KIBABII UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND ECD

COURSE OUTLINE

COURSE CODE: GAC 311.

COURSE TITLE: COUNSELING EXCEPTIONAL PERSONS

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2021/2022

YEAR THREE SEMESTER ONE

Purpose: To equip learners with knowledge and skills in the counseling of exceptional persons

Expected Learning Outcomes

i. Explore characteristics of exceptional persons

ii. Discuss the supports and services for young exceptional children
iii. Discuss the educational adaptations for children with special needs
iv. Explore counseling needs of exceptional persons

TOPIC ONE 3 HOURS

Introduction to special education
Definition of terms
Categories of exceptional persons

TOPIC TWO
Identifying and working with children who are gifted and talented 3 HOURS
Characteristics of gifted and talented children:
Cognitive domain
Social and Emotional domain
Physical domain
Educational interventions / adaptations

TOPIC THREE 5 HOURS

Learning disabilities/learning problems
Types of learning disabilities: By stage of information processing, by function impaired
Causes of learning disabilities
Characteristics of children with learning disabilities
TOPIC FOUR 3 HOURS
Mental retardation
Classification
Causes
Assessment, adaptations

TOPIC FIVE 3 HOURS

Visual impairments
Categories
Causes of impaired vision
Characteristics of children with visual disabilities
Interventions

TOPIC SIX 5 HOURS

Hearing impairments
Types of hearing losses
Causes of hearing impairments
Identification of impaired hearing (physical signs, behavior indicators, complaints)
Interventions

TOPIC SEVEN 3 HOURS

Communication disorders
Aspects of oral-verbal communication
Speech and language problems
Characteristics of children with speech impairments

Interventions

TOPIC EIGHT 5 HOURS

Orthopedic Impairments
Neurological disorders
Compulsive disorders
Musculoskeletal disorders

Interventions

TOPIC NINE 3 HOURS

Other disabilities
Congenital malformations and diseases

TOPIC TEN 3 HOURS

Emotional and behavioural disorders
Diagnosis criteria
 Causes of emotional and behavioural disorders
Interventions/adaptations

TOPIC ELEVEN 3 HOURS

Socio-emotional challenges of exceptional people

Role in management of exceptional children: Government, family, community, specialists and

teachers

TOPIC TWELVE

Theoretical perspectives: psychodynamic 3 HOURS

Mode of Delivery

Lectures and tutorials, Group discussions and individual assignments.

Instructional Materials and Equipment

Handouts, board and overhead projectors and transparencies

Course Assessment

Examination 70%

Continous Assessment Test 15%

Assignments 15%

TOTAL 100%

REFERENCES

Corey, G & Corey, M.S (2014). Groups: Process and Practice (9th ed). Brookes/Cole, California.

Brems, C (2001). Basic skills in Psychotherapy and Counseling (2nd ed). Upper Saddle River.
N.J. Prentice Hall.

Course Lecturer: Dr Eunice Libusi +254726754458

COURSE TITLE: COUNSELING EXCEPTIONAL PERSONS

COURSE CODE: GAC 311.

INTRODUCTION

Exceptional children are those whose performance and abilities differ significantly from those of
average children of the same age in developmental norms such as physical, psychological, social
and cognitive development.

The learning of exceptional children is hindered by certain learning difficulties occasioned by

their handicapped disability or exceptional ability.

Definition of terms

Terms used in exceptional persons include:

Impairment

Impairment is defined as any loss or abnormality in an anatomical structure or a physiological or

psychological function. For example, if one loses a finger in an accident that hand may not
function properly. In this case the loss of the finger is the impairment.

Disability

Disability is the loss or reduction of functional ability to perform an activity in the manner or
within the range generally considered normal for a human being, a disability may result from
impairment. Disabilities limit opportunities to participate in normal community activities.

Handicap

A handicap is a condition that significantly restricts an individual's participation in activities as a

result of disability or society’s attitudes towards disability. Handicaps prevent the fulfillment of
the roles that are appropriate according to the age, gender, social and cultural positions of an
individual.

Disorders

A disorder is a disruption of normal physical, social, psychological and emotional functions. For
example, a person can have a skin or mental disorder.
Challenged

This concept is used to describe people with disabilities and who are unable to perform activities
within the average human range for example, the mental challenged.

CATEGORIZATION OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

In an ordinary classroom most learners do not need any specialization. They usually perform
tasks without much difficulty however a few of the learners require special attention in order to
cope with learning activities learners with special needs are grouped on the basis of handicaps,
ability or behaviour. They include the following:

A. VISUAL IMPAIREMENT

A visual impaired individual is one whose vision interferes with his or her optimal learning and
achievements unless specific adaptation is made. Faulty visual interpretation may result from a
defect in the brain, inadequate experience or a defect eye. Adaptation is made in the method of
presenting learning experiences.

Visual impairments can be classified as follows:

i. Totally blind

A totally blind individual is one who has no ability to use vision. Therefore, people who are
totally blind use special education tools such as Braille.

ii. Low vision (seeing in part)

The National Eye Institute defines low vision as a visual impairment not correctable by standard
glasses, contact lenses, medication or surgery that interferes with the ability to perform activities
of daily living.

