Media».
Energy Fuels, 25(3): 1173-1181.
Kilfoil, M.L., Pashkovski, E.E., Masters, J.A., Weitz, D.A. 2003. «Dynamics
of weakly aggregated colloidal particles». Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society, London, Series A, 361(1805): 753-766.
Kim, C., Liu, Y., Kuhnle, A., Hess, S., Viereck, S., Danner, T., Mahadevan, L.,
Weitz, D.A. 2007. «Gravitational Stability of Suspensions of Attractive Colloidal
Particles». Physical Review Letters, 99(2): 028303.
Krieger, I.M., Dougherty, T.J. 1959. «A mechanism for non-Newtonian flow in
suspensions of rigid spheres». Journal of Rheology, 3(1): 137-152.

19
 Kolmogorov, A.N. 1962. «A refinement of previous hypotheses concerning the
local structure of turbulence in a viscous incompressible fluid at high Reynolds
number». Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 13: 82-85.
Kokal, S.L. 2006. «Crude Oil Emulsions». Chapter 12 in: Petroleum
Engineering Handbook; Vol. 1, issue 12. Richardson, TX: Society of Petroleum
Engineers. pp. 533-570.
Kriz, P., Andersen, S.I. 2005. «Effect of Asphaltenes on Crude Oil Wax
Crystallization». Energy and Fuels, 19(3): 948-953.
Kumar, A., Saxena, V.K., Sharma, N.D., Talwar, R.K., Sharma, B.K., Dinesh,
R.S. 1998. «High Internal Phase Ratio Reverse Emulsion Technology for Pipeline
Transportation of Heavy Crudes in North Cambay Basin of India». In: Proceedings of
the 7th UNITAR Conference on Heavy Crude and Tar Sands. Beijing, China:
International Centre for Heavy Hydrocarbons. Paper No. 1998.052
Kurban, A.P.A. 1997. Stratified Liquid-Liquid Flow. PhD Dissertation.
London: The University of London. – 164 р.
Lai, A., Bremond, N., Stone, H.A. 2009. «Separation-driven coalescence of
droplets: An analytical criterion for the approach to contact». The Journal of Fluid
Mechanics, 632: 97-107.
Landfester, K. 2000. «Recent developments in miniemulsions - Formation and
stability mechanisms». Macromolecular Symposia, 150: 171-178
Langevin, D. 1988. «Microemulsions». Accounts of Chemical Research, 21(7):
255-260.
Langevin, D., Poteau, S., Hénaut, I., Argillier, J.F. 2004. «Crude Oil Emulsion
Properties and their Application to Heavy Oil Transportation». Oil & Gas Science
and Technology – Rev. IFP, 59(5): 511-521.
Laurati, M., Petekidis, G., Koumakis, N., Cardinaux, F., Schofield, A.B.,
Brader, J.M., Fuchs, M., Egelhaaf, S.U. 2009. «Structure, dynamics, and rheology of
colloid-polymer mixtures: From liquids to gels». The Journal of Chemical Physics,
130: 134907.
Lee, R.F. 1999. «Agents Which Promote and Stabilize Water-in-Oil
Emulsions». Spill Science & Technology Bulletin, 5(2): 117-126.
Letamendia, L., Louisor, E., Pru-Lestret, E., Rouch, J., Sciortino, F., Tartaglia,
P., Ushiki, H. 1998. «Relaxation phenomena in critical microemulsion systems».
Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 140(1-3): 289-
293.
Lettinga, M.P., Manneville, S. 2009. «Competition between shear banding and
wall slip in wormlike micelles». Physical Review Letters, 103(24): 248302.
Lietor-Santos, J.J., Kim, C., Lu, P.J., Fernandez-Nieves, A., Weitz, D.A. 2009.
«Gravitational compression of colloidal gels». The European Physical Journal E,
28(2): 159-164.
Lietor-Santos, J.J., Kim, C., Lynch, M.L., Fernandez-Nieves, A., Weitz, D.A.
2010. «The Role of Polymer Polydispersity in Phase Separation and Gelation in
Colloid-Polymer Mixtures». Langmuir, 26(5): 3174-3178.

20
 Lopez-Montilla, J.C. 2002. «Spontaneous emulsification: mechanisms,
physicochemical aspects, modeling and applications». Journal of Dispersion Science
and Technology, 23: 219-268.
Lovick, J., Mouza, A.A., Paras, S.V., Lye, G.J., Angeli, P. 2005. «Drop size
distribution in highly concentrated liquid–liquid dispersions using a light back
scattering method». Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, 80: 545-
552.
Lu, P.J. 2008. Gelation and Phase Separation of Attractive Colloids. PhD
Thesis, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University. – 382 p.
Lu, P.J., Conrad, J.C., Wyss, H.M., Schofield, A.B., Weitz, D.A. 2006. «Fluids
of clusters in attractive colloids». Physical Review Letters, 96: 028306.