Causes of visual impairment

i. Hereditary factors - this is by far the most common cause of visual impairment. For
example, short sightedness' (myopia), long sightedness (hyperopia), retinitis pigmentosa
(night blindness) and colour blindness.

ii. Diseases - such as rubella or German measles, venereal diseases such as syphilis,
trachoma, diabetes, cataracts or cancer of the brain or eye.

iii. Inadequate nutrition especially lack of vitamin A

iv. Accidents, for example sharp object piecing the eyes or damaging the brain
 v. Environmental factors such as air pollution, poor water and sanitation facilities,
contact with substance from plants such as latex or pollen grains.

Factors necessary for a successful integration include:

An acceptable and flexible classroom teacher.

Peer acceptable and interaction.

Available support personnel

Adequate supply of equipment, for example, Braille machines, books and low vision
devices.

Provision for active involvement in leaning

Characteristics of children who are visually impaired:

The following are characteristics of children who are visually impaired:

They:
are generally slow in movement

rely on the sense of hearing and touch

tilt the head towards sources of the sound.

hold objects close to the eyes or move close to the objects.

take a longer time to complete reading assignments.

lack letter formation skills

blink excessively.

rub their eyes constantly

squint.

display sensitivity to bright light.

roll their eyes especially those who are blind

are unable to focus

do not pay attention to visual objects or tasks such as looking in the pictures or reading

are clumsy or awkward in games or sports that require eye-hand or eye-foot

coordination.
 frequently complain about headaches and dizziness.

have a poor perception of colour.

shut or cover one eye when reading.

Intervention measures

The assistance given to visual impaired children is determined by the degree of visual disability.
The teacher counsellor can assist visual impaired children in various schools in the following
ways:

Notify the parents to seek medical attention for the children in good time

Use audio- instructions materials

Encourage the child to develop and use their listening skills.

Use appropriate seating arrangement

Ensure that the lighting in the classroom has no glare.

Allow children who have albinism as well as other visually impaired children to wear
tinted glasses to avoid glare and hats to avoid direct sunlight.

Use individualized instruction and sighted learners to help the visual challenged
children to keep up with their schoolwork.

Use books and maps with large prints

Use large prints on the chalkboard

Use concrete substance which the learners can manipulate.

Integrate knowledge by exposing the children to different experiences and explain

their relationship.

Allow the children to learn by doing

Encourage the use of teaching and learning materials which are adapted for visual
impairment learners such as tactile charts templates and maps

Referral
Children who are totally blind should be referred to a special schools such as Thika school for
the blind where they can use facilities such as Braille's machines and materials.

B. HEARING IMPAIRED

A hearing-impaired child is one who suffers from a certain degree of hearing loss. This may be a
result of damage or infection to the ear. There are four types of hearing impairment depending on
the degree of hearing loss. These are:

 Mild hearing loss

 Moderate hearing loss

 Severe hearing loss

 Profound hearing loss

Hearing impairment can be classified on the basis of the following criteria:

The part of the ear affected

There are three types of hear impairment depending on the part of ear affected. These are:

Conductive hearing impairment

This is when the damage or infection is either in the outer or middle part of the ear. It results in
mild and moderate hearing loss with residual hearing. A child can hear and understand spoken
language with the help of sustainable hearing aids

Sensory-neural impairment

This is when the damage or infection is the inner ear. This results in severe and profound hearing
loss with little residual hearing left. Children born with this type of hearing impairment usually
do not acquire or use spoken language children who suffer this type of impairment when they
have acquired spoken language will retain the spoken language.

Mixed hearing impairment

This refers to a combination of conductive and sensory-neural hearing impairment.

The age of onset

There are two types of hearing impairments depending on the age on which the hearing loss set
in.

These are:
 Pre-lingual deafness which is deafness occurring at birth or before the child
develops speech or language.

and

Post lingual deafness which occurs after the child has developed speech or language,
usually after the age of three.

The degree of hearing loss

Regardless of the cause of the hearing loss, children with hearing impairments fall in to two
groups:

The hard of hearing-these are children who have residual hearing that can enable them to hear
speech and acquire spoken language

The deaf- these children have severe hearing loss and cannot hear or understand speech, even
with the use of hearing aids.

Causes of hearing impairment

Causes of hearing impairment can be classified depending on whether they occur before
(prenatal) or after birth (post-natal).

a) Prenatal causes

These include:

Prolonged delivery or labour resulting in oxygen deficiency to the baby's brain.

Premature birth

Low birth weight

Misuse of delivery instruments such as forceps.

Venereal diseases in the mother

Accidents that affect the foetus.

b) Post-natal causes

These include:

Diseases such as meningitis, malaria, measles, mumps and meningitis, chronic

otitis

media.......
 Use of toxic medications such as certain types of chemotherapies and antibiotics

Accidents such as head/neck injuries and brain damage

Brain and ear tumours

Exposure to excessive or prolonged noise

Exposure of the ear to poisonous substances.

Blockage of external auditory canal

Old age

Characteristics of people who are hearing impaired

Characteristics of people who are hearing impaired include:

frequently ask for repetition of what has been said

have frequent hear infection

have poor articulation of sounds particularly in omission of consonant sounds

have difficulty in participating in group discussion especially in noisy surroundings

have difficulty in hearing and saying high frequency speech sounds such as the sound
letters s, sh,t,k and ch.

misunderstand others since they cannot comprehend all that is said

are not able to monitor their voice hence, speak either too loudly or softly.

avoid participating in oral activities

cup the ears in the direction of sounds

appear confused and do not respond to instruction

have poor vocabulary for their age

withdraw from others

are unable to respond to calls

Intervention measures
The teacher counsellor can assist the hearing-impaired learners in ordinary schools in the
following ways:

- Advice parents to seek medical help for any infection in the ear, nose or throat

- Combine use of oral and written learning activities

- Utilize peers to assist the learner with class routines such as sharing notes.

- Use visual aids as much as possible

- Advice parents to have the learner fitted with suitable hearing aids

- Give the learner preferential seating in the class room

- Face the learner when talking to him or her

- Encourage the learner to observe basic ear hygiene.

- Teach the learner to use communication skills such as sign language and non-verbal cues

Referral

Learners with profound hearing loss should be referred to special schools, such as Kiambu
School for the deaf, Mumias, St Anthony in Webuye and others, where they will receive special
attention.

C. PHYSICALLY CHALLENGED

People with physical challenges have conditions that make it hard for them to move or
manipulate the physical environment, interact freely or communicate easily.

Physically challenged people can be classified into two major groups:

1. Children with orthopaedic challenges

These are the children with motor impairments resulting from problems related to the bone
and muscle systems. Examples of such impairments include:

-Amputees- amputation refers to the condition where limbs are greatly reduced in size,
missing at birth or lost in the course of one's life

- Brittle bone disease - brittle bone disease is an inherited disease characterized by

defective development in the quality and quantity of bones. They are brittle and easily
broken.
 - Muscular dystrophy-muscular dystrophy is a condition in which the muscles of the body
become progressively weaker and wasted without any disease in the central nervous
system. The cause is not very clear but is assumed to be hereditary. The mother who is
usually the carrier transmits the disorder mainly to male children. The wearing and
weakening of muscles begins in the shoulder and progresses to the hip and thereafter
spreads to other voluntary muscles.

2. People with other neurological challenges

These are motor problems which are associated with the nervous system.

Some of these problems include:

Epilepsy which is a brain problem characterized by fits, sudden loss of consciousness or

seizures.

Cerebral palsy which is a disorder of the brain. It occurs as result of brain damage or
lack of development in the part of brain that controls movement and posture

Spina bifida which is a congenital condition in which there is a defect on the spinal cord.
The membrane that should cover the spinal cord fails to develop or close properly while
in the womb hence leaving the spine exposed.

Hydrocephalus which is a condition caused by abnormal accumulation of fluid in the

brain and nerve cells. This may result in developmental disability, fits and occasional
paralysis of the feet.

Poliomyelitis which is caused by a virus which attacks the spinal cord and the nerves
which control movement. It is characterized by paralysis in the legs and affects either one
or both legs.

Causes of physical challenges

Physical challenges may be caused by the following:

Congenital defects

Severe infections

Accidents or trauma

Cancer

Drugs such as thalidomide when taken during pregnancy.

Diseases such as cerebral malaria and meningitis

 Brain damage due to trauma and tumours.

Characteristics of physically challenged children

The following are characteristics of some physically challenged children:

they
have difficulty walking or inability to walk

have stunted growth

have weak bones that break easily

have little or no bladder or bowel control.

experience stiffness or rigidity in some of the body parts, for example, the ankles.

have poor balance posture

have awkward gross movement such as smiling or chewing.

have speech problems due to difficulty in controlling the muscles required to produce
speech

experience difficulty when trying to sit or stand.

May develop a hump on the spine

may have paralysis of the lower limbs

may have club feet

may have low intelligence as a result of delayed growth, this may affect their academic
work.

Intervention measures

Teacher counselors can assist physically challenged learners in the following ways:

 Provide facilities such as crutches that will enhance performance in learning tasks

 Advise parents to take their children for check-ups

 Allow these learners extra time to complete their tasks, if need be

 Adapt physical education activities for them to ensure maximum fitness and exercise
  Ensure safety in the classroom and the school environment.

 Help the learners to understand and accept their conditions so that they can take care of
themselves.

 Adapt the curriculum to suit their needs

Referral

Children who are severely physically challenged will need assessment to determine whether they
should be referred for special attention, for example, rehabilitation. They can join special schools
such as Dagoretti children's Home or Joy Town School in Kisumu.

D. MENTALLY CHALLENGED

Mentally challenged children are also referred to as children with intellectual disability.
Intellectual disability (ID), once called mental retardation, is characterized by below-average
intelligence or mental ability and a lack of skills necessary for day-to-day living. People with
intellectual disabilities can and do learn new skills, but they learn them more slowly. There are
varying degrees of intellectual disability, from mild to profound. The term "mental retardation"
is no longer used, as it is offensive and has a negative tone.

Intellectual disability

Someone with intellectual disability has limitations in two areas. These areas are:

 Intellectual functioning. Also known as IQ, this refers to a person’s ability to learn,
reason, make decisions, and solve problems.
 Adaptive behaviors. These are skills necessary for day-to-day life, such as being able to
communicate effectively, interact with others, and take care of oneself.