Machado, F., Zinani, F., Frey, S. 2007. «Herschel-Bulkley Fluid Flows
Through a Sudden Axisymmetric Expansion via Galerkin Least-Squares
Methodology». Presented at XXX CNMAC – Congresso Nacional de Matemática
Aplicada e Computacional, Brasil, Florianópolis. [Internet publication; http: //
www.sbmac.org.br / eventos / cnmac / xxx_cnmac / PDF / 270.pdf - Site visited at
25.04.2011]
Manan, M.A., Mat, M.H.B., Ming, L.J. 1997. «Rheological Properties of Crude
Oil Emulsion». In: Proceeding of Regional Symposium on Chemical Engineering
(RSCE'97). Johor, Malaysia: Hyatt Regency. Internet publication [ http:
eprints.utm.my / 4717 / 1 / M.A.Manan1997 _ Rheological Properties Of Crude Oil.
pdf]
Manley, S., Skotheim, J.M., Mahadevan, L., Weitz, D.A. 2005. «Gravitational
Collapse of Colloidal Gels». Physical Review Letters, 94(21): 218302.
Manneville, S. 2008. «Recent experimental probes of shear banding».
Rheologica Acta, 47(3): 301-318.
Manning, F.S., Thompson, R.E. 1995. Oilfield Processing of Petroleum:
Crude oil. New York: Pennwell Corp. – 400 p.
Manoj, P., Fillery-Travis, A.J., Watson, A.D., Hibberd, D.J., Robins, M.M.
1998. «Characterization of a Depletion-Flocculated Polydisperse Emulsion. I.
Creaming Behaviour». Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 207(2): 283-293.
Mao, Z., Xu, H., D. Wang, D. 2010. «Molecular Mimetic Self-Assembly of
Colloidal Particles. Advanced Functional Materials, 20(7): 1053-1074.
Marques, J., Merdrignac, I., Baudot, A., Barre, L., Guillaume, D., Espinat, D.,
Brunet, S. 2008. «Asphaltenes Size Polydispersity Reduction by Nano- and
Ultrafiltration Separation Methods –Comparison with the Flocculation Method». Oil
and Gas Science and Technology, 63(1): 139-149.
Mason, T.G. 1999. «New fundamental concepts in emulsion rheology».
Current Opinions in Colloid and Interface Science, 4(3): 231-238.
Mason, T.G., Bibette, J., Weitz, D.A. 1995. «Elasticity of Compressed
Emulsions». Physical Review Letters, 75(10): 2051-2054.
Mason, T.G., Krall, A.H., Gang, H., Bibette, J., Weitz, D.A. 1996.
«Monodisperse Emulsions: Properties and Uses». Chapter 6 in: Encyclopedia of
Emulsion Technology, Vol. 4, P. Becher, ed. New York: Marcel Dekker., p. 299-336.

21
 Mason, T.G., Bibette, J., Weitz, D.A. 1996b. «Yielding and Flow of
Monodisperse Emulsions». Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 179(2): 439-
448.
Mason, T.G., Wilking, J.N., Meleson, K., Chang, C.B., Graves, S.M. 2006.
«Nanoemulsions: formation, structure, and physical properties (Topical Review)».
Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter, 18(41): R635-R666.
Masson, J.-F., Polomark, G.M. 2001. «Bitumen microstructure by modulated
differential scanning calorimetry». Thermochimica Acta, 374(2): 105-114.
McLean, J.D.. Kilpatrick, P.K. 1997a. «Effects of Asphaltene Solvency on
Stability of Water-in-Crude-Oil Emulsions». Journal of Colloid and Interface
Science, 189(2): 242-253.
McLean, J.D.. Kilpatrick, P.K. 1997b. «Effects of Asphaltene Aggregation in
Model Heptane-Toluene Mixtures on Stability of Water-in-Oil Emulsions». Journal
of Colloid and Interface Science, 196(1): 23-34.
Meester, R., Roy, R. 1996. Continuum Percolation. New York: Cambridge
University Press. – 238 p.
Meier, W., Eicke, H.-F. 1996. «Electric, dielectric and Kerr effect
investigations in water-in-oil microemulsions». Current Opinion in Colloid &
Interface Science, 1(2): 279-286.
Melancon, G. 2008. Process Separation Overview. Explanation of Mechanics
of Separation and Chemicals. New Orleans: NACE International. – 55 p.
Meller, A., Gisler, T., Weitz, D.A., Stavans, J. 1999. «Viscoelasticity of
Depletion-Induced Gels in Emulsion-Polymer Systems». Langmuir, 15: 1918-1922.
Meng, G., Jaworski, A.J., White, N.M. 2006. «Composition measurements of
crude oil and process water emulsions using thick-film ultrasonic transducers».
Chemical Engineering and Processing, 45: 383-391.
Messenger, J.U. 1965. «Emulsion Control Using Electrical Stability Potential».
Journal of Petroleum Technology, 17(10): 1229-1231.
Møller, P.C.F., Fall, A., Bonn, D. 2009. «Origin of apparent viscosity in yield
stress fluids below yielding». E u r o p h y s i c s L e t t e r s , 87(3): 38004.
Monson, L.T. 1937. «Petroleum Emulsions and their Chemical Resolution».