IQ (intelligence quotient) is measured by an IQ test. The average IQ is 100, with the majority of
people scoring between 85 and 115. A person is considered intellectually disabled if they have an
IQ of less than 70 to 75.

To measure a child’s adaptive behaviors, a specialist will observe the child’s skills and compare
them to other children of the same age. Things that may be observed include how well the child
can feed or dress themselves; how well the child is able to communicate with and understand
others; and how the child interacts with family, friends, and other children of the same age.

Causes of intellectual disability

Anytime something interferes with normal brain development, intellectual disability can result.
However, a specific cause for intellectual disability can only be pinpointed about a third of the
time.

Causes of mental retardation/ intellectual disability

The most common causes of intellectual disability are:

 Genetic conditions. These include things like Down syndrome and fragile X syndrome.
 Problems during pregnancy. Things that can interfere with fetal brain development
include alcohol or drug use, malnutrition, certain infections, or preeclampsia.
 Problems during childbirth. Intellectual disability may result if a baby is deprived of
oxygen during childbirth or born extremely premature.
 Illness or injury. Infections like meningitis, whooping cough, or the measles can lead to
intellectual disability. Severe head injury, near-drowning, extreme malnutrition,
infections in the brain, exposure to toxic substances such as lead, and severe neglect or
abuse can also cause it.
 None of the above. In two-thirds of all children who have intellectual disability, the cause
is unknown.

Diagnosis of Intellectual Disability

This can be done by:

• interviews with parents
• observation of the child
• testing of intelligence and adaptive behaviours

A child is considered intellectually disabled if he/she has deficits in both IQ and adaptive
behaviours. If only one or the other is present, the child is not considered intellectually disabled.

Interventions and Referrals

Interventions and referrals include:

speech, occupational or physical therapy, family counseling, training with special assistive
devices, improved nutrition services, encouraging child’s independence by letting the child
try new things on his own, giving positive feedback when the child does something well or
masters something new, getting the child to be involved in group activities (art class, scouts)
and getting the parent to get to know other parents of intellectually challenged children for
advice and emotional support.

E: COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
A child with a communication disorder has trouble communicating with others. He or she may
not understand or make the sounds of speech. The child may also struggle with word choice,
word order, or sentence structure.

There are several types of these disorders. They are:

Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder. A child has developmental delays and

problems understanding spoken language and speaking.

Expressive language disorder. A child has developmental delays and problems

speaking.

Speech-sound disorders. A child has a hard time expressing words clearly past a certain
age.

Childhood-onset fluency disorder. This is also known as stuttering. It starts in

childhood and can last throughout life.
Social communication disorder. A child has trouble with verbal and nonverbal
communication that is not caused by thinking problems.

Causes of communication disorders

Communication disorders may be developmental or they can be caused by:

Physical problems such as a problem in brain development

Exposure to poisons (toxins) during pregnancy, such as street drugs or lead

Gene problems

Some other communication problems include: hearing loss, neurological disorders, brain
injury, vocal cord injury, autism, intellectual disability, drug abuse, physical impairments such as
cleft lip or palate, emotional or psychiatric disorders, and developmental disorders

Boys tend to be diagnosed with these disorders more often than girls. Researchers don ’t know
why. Children with these conditions often have other mental health problems.

Symptoms of communication disorders

Each child may have different symptoms. But these are the most common symptoms in a young
child:

Not speaking at all

Limited word choice for his or her age

 Trouble grasping simple directions or naming objects

Most young children with these disorders are able to speak by the time they enter school,
but they still have problems with communicating.

School-aged children often have problems understanding and making words. Teens may
have more trouble understanding or expressing abstract ideas.

repetitive sounds.

misuse of words.

inability to communicate in an understandable way.

inability to comprehend messages.

INTERVENTIONS

Treatment will depend on your child’s symptoms, age, and general health. It will also depend on
how severe the condition is.

A speech-language pathologist will work with the child to improve his or her communication
skills. Treatment is often a team effort. Parents, teachers, and mental health experts may also be
involved. Treatment may include:

 Individual or group support

 Special classes

F: LEARNING DISABILITIES

A learning disability is a disorder that inhibits the ability to process and retain information.

Learning disabilities are due to genetic and/or neurobiological factors that alter brain functioning
in a manner which affects one or more cognitive processes related to learning. These processing
problems can interfere with learning basic skills such as reading, writing and/or math.  They can
also interfere with higher level skills such as organization, time planning, abstract reasoning,
long or short term memory and attention.  It is important to realize that learning disabilities can
affect an individual’s life beyond academics and can impact relationships with family, friends
and in the workplace.

Learning disabilities are also connected to processing deficits. When students have a processing
deficit, they have trouble making sense of sensory data. This makes it hard for students to
perform in a traditional classroom without instructional supports. These deficits are most often
auditory or visual, and they can make it hard for students to distinguish and remember important
information that is needed to succeed.
Learning disabilities should not be confused with learning problems which are primarily the
result of visual, hearing, or motor handicaps; of intellectual disability; of emotional disturbance;
or of environmental, cultural or economic disadvantages.

Generally speaking, people with learning disabilities are of average or above average
intelligence. There often appears to be a gap between the individual’s potential and actual
achievement. This is why learning disabilities are referred to as “hidden disabilities”: the person
looks perfectly “normal” and seems to be a very bright and intelligent person, yet may be unable
to demonstrate the skill level expected from someone of a similar age.

A learning disability cannot be cured or fixed; it is a lifelong challenge. However, with

appropriate support and intervention, people with learning disabilities can achieve success in
school, at work, in relationships, and in the community.

Types

1. Dysgraphia
A specific learning disability that affects a person’s handwriting ability and fine motor skills.
While reading disabilities receive the most attention, writing disabilities can be equally difficult
to overcome. These disabilities are known as dysgraphia. Dysgraphia can be related to the
physical act of writing. These students often cannot hold a pencil correctly, and their posture
may be tense while trying to write. This leads them to tire easily, causing discouragement that
further inhibits progress. Dysgraphia can also refer to difficulty with written expression. With
this type of disability, students have trouble organizing their thoughts coherently. Their writing
may be redundant or have obvious omissions that affect the quality and readability of the text.
Dysgraphia may also cause students to struggle with basic sentence structure and grammatical
awareness.

2. Dyscalculia

A specific learning disability that affects a person’s ability to understand numbers and learn math
facts. Math is another major area of concern when it comes to learning disabilities. While
difficulty with reading can affect a student’s ability in math, some students also suffer from
dyscalculia, which is a disorder that specifically affects one’s math capabilities. Dyscalculia can
range from an inability to order numbers correctly and extend to limited strategies for problem
solving. Students with math disorders may have trouble performing basic math calculations, or
they may have difficulty with concepts like time, measurement or estimation.

3.ADHD

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder has affected more than 6.4 million children at some
point. While there is some debate as to whether or not ADHD is a learning disability in the most
technical sense, there is no doubt that it is a common learning impediment. Students who have
ADHD have difficulty paying attention and staying on task. These students can be easily
distracted and often have difficulty in traditional school settings. Experts link ADHD with the
structure of the brain, and there is evidence that ADHD may have a genetic component as well.
Unlike typical learning disabilities, which need instructional interventions, ADHD can be
successfully treated with medications and behavioral therapies.

4. Dyslexia

A specific learning disability that affects reading and related language-based processing skills.
Dyslexia is perhaps the best known learning disability. It is a learning disorder that impedes the
student’s ability to read and comprehend a text. There are a variety of ways in which this
disability can be manifested. Some people struggle with phonemic awareness, which means they
fail to recognize the way words break down according to sound. Similar problems can occur with
phonological processing, wherein students cannot distinguish between similar word sounds.
Other issues relate generally to fluency, spelling, comprehension and more. Students may
experience one reading issue or multiple issues when struggling with dyslexia.

5. Non verbal learning disabilities

The person has trouble interpreting nonverbal cues like facial expressions or body language and
may have poor coordination.

There is a developing body of research that indicates approximately 5 percent of individuals with
learning disabilities display the cognitive and academic difficulties that are associated with
nonverbal learning disabilities.

Research indicates that nonverbal learning disabilities are associated with impairment in three
broad areas, including motoric skills, visual-spatial organizational memory, and social abilities.

Individuals with this type of learning disability have a well-developed vocabulary, as well as
strong reading recognition ability and rote language skills.

interventions

G: GITED AND TALENTED

The gifted and talented are “Children and young people with one or more abilities developed to
a level significantly ahead of their year group (or with the potential to develop those abilities).”
Gifted and talented children” mean those persons between the ages of four and twenty-one
whose abilities, talents, and potential for accomplishment are so exceptional or developmentally
advanced that they require special provisions to meet their educational programming needs.
“Gifted and talented children” means those persons between the ages of four and twenty-one
whose abilities, talents, and potential for accomplishment are so exceptional or developmentally
advanced that they require special provisions to meet their educational programing needs.
Children under five who are gifted may also be provided with early childhood special
educational services.

Supporting gifted and talented children

If as a teacher or parent, you notice that a child develops skills much quicker than children of a
similar age or excels in a particular area, they may be regarded as 'gifted and talented'.

'Gifted and talented' describes children with the ability or potential to develop significantly ahead
of their peers:

 'gifted' learners are those with abilities in one or more academic subjects, such as
mathematics or English
 'talented' learners are those who have practical skills in areas such as sport, music, design
or creative and performing arts

Skills and attributes such as leadership, decision-making and organisation may also be taken into
account.

Common Characteristics of Gifted Individuals

 Unusual alertness, even in infancy.
 Rapid learner; puts thoughts together quickly.

 Excellent memory.
 Unusually large vocabulary and complex sentence structure for age.
 Advanced comprehension of word nuances, metaphors and abstract ideas.
 Enjoys solving problems, especially with numbers and puzzles

 Often self-taught reading and writing skills as preschooler

 Deep, intense feelings and reactions

 Highly sensitive

 Thinking is abstract, complex, logical, and insightful

 Idealism and sense of justice at early age

 Concern with social and political issues and injustices

 Longer attention span and intense concentration

  Preoccupied with own thoughts—daydreamer

 Learn basic skills quickly and with little practice

 Asks probing questions

 Wide range of interests (or extreme focus in one area)

 Highly developed curiosity

 Interest in experimenting and doing things differently

 Puts idea or things together that are not typical

 Keen and/or unusual sense of humor

 Desire to organize people/things through games or complex schemas

 Vivid imaginations (and imaginary playmates when in preschool)