Paper No. 2121-02 in: Proceedings of the 2nd World Petroleum Congress. Paris: WPC.
p. 38-54.
Mooney, M. 1951. «The viscosity of a concentrated suspension of spherical
particles». Journal of Colloid Science, 6(2): 162-170.
Moradi, M., Alvarado, V., Huzurbazar, S. 2011. «Effect of Salinity on Water-
in-Crude Oil Emulsion: Evaluation through Drop-Size Distribution Proxy». Energy
and Fuels, 25(1): 260-268.
Moran, K., Czarnecki, J. 2007. «Competitive Adsorption of Sodium
Naphthenates and Naturally Occurring Species at Water-in-Crude Oil Emulsion
Droplet Surfaces». Colloids and Surfaces, A: Physiochemical and Engineering
Aspects, 292: 97-98.
Moulik, S.P., Paul, B.K. 1999. «Transport Processes in Microemulsions».
Chapter 11 in: Surfaces of Nanoparticles and Porous Materials, Schwarz, J.A. et al.,
Eds. New York: Marcel Dekker. p. 259-280.
22
 Moulik, S.P., Ray, S. 1994. «Thermodynamics of clustering of droplets in
water/AOT/heptane microemulsion». Pure and Applied Chemistry., 66(3): 521-525.
Muller, H., Pauchard, V.O., Al-Hajji, A. 2009. «Role of Naphthenic Acids in
Emulsion Tightness for a Low Total Acid Number (TAN)/High Asphaltenes Oil:
Characterization of the Interfacial Chemistry». Energy and Fuels, 23(3): 1280–1288.
Mutyala, S., Fairbridge, C., Paré, J.R.J., Bélanger, J.M.R., Ng, S., Hawkins, R.
2010. «Microwave applications to oil sands and petroleum: A review». Fuel
Processing Technology, 91(2): 127-135.
NATCO. 2008. Dehydration and Desalting of Opportunity Crudes - A Step
Forward. Tulsa, Oklahoma: NATCO Company. – 33 p.
Nawab, M.A., Mason, S.G. 1958. «The Viscosity of Dilute Emulsions».
Transactions of the Faraday Society. 54: 1712-1723.
Ngan, K.H. 2010. Phase Inversion in dispersed liquid-liquid pipe flow. PhD
Thesis. London: University College. – 234 p.
Nimtz, G., Binggeli, D., Börngen, L., Marquardt, P., Schäfer, U., Zorn, R. 1986.
«Dielectric and Structural Properties of a Water-Oil Emulsion at the Gel-
Microemulsion Transition». Europhysics Letters, 2(2): 103-108.
Nour, A.H., Yunus, R.M. 2006. «Stability investigation of water-in-crude oil
emulsion». Journal of Applied Sciences, 6(14): 2895-2900.
Nour, A.H., Mohd, R., Anwaruddin, H. 2007. «Water-in-Crude Oil Emulsions:
Its Stabilization and Demulsification». Journal of Applied Sciences, 7(22): 3512-3517.
Ohtsuka, T., Royall, C.P., Tanaka, H. 2008. «Local structure and dynamics in
colloidal fluids and gels». Europhysics Letters, 84: 46002.
Oliveira, R.C.G., Goncalves, M.A.L. 2005. «Emulsion Rheology – Theory vs.
Field Observation». In: Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference,
Houston, Texas. - OTC Paper 17386.
Omer, A.O.A. 2009. Pipeline Flow Behavior of Water-In-Oil Emulsions. PhD
Thesis. Waterloo, Canada: University of Waterloo. – 184 p.
Omole, O., Falode, O.A. 2006. «Stabilization of some crude oil emulsions by
asphaltenes and reservoir fines». International Journal of Applied Chemistry, 2(1):
29-43.
Onuki, A. 1994. «Domain Growth and Rheology in Phase-Separating Binary
Mixtures with Viscosity Difference». Europhysics Letters, 28(3): 175-180.
Opendal, N., Sorland, G., Sjoblom, J. 2009. «Methods for Droplet Size
Distribution Determination of Water-in-oil Emulsions using Low-Field NMR».
diffusion-fundamentals.org, 9(7): 1-29.
Orr, R. 2009. «Phase Inversion in Heavy Crude Oil Production». Proceedings
of Teknas Conference on Heavy Oil Technology for Offshore Applications. 14-15
May 2009, Stavanger, Norway. Internet publication: [http: // www.tekna.no /
ikbViewer / Content / 778325 /10_%20Orr%20-%20Phase%20Inversion.pdf] (Site
visited at 20.05.2011)
Osuji, C.O., Weitz, D.A. 2008. «Highly anisotropic vorticity aligned structures
in a shear thickening attractive colloidal system». Soft Matter, 4(7): 1388-1392.
Otsubo, Y., Prud'homme, R.K. 1994. «Effect of drop size distribution on the
flow behavior of oil-in-water emulsions». Rheologica Acta, 33(4): 303-306.
23
 Ovarlez, G., Bertrand, F., Rodts, S. 2006 «Local determination of the
constitutive law of a dense suspension of noncolloidal particles through magnetic
resonance imaging». Journal of Rheology, 50(3): 259-292.
Ovarlez, G., Rodts, S. Ragouilliaux, A., Coussot, P., Goyon, J., Colin, A. 2008.
«Wide gap Couette flows of dense emulsions: local concentration measurements, and
comparison between macroscopic and local constitutive law measurements through
MRI». Physical Review E: Statistical, Nonlinear, and Soft Matter Physics, 78:
036307.
Ovarlez, G., Rodts, S., Château, X., Coussot, P. 2009. «Phenomenology and
physical origin of shear localization and shear banding in complex fluids».
Rheologica Acta, 48(8): 831-844.
Pal, R. 1993. «Pipeline Flow of Unstable and Surfactant Stabilized
Emulsions». AlChE Journal, 39(11): 1754-1764.
Pal, R. 2000. «Viscosity–Concentration Equation for Emulsions of Nearly
Spherical Droplets». Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 231(1): 168-175.
PAS-OSR. 2010. «Mechanism of the Formation of a Mousse». Internet
publication of Petroleum Association of Japan, Oil Spill Response & Industry
Support Department (PAS-OSR). [http:// www. pcs. gr. jp/ doc/ EMousse/ text. htm].
Papanastasiou, T.C. 1987. «Flow of Materials with Yield». Journal of
Rheology, 31(5): 385-404.
Papanastasiou, A.C., Macosko, C.W., Scriven, L.E. 1986. «Analysis of
lubricated squeezing flow». International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids,
6(11): 819-839.
Pauchard, V., Sjöblom, J., Kokal, S., Bouriat, P., Dicharry, C., Muller, H., al-
Hajji, A. 2009. «Role of Naphthenic Acids in Emulsion Tightness for a Low-Total-
Acid-Number (TAN)/High-Asphaltenes Oil». Energy and Fuels, 23(3): 1269-1279.
Pautot, S., Frisken, B.J., Weitz, D.A. 2003a. «Production of Unilamellar
Vesicles Using an Inverted Emulsion». Langmuir 19(7): 2870-2879.
Pautot, S., Frisken, B.J., Cheng, J.-X., Xie, X.S., Weitz, D.A. 2003b.
«Spontaneous Formation of Lipid Structures at Oil/Water/Lipid Interfaces».
Langmuir 19(24): 10281-10287.
Pena, A.A., Hirasaki, G.J. 2006. «NMR Characterization of Emulsions».
Chapter 8 in: Emulsion and Emulsion Stability, ed. J. Sjöblom. Boca Raton: Taylor &
Francis. p. 283-310.
Penfold, R., Watson, A.D., Mackie, A.R., Hibberd, D.J. 2006. «Quantitative
Imaging of Aggregated Emulsions». Langmuir, 22: 2005-2015.
Perez, C.A. 2005. Horizontal pipe separator (HPS). Experiments and
modeling. PhD Thesis, Tulsa, USA: University of Tulsa. – 218p.
Philip, J., Poirier, J.E., Bibette, J., Leal-Calderon, F. 2001. «Gelation and
Coarsening in Dispersions of Highly Viscous Droplets». Langmuir, 17: 3545-3552.
Pickering, S.U. 1907. «Emulsions». J. Chem. Soc.(London), 91: 2001-2021.
Pons, R., Ravey, J.C., Sauvage, S., Stébé, M.J., Erra, P., Solans, C. 1993.
«Structural studies on gel emulsions». Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and
Engineering Aspects, 76: 171-177.

24
 Prasad, V., Semwogerere, D., Weeks, E.R. 2007. «Confocal microscopy of
colloids». Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter, 19: 113102.
Qatargas Glossary. 2010. Reverse Emulsion. Internet publication: [http: // www.
qatargas. com. qa / Media.aspx?id=166&tmp=98]
Quemada, D., Berli, C.L.A. 2002. «Energy of interaction in colloids and its
implications in rheological modeling». Advances in Colloid and Interface Science,
98(1): 51-85.
Radford, S.J., Dickinson, E. 2004. «Depletion flocculation of caseinate-
stabilised emulsions: what is the optimum size of the non-adsorbed protein nano-
particles?». Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects,
238(1-3): 71-81.
Ragouilliaux, A., Coussot, P., Palermo, T., Herzhaft, B. 2009. «Modeling
Aging and Yielding of Complex Fluids: Application to an Industrial Material». Oil &
Gas Science and Technology, 64(5): 571-581.
Raney, K.H. 1986. Studies of Non-Equilibrium Behavior in Surfactant Systems
Using Videomicroscopy and Diffusion Path Analysis. Ph.D. Thesis, Houston, Texas:
Rice University. – 277 p.
Rang, M.J. 1997. Intermediate Phase Formation and Spontaneous
Emulsification of Hydrocarbon / Alcohol / Surfactant / Water Systems. Ph.D. Thesis,
Houston, Texas: Rice University. – 415 p.