No gifted individual is exactly the same; each one has his own unique patterns and traits.   There
are many traits that gifted individuals have in common, but no gifted learner exhibits traits in
every area.  This list of traits may help you better understand whether or not your child is gifted:

Cognitive Creative Affective Behavioral

Keen power of Creativeness and Unusual emotional Spontaneity
abstraction inventiveness depth and intensity
Boundless enthusiasm
Interest in Keen sense of Sensitivity or
problem-solving humor empathy to the Intensely focused on
and applying feelings of others passions—resists changing
concepts Ability for fantasy activities when engrossed in own
High expectations of interests
Voracious and Openness to self and others, often
early reader stimuli, wide leading to feelings of Highly energetic—needs little sleep
interests frustration or down time
Large vocabulary
Intuitiveness Heightened self- Constantly asks questions
Intellectual awareness,
curiosity Flexibility accompanied by Insatiable curiosity
feelings of being
Power of critical Independence in different Impulsive, eager and spirited
thinking, attitude and social
skepticism, self- behavior Easily wounded, Perseverance—strong determination
criticism need for emotional
 support in areas of importance
Self-acceptance
Persistent, goal-
and unconcern for Need for consistency High levels of
directed behavior
social norms between abstract frustration—particularly when
values and personal having difficulty meeting standards
Independence in
Radicalism actions of performance (either imposed by
work and study
self or others)
Aesthetic and Advanced levels of
Diversity of
moral commitment moral judgment Volatile temper, especially related
interests and
to self-selected to perceptions of failure
abilities
work Idealism and sense
of justice Non-stop talking/chattering

Cognitive Traits That Signal Giftedness

Is your child very observant, extremely curious or prone to having intense interests? Then, he
might be gifted. Think about whether your child notices things that fellow children, or even
adults, would overlook. That's a sign of being observant. And if your child annoys you by
constantly peppering you with questions about everything from why he has to eat a particular
meal to why there's war in the world, you might have a gifted kid on your hands.

Consider how passionate your child is about his interests as well. When he gets a new hobby can
he spend hours on it? Does he seem to think or talk of nothing else? This indicates intense
interest.

 Other cognitive traits that make gifted children stand out include having an excellent memory,
long attention span, excellent reasoning skills and well-developed powers of abstraction,
conceptualization, and synthesis.

Gifted and talented children may also be able to quickly and easily see relationships between
ideas, objects or facts and have fluent and flexible thinking. Gifted children's thinking tends to be
elaborate and original, and they have excellent problem-solving skills. They learn concepts
quickly and with less practice and repetition than their peers need.

And if a child has an unusual or vivid imagination that sometimes lands him in hot water,
consider that another sign of giftedness.
Social and Emotional Traits

Gifted children stand out from their peers by developing interests in philosophical and social
issues. They are also very sensitive, both emotionally and physically. They may cry over things
that other children shrug off or complain about tags in their clothes or the seams in their socks
irritating their skin.

In addition, gifted children exhibit deep concern about fairness and injustice. They tend to be
perfectionistic, energetic and have a well-developed, if not quirky, sense of humor. They are
usually intrinsically motivated, meaning they set goals and challenges for themselves rather than
to get the approval of others. While they may relate well to parents, teachers, and other adults,
they also question authority out of curiosity or when they believe an injustice has occurred.

Language Traits

The language traits of gifted children set them apart as well. They tend to have extensive
vocabularies and may read earlier than their peers. Even if they read at the standard age, they
tend to read rapidly and widely. They also love to ask "what if" questions.

Additional Traits of Gifted Children

The gifted child enjoys learning new things. She enjoys the intellectual activity and displays
intellectual playfulness. She'll likely prefer books and magazines meant for older children and
adopt a skeptical, critical and evaluative attitude. Gifted children tend to have asynchronous
development, meaning they may be mentally very astute but emotionally react to situations like a
child their age, or even younger, would.

Behavioural characteristics of gifted and talented

1. Shows superior reasoning powers and marked ability to handle ideas; can generalize
readily from specific facts and can see subtle relationships; has outstanding problem-
solving ability.
2. Shows persistent intellectual curiosity; asks searching questions; shows exceptional
interest in the nature of man and the universe.
3. Has a wide range of interests, often of an intellectual kind; develops one or more interests
to considerable depth.
4. Is markedly superior in quality and quantity of written and/or spoken vocabulary; is
interested in the subtleties of words and their uses.
5. Reads avidly and absorbs books well beyond his/her years.
6. Learns quickly and easily and retains what is learned; recalls important details, concepts
and principles; comprehends readily.
 7. Shows insight into mathematical problems that require careful reasoning; grasps
mathematical concepts readily.
8. Shows creative ability or imaginative expression in such things as music, art, dance,
drama; shows sensitivity and finesse in rhythm, movement, and body control.
9. Sustains concentration for lengthy periods of time and shows outstanding responsibility
and independence in classroom work.
10. Sets realistically high standards for self; is self-critical in evaluating and correcting his or
her own efforts.
11. Shows initiative and originality in intellectual work; shows flexibility in thinking and
considers problems from a number of viewpoints.
12. Observes keenly and is responsive to new ideas.
13. Shows social poise and an ability to communicate with adults in a mature way.
14. Gets excitement and pleasure from intellectual challenge; shows an alert and subtle sense
of humor.