Reeve, R.N., Godfrey, J.C. 2002. «Phase inversion during liquid-liquid mixing
in continuous flow, pump-mix, agitated tanks». Chemical Engineering Research and
Design, 80(8): 864-871.
Reimer, K.J., Reimer, M.M., Stillman, M.J. 1981. «Aggregation of a
symmetrical metalloporphyrin». Canadian Journal of Chemistry, 59(9), 1388-1394.
Richardson, E.G. 1933. «Uber die Viskositat Von Emulsionen». Kolloid-
Zeitschrift, 65(1): 32-37.
Richardson, E.G. 1950. «The formation and flow of emulsion». Journal of
Colloid Science, 5(4): 404-413.
Rimmer, D., Gregoli, A., Hamshar, J., Yildivim, E. 1992. «Pipeline emulsion
transportation for heavy oils». Chapter 8 in: Emulsions in the Petroleum Industry,
L.L. Schramm, Ed., Washington DC: American Chemical Society, pp. 295-312.
Roberts, G.P., Barnes, H.A., Carew, P. 2001. «Modelling the flow behavior of
very shear-thinning liquids». Chemical Engineering Science, 56: 5617-5623.
Roenningsen, H.P., Bjoerndal, B., Hansen, A.B., Pedersen, W.B. 1991. «Wax
precipitation from North Sea crude oils: 1. Crystallization and dissolution
temperatures, and Newtonian and non-Newtonian flow properties». Energy and Fuels,
5(6): 895-908.
Rogel, E., Carbognani, L. 2003. «Density Estimation of Asphaltenes Using
Molecular Dynamics Simulations». Energy and Fuels, 17(2): 378-386.
ROMAX. 2010. ROMAX Water Clarifiers - Raising the Bar in Oil/Water
Separation. U.S.: Dow Chemical Company. – 8 p.
Roscoe, R. 1952. «The viscosity of suspensions of rigid spheres». British
Journal of Applied Physics, 3(8): 267-269.

25
 Russel, W.B., Saville, D.A., Schowalter, W.R. 1991. Colloidal Dispersions.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, – 525 p..
Saar, M.O., Manga, M., Cashman, K.V., Fermouw, S. 2001. «Numerical
models of the onset of yield strength in crystal-melt suspensions». Earth and
Planetary Science Letters, 187: 367-379.
Sanfeld, A., Steinchen, A. 2008. «Emulsions stability, from dilute to dense
emulsions - Role of drops deformation». Advances in Colloid and Interface Science,
140: 1-65.
Saniere, A., Hénaut, I., Argillier, J.F. 2004. «Pipeline Transportation of Heavy
Oils, a Strategic, Economic and Technological Challenge». Oil & Gas Science and
Technology – Rev. IFP, 59(5): 455-466.
S c h e r , H . , Z a l l e n , R . 1 9 7 0 . «Critical density in percolation
processes». J o u r n a l o f C h e m i c a l P h y s i c s , 5 3 : 3 7 5 9 -3761.
Schramm, L.L. 2006. Emulsions, Foams, and Suspensions: Fundamentals
and Applications. New York: Wiley-VCH. – 463 p.
Seager, C.R., Mason, T.G. 2007. «Slippery diffusion-limited aggregation».
Physical Review E, 75(1): 011406.
Sebba, F. 1987. Foams and Biliquid Foams-Aphrons. Chichester: Wiley &
Sons.
Sedgwick, H., Egelhaaf, S.U., Poon, W.C.K. 2004. «Clusters and gels in
systems of sticky particles». Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter, 16(SI): S4913-
S4922.
Semple, K.M., Cyr, N., Fedorak, P.M., Westlake, D.W.S. 1990.
«Characterization of asphaltenes from Cold Lake heavy oil: variations in chemical
structure and composition with molecular size». Canadian Journal of Chemistry,
68(7): 1092-1099.
Senis, D., Gorre-Talini, L., Allain, C. 2001. «Systematic study of the settling
kinetics in an aggregating colloidal suspension». The European Physical Journal E,
4(1): 59-68.
Sherman, P. 1962. «The viscosity of emulsions». Rheologica Acta, 2(1): 74-82.
S i b r e e , J . O . 1930. «The viscosity of emulsions - Part I». Transactions of
the Faraday Society, 26: 26-36.
Siegmund, S.C., Storbeck, M.L., Cross, J.B., Fogler, H.C., 1980. «Physical
properties of water in fuel oil emulsions (density and bulk compressibility)». Journal
of Chemical Engineering Data, 25(1): 72-74.
Silbert, L.E., Farr, R.S., Melrose, J.R., Ball, R.C. 1999. «Stress distributions in
flowing aggregated colloidal suspensions». The Journal of Chemical Physics,
111(10): 4780-4789.
Simmons, M.J.H., Zaidi, S.H., Azzopardi, B.J. 2000. «Comparison of laser-
base drop size measurement techniques and their application to dispersed liquid–
liquid pipe flow». Optical Engineering, 39(2): 505-509.
Sjoblom, J. 2006. Emulsions and Emulsion Stability, 2d ed. New York: CRC
Press. – 665 p.
Sjöblom, J., Aske, N., Auflem, O.B., Brandal, O., Havre, T.E., Saether, A.W.,
Johnsen, E.E., Kallevik, H. 2003. «Our current understanding of water-in-crude oil
26
emulsions. Recent characterization techniques and high pressure performance».
Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 100–102: 399-473.
Smith, G.S., Scott Jr, W.R. 1990. «The Use of Emulsions to Represent
Dielectric Materials in Electromagnetic Scale Models». IEEE Transactions on
Antennas and Propagation, 38(3): 323-334.
Smith, H.V., Arnold, K.E. 1987. «Crude Oil Emulsions». Chapter 19 in
Petroleum Engineering Handbook. Richardson, TX: Society of Petroleum Engineers.
pp. 19-1 – 19-34.
Smith, R.C., Baker, K.S. 1981. «Optical properties of the clearest natural
waters (200-800 nm)». Applied Optics, 20(2): 177-184.
Speight, J.G. 1999. The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum. 3rd ed. New
York, USA: Marcel Decker Inc. – 936 p.
Starov, V.M., Zhdanov, V.G. 2003. «Viscosity of emulsions: influence of
flocculation». Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 258(2): 404-414.
Stauffer, D. 2003. Introduction to Percolation Theory. London: Taylor &
Francis. – 182 p.
Stiver, W., Novak, M., Shiu, W.Y., Mackay, D. 1983. «Recent University of
Toronto Studies on the Fate and Effects of Oil in the Marine Environment». In:
Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Arctic Marine Oil-Spill Program Technical Seminar,
Ottawa: Environment Canada. pp. 24-29.
Stone, H.A. 1994. «Dynamics of Drop Deformation and Breakup in Viscous
Fluids». Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 26: 65-102.
Strassner, J.E. 1968. «Effect of pH on Interfacial Films and Stability of Crude
Oil-Water Emulsions» Journal of Petroleum Technology, 3: 303-312.
Strom–Kristiansen, T., Lewis, A., Daling, P.S., Nordvik, A.B. 1995.
«Demulsification by Use of Heat and Emulsion Breaker». In: Proceedings of
Eighteenth Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, Vol. 1. Ottawa,
Canada: Environment Canada, p. 367.
Stuerga, D.A.C., Gaillard, P. 1996. «Microwave athermal effects in chemistry -
a myths autopsy, orienting effects and thermodynamic consequences of electric
field». Journal of Microwave Power & Electromagnetic Energy, 31(2): 101-113.
Suen, W.M.,. Wong, S.P., Young, K. 1979. «The lattice model of heat
conduction in a composite material». Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, 12(8):
1325-1338.
Sullivan, A.P., Kilpatrick, P.K. 2002. «The Effects of Inorganic Solid Particles
on Water and Crude Oil Emulsion Stability». Industrial & Engineering Chemistry
Research, 41(14): 3389-3404.
Tadros, T.F. 2005. Applied surfactants: principles and applications.
Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag. – 634 р.
Taha, E.I. 2009. «Development and Characterization of New Indomethacin
Self-Nanoemulsifying Formulations». Scientia Pharmaceutica, 77: 443-451
Tambe, D.E., Sharma, M.M. 1994. «The Effect of Colloidal Particles on Fluid-
Fluid Interfacial Properties and Emulsion Stability». Advances in Colloid and
Interface Science, 52: 1-63.

27
 Tanner, R.I. 2000. Engineering Rheology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. –
559 p.
Tansel, B., Sevimoglu, O. 2006. «Coalescence and Size Distribution
Characteristics of Oil Droplets Attached on Flocks after Coagulation». Water, Air,
and Soil Pollution, 169: 293-302.
Tarimala, S., Wu, C.-Y., Dai, L.L. 2005. «Pickering Emulsions - A Paradigm
Shift». Proceedings of the 2005 AIChE Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH, USA,
Report #142m.
Taylor, S.D., Czarnecki, J., Masliyah, J. 2001. «Refractive index measurements
of diluted bitumen solutions». Fuel, 80(14): 2013-2018.
Tcholakova, S., Vankova, N., Denkov, N.D., Danner, T. 2007. «Emulsification
in turbulent flow: 3. Daughter drop-size distribution». Journal of Colloid and
Interface Science, 310(2): 570-589.
Thiam, A.R., Bremond, N., Bibette, J. 2009. «Breaking of an emulsion under
an ac electric field». Physical Review Letters, 102(18): 188304.
Ting, P.D., Hirasaki, G.J., Chapman, W.G. 2003. «Modeling of Asphaltene
Phase Behavior with the SAFT Equation of State». Petroleum Science and
Technology, 21(3-4): 647-661.
Tiu, C., Guo, J., Uhlherr, P.H.T. 2006. «Yielding Behaviour of Viscoplastic
Materials». Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 12(5): 653-662.
Toms, B. 1948. «Observation on the flow of linear polymer solutions through
straight tubes at large Reynolds numbers». In: Proceedings of the First International
Rheological Congress, Vol. 2. Amsterdam: North Holland Publ. pp.135–141.