School support for the gifted and talented

A school has the responsibility to meet the educational needs of all their learners and teachers
should set tasks that take account of the varying abilities of children.  

If a learner is considered to be gifted and talented, their teachers should provide greater
challenges in lessons, and perhaps offer further opportunities for them to develop their gifts or
talents outside of the normal timetable.

If the child is in primary school and shows that they have the abilities to fully take part in the
next school year group, the principal may consider moving the child into that group. The child’s
emotional and social development levels and needs should be considered as well as their
academic progress.

The school management of a primary school can decide if the child should transfer to a post-
primary school a year earlier than normal.

H: CHILDREN WITH EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOURAL DIFFICULTIES

An emotion is an intense feeling such as love, fear or sadness. Emotions are instinctive feelings
that affect a person's character. Behaviour is anything that a person does or says.
Children with emotional behaviours and difficulties tend to deviate from appropriate behaviour.
This significantly interference with the child's learning and development, or the lives of others.

Children with emotional and behavioural difficulties have an inability to learn that cannot be
explained by the intellectual sensory or health factors. They are unable to maintain satisfactory
inter personal relationships with peers and teachers. Theyhave a tendency to develop physical
symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.

Children with emotional and behavioural difficulties have four elements, these are;

 Disturber element- The child

 Problem element - The type of behaviour the child exhibits
 Setting elements- The place where the behaviour is exhibited
 The disturbed - The one who is affected by the child's behaviour.

Children with the emotional and behaviour difficulties are classified according to the emotions
and behaviour they portray.

these classes include:

a) Externalising behaviour; the behaviour is expressed outwardly and can be seen. These
includes;
-Hyperactivity where there is a high level of activity exhibited at inappropriate times. It
cannot be stopped upon command
-Aggression portrayed towards objects, self or others. Any punishment to stop the
aggressive behaviour of thechild usually increases the aggression.
-Delinquency which describes an illegal act committed by the juvenile or delinquent.

Delinquent behaviour includes theft or truancy; however, not all delinquents have behaviour
disorders

b) Internalizing behaviour this behaviour is usually expressed in more socially withdrawn

manner this includes:

-Depression which is manifested in the form of guilty feeling, self-blame, rejection, low

self-esteem and anxiety.

 -Withdrawal where the child shows a low level of interaction, low self-concepts and learning
disabilitiesthey are unwilling to put in any effort and give up easily.

c) Low incidence disorder

Children with this class of disorder are neither externalizing nor internalizing behaviour / and
emotions. They display unique behaviour and emotions that allow them to be identified as
having;

-Schizophrenia which manifests itself in illusion and serious difficulties with schoolwork.

Most of these children end up in special institutions

-Paranoia which manifests itself in delusions, suspicion, unwarranted jealousy and an

exaggerated sense of self-worth.

-Autism which refers to language and behaviour disorders associated with brain damage Most of
these children are withdrawn and have little or no language at all. They engage in self-injurious
actions.

Causes of Emotional and Behavioural difficulties

Emotional and behavioral difficulties are caused by some of the following factors:

Prenatal factors, for example fetal alcoholic syndrome

Poor interpersonal relationships
Child abuse, violence or neglect
Harsh and inconsistent type of discipline
Poor adult role model
Teachers who are insensitive to child's leaning difficulties
Extreme poverty leading to poor nutrition
Disruption in the family for example divorce, death or disease
Chronic ill health of the child.

Characteristic of children with emotional and Behavioural difficulties

The following are characteristics of children with emotional and Behavioural difficulties.
 They show limited ability to learn and work with others
They are unable to learn despite having no intellectual sensory or healthy problems.
They are unable to maintain satisfactory relationship with peer and teachers
They show inappropriate behaviour under normal circumstances.
They are generally moody, unhappy or depressed.
They get into fights, are bossy and have temper tantrums.
They suffer from the feelings of inferiority, guilt and shyness
They show social delinquency marked by truancy, gang membership, theft and
Feelings of pride belonging to a delinquent group.
They are tense and anxious due to frustration so they become disruptive or
withdrawn in class.
They translate fear and anxiety into physical symptoms.
They are prone to accidents and regression to earlier forms of behaviour.
They show no sympathy or warmth towards others.
They are always daydreaming.

Intervention measures

For a child to be regarded as emotionally disturbed the behaviour must

i. Be present for along time;

ii. be severe and
iii. seriously affect the child's performance in school and

the lives of those he or she interacts with.

The teacher can assist in the following ways:

Establish close cooperation between the school and the home.