Trallero, J.L. 1995. Oil-Water Flow in Horizontal Pipes. PhD Dissertation.
Tulsa, OK: The University of Tulsa. – 278 р.
Tran, K.Q. 2009. Reversing and non-reversing phase transitions in Athabasca
bitumen asphaltenes. MSc. Thesis. Edmonton, Canada: University of Alberta. – 69 p.
Uhlherr, P.H.T., Guo, J., Tiu, C., Zhang, X.-M., Zhou, J.Z.-Q., Fang, T.-N.
2005. «The shear-induced solid-liquid transition in yield stress materials with
chemically different structures». Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 125(2-
3): 101-119.
Urbina-Villalba, G. 2001. «Influence of Surfactant Distribution on the Stability
of Oil/Water Emulsions towards Flocculation and Coalescence». Colloids and
Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 190: 111-116.
Urbina-Villalba, G. 2009. «An Algorithm for Emulsion Stability Simulations:
Account of Flocculation, Coalescence, Surfactant Adsorption and the Process of
Ostwald Ripening». International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 10: 761-804.
Urbina-Villalba, G., García-Sucre, M. 2000. «Effect of Non-Homogeneous
Spatial Distributions of Surfactants on the Stability of High-Content Bitumen-in-
Water Emulsions». Interciencia, 25: 415-422.
Urbina-Villalba, G., García-Sucre, M. 2001. «A Simple Computational
Technique for the Systematic Study of Adsorption Effects in Emulsified Systems.
Influence of Inhomogeneous Surfactant Distributions on the Coalescence rate of a
Bitumen-in-Water Emulsion». Molecular Simulations, 22: 75-97.

28
 U.S. Patent 4265264. 1981. Method of Transporting viscous Hydrocarbons.
Inventor: Sifferman, T.R.; Conoco, Inc., Ponca City, OK.
U.S. Patent 4333488. 1982. Method of Transporting viscous Hydrocarbons.
Inventor: Mcclaflin, G.G.; Conoco, Inc., Ponca City, Okla.
U.S. Patent 4582629. 1986. Use of Microwave Radiation in Separating
Emulsions and Dispersions of Hydrocarbons and Water. Inventor: Wolf, N.O.;
Conoco, Inc., Ponca City, OK.
U.S. Patent 5607574. 1997. Method of breaking reverse emulsions in a crude
oil desalting system. Inventor: Hart, P.R.; BetzDearborn Inc., Trevose, Pa.
Vaessen, G.E.J., Stein, H.N. 1995. «The Applicability of Catastrophe Theory
to Emulsion Phase Inversion». Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 176: 378-
387.
van Aken, G.A., Zoet, F.D. 2000. «Coalescence in highly concentrated coarse
emulsions». Langmuir, 16(18): 7131-7138.
Vankova, N., Tcholakova, S., Denkov, N.D., Ivanov, I.B., Vulchev, V.D.,
Danner, T. 2007. «Emulsification in turbulent flow 1. Mean and maximum drop
diameters in inertial and viscous regimes». Journal of Colloid and Interface Science,
312: 363-380.
van den Noort, A., Briels, W.J. 2008 «Brownian dynamics simulations of
concentration coupled shear banding». Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics,
152(1-3): 148-155.
Vashishta, P., Kalia, R.K., Nakano, A. 2007. «Multimillion Atom Simulations
of Dynamics of Wing Cracks and Nanoscale Damage in Glass, and Hypervelocity
Impact Damage in Ceramics». Computer Physics Communications, 177(1-2): 202-
205.
Vignati, E., Piazza, R., Lockhart, T.P. 2003. «Pickering emulsions: Interfacial
tension, colloidal layer morphology, and trapped-particle motion». Langmuir, 19:
6650-6656.
Walavalkar, A.Y., Kulkarni, A.K. 2001. «Combustion of Water-in-Oil
Emulsion Layers Supported on Water». Combustion and Flame, 125: 1001-1011.
Wang, S., Axcell, E., Cleary, R., Little, V., Pinkoski, L. 2004. «Application Of
A Reverse-Emulsion-Breaker At A SAGD Pilot Plant In Northern Alberta». SPE
Paper 86932-MS in: Proceedings of International Thermal Operations and Heavy Oil
Symposium, Bakersfield, California: Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Wang, W., Gong, J., Shi, B., Shuai, H. 2010. «Investigation on heavy crude
oil-water two phase flow and related flow characteristics». In: Proceedings of the 7th
International Conference on Multiphase Flow ICMF 2010, Tampa, USA: University
of Florida. Internet publication [http://ufdc.ufl.edu/UF00102023/00547]
Wang, W., Gong, J., Angeli, P. 2011. «Investigation on heavy crude-water two
phase flow and related flow characteristics». International Journal of Multiphase
Flow, 37(9): 1156-1164.
Wang, X., Alvarado, V. 2008. «Effect of Salinity and pH on Pickering
Emulsion Stability». Proceedings of SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Denver, Colorado, USA, paper 115941-MSm.

29
 Wang, X., Alvarado, V. 2009. «Direct current electrorheological stability
determination of water-in-crude oil emulsions». Journal of Physical Chemistry B,
113(42): 13811-13816.
Weeks, E.R. 2007. «Soft Jammed Materials». Chaper 2 in: Statistical Physics
of Complex Fluids, S Maruyama, M Tokuyama, eds., Sendai, Japan: Tohoku
University Press. pp. 2.1-2.87.
Wessel, R., Ball, R.C. 1992. «Fractal aggregates and gels in shear flow».
Physical Review A, 46(6), R3008-R3011
Whittaker, A.G., Mingos, D.M. 1994. «The Application of Microwave Heating
to Chemical Syntheses». Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy,
29(4): 195-219.
Wilking, J.N., Graves, S.M., Chang, C.B., Meleson, K., Lin, M.Y., Mason, T.G.
2006. «Dense Cluster Formation during Aggregation and Gelation of Attractive
Slippery Nanoemulsion Droplets». Physical Review Letters, 96(1): 015501.
Witlox, H.W.M., Bowen, P.J. 2002. Flashing liquid jets and two-phase
dispersion (A review). Norwich: HSE Books. – 78 p.
Woelflin, W. 1942. «The Viscosity Of Crude-Oil Emulsions». In: Drilling and
Production Practice. New York: API. p. 148-153.
Wu, B., Zhu, J., Wang, J., Jiang, C. 2006. «Technique for High-Viscosity
Crude Oil Demetallization in the Liaohe Oil Field». Energy Fuels, 20(4): 1345-1349.
Xia, L.-X., Lu, S.-W., Cao, G.-Y. 2004. «Salt-assisted microwave
demulsification». Chemical Engineering Communications, 191(8): 1053-1063.
Yan, N.X., Masliyah, J.H. 1995a. «Characterization and Demulsification of
Solids-Stabilized Oil-in-Water Emulsions. 1. Partitioning of Clay Particles and
Preparation of Emulsions». Colloids and Surfaces A, 96(3): 229-242.
Yan, N.X., Masliyah, J.H. 1995b. «Characterization and Demulsification of
Solids-Stabilized Oil-in-Water Emulsions. 2. Demulsification by the Addition of
Fresh Oil». Colloids and Surfaces A, 96(3): 243-252.
Yang, X.L., Czarnecki, J. 2001. «Organized Structures in Rag Layers Formed
in Water-in-Diluted Bitumen Emulsions». Proceedings of the 51st Canadian
Chemical Engineering Conference. Halifax, Canada. - Abstract 00445.
Yang, X.L., Czarnecki, J., 2002. «The effect of naphtha to bitumen ratio on
properties of water in diluted bitumen emulsions». Colloids and Surfaces A:
Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 211(2-3): 213-222.
Yang, X.L., Czarnecki, J., 2005. «Tracing Sodium Naphthenate in Asphaltenes
Precipitated from Athabasca Bitumen». Energy and Fuels, 19: 2455-2459.
Yarranton, H.W., Baker, R. 2004. A Guide to Reservoir Engineering, Course
Notes for ENPE-511. Calgary, Alberta, Canada: University of Calgary. – 543 p.
Yarranton, H.W., Hussein, H., Masliyah, J.H. 2000. «Water-in-Hydrocarbon
Emulsions Stabilized by Asphaltenes at Low Concentrations». Journal of Colloid and
Interface Science, 228: 52-63.
Yeh, G., Haynie Jr., F.H., Moses, R.E. 1964. «Phase-Volume Relationship at
the Point of Phase Inversion in Liquid Dispersion». AIChE Journal, 10(2): 260-265.

30
 Yen, T.F., Boucher, L.J., Dickie, J.P., Tynan, E.C., Vaughan, G.B. 1969.
«Vanadium complexes and porphyrins in asphaltenes». Journal of the Institute of
Petroleum, 55(542): 87-99.
Yeo, L.Y., Matar, O.K., Perez de Ortiz, E.S., Hewitt, G.F. 2002. «A simple
predictive tool for modelling phase inversion in liquid–liquid dispersions». Chemical
Engineering Science 57(6): 1069-1072.
Yeung, A., Dabros, T., Czarnecki, J., Masliyah, J. 1999. «On the interfacial
properties of micrometer-sized water droplets in crude oil». Proceedings of the Royal
Society (London) A, 455(1990): 3709-3723.
Yokota, T., Scriven, F., Montgomery, D.S., Strausz, O.P. 1986. «Absorption
and emission spectra of Athabasca asphaltene in the visible and near ultraviolet
regions». Fuel, 65(8): 1142-1149.
Zhang, L., Breen, P., Xu, Z., Masliyah, J. 2007. «Asphaltene films at a toluene
/ water interface». Energy and Fuels, 21(1): 274-285.
Zhang, T.H., Groenewold, J., Kegel, W.K. 2009. «Observation of a
microcrystalline gel in colloids with competing interactions». Physical Chemistry
Chemical Physics, 11: 10827-10830.

31

View publication stats