Adapt teaching to the child's level of understanding
Use appropriate reinforcement to motivate the child.
Use humour and create cordial teacher-pupil relationship
Provide guidance and counselling
Explain the expected standards of behaviour to the child
 Structure the learning environment to ensure safety
Use plain ignoring to discourage attention-seeking or provocative behaviour

Use gesture, facial expression or verbal prohibition to discourage un acceptable

behaviour. The success of this method depends on the child, the situation and the
relationship between the teacher and the child.
Reduce unacceptable behaviour by using proximity and touch control, for example
physical nearness to the child’s hand or holding the child’s hand.
Regroup or place a child in another group or class to avoid negative reaction
Appeal directly to the child’s sense of cooperation, fair play or kindness.
Referrals
Some of the children with emotional and Behavioural difficulties may be assisted by guidance
and counseling teams in the school. However, children who are difficult to contain in class
should be referred to specialist for further assistance.
Children with communication difficulties
Communication is the exchange of thoughts and ideas verbally or non-verbally. There are five
components needed for communication to occur.
These are:
 Sender of the message
 The message
 The receiver of the message
 Channel (medium)
 Feedback
Communication is reciprocal with sender and receiver when a reply or response is initiated.
Language is an organized system of simples and words, in the rule for putting the together to
form a method of communication amongst a group of individuals
Human beings use language to express, receive or convey meaning.
Language can only expressed or understood through a medium such as sounds, written symbols
or signs
Speech is a systematic oral production of a word in a given language. Sounds become speech
only when they produce words that have meaning.
Communication difficulty is the inability to use language or speech effectively to communicate.
Speech difficulties affect articulation, projection and fluency.
Language difficulty refers to impairment of spoken, written or other verbal symbols.

Children with communication difficulties experience problems in fluency articulation and

phonology.

Cause of communication difficulties: the following factors may cause communication

Difficulties, structural disorders such as cleft palate, Sensory deficits, for example, hearing
impairment, visual impairment or motor

Deficits, emotional disorders and social problems,

Infections such as flu and colds lack of early language stimulation slowness in speech

Damage to any part of the brain concerned with speech and language before, during or

after birth injury to the organs of speech o Delay in the development of child in language and
speech

Characteristics of children with communication difficulties

The following are characteristics of children with communication difficulties:

 They overgeneralize. This may be manifested when forming plurals, for

 example, shoe -shoeses, child -child's and tenses, for example ,go -goed and buy -buyed
 They tend to substitute sounds in pronunciation for example, s for sh and g for k
 They may omit a sound or a whole syllable; eg nana for banana
 They stutter or stammer.
 They form sentences with a disorganized structure; for exampleI found want
 They speak excessively fast.
 They may have a very high or very low tone, a hoarse or nasal voice.
 They have difficulty in controlling saliva.
 They may be inactive and withdrawn
  Reduced empathy, vocabulary
 Ask nonsensical questions
 Misreading

Intervention measures

 The teacher can help children with communication difficulties in the following ways:
 Be a positive role model for the children to imitate
 Give essential information in short sentences and reward the child's effort.
 Address the children directly in order to help them internalize concepts.
 Give the children opportunities to speak without interruptions or pressure.
 Avoid correcting the child every time they make a speech or language error.
 Give remedial classes where necessary

Referral

Children with communication difficulties may be referred to special speech therapists

I: Children with Chronic Health Problems

Most chronic heal problems are persistent and incurables, but if they are well managed, children
with these problems can live full lives and attain their maximum potential.

Some of the chronic health problems include; Epilepsy, Asthma, Heart related diseases or
conditions, Hyperactivity, Allergies, diabetes and Bronchitis

Causes of chronic problems

Some of the chronic problems are congenital while others are acquired. It is difficult to assign a
particular cause for chronic problems. Each chronic problem may have a combination of causes.

Characteristics of children with chronic health problems

Each chronic health problems has its own unique characteristics. The following are

characteristics observed in children with chronic healthproblem:

 They may be out of school thus falling back in their academic performance
They are on constant or regular medication which may have side effects and interfere
with the child's learning growth and development
They may have low self-esteem and may be withdrawn.
They rarely participate in sports.
They are vulnerable to anxiety, mood swings and depression.

Intervention measures

Some children come to school when it is already known that they have chronic health

problems others acquire the illness when in school whatever the case the intervention

measures taken by the school should ensure that the child:

Misses a few days if possible of the schooling.

Receives remedial help whenever they miss school
Continues to take his or her medication as required
Receives support and care from other classmates and schoolmates.
Is given guidance and counseling in order to accept and cope with his or her conditions.

Referral

Teachers have a responsibility towards such children and therefore identify new cases or
deteriorating cases. These can be referred to specialists for further assessment and management.

H: CHILDREN LIVING UNDER DIFFICULT MANAGEMENT

Children who find themselves living under difficult situations are classified as those who:

Are orphaned.
Are exposed to domestic violence.
Are displaced as a result of war, civil disturbance or natural disasters.
Are sexually abused or likely to be exposed to sexual abuse and exploitation,prostitution
and pornography.
 Are terminally ill or whose parents are terminally ill.
Do not live with their parents who are in lawful custody.
Are abandoned or destitute and beg or receive alms in public places.
Are subjected to practice and customs that are harmful to their health life and
Education, for example early marriages.
Live in overcrowded, unhygienic or dangerous places.
Are used in trafficking of drugs and other substances, or engaged in the use of such.

Causes of difficult circumstances

There are various factors which give rise to this salutation. These factors may act in isolation or
as a combination of two or more factors.

These factors include:

Peer pressure

Some children fall into bad company induces them to habitually run away either from home or
school so as that they find themselves living in very difficult condition

Child rearing practices

In the past the rearing was a communal responsibility since children belonged to the

society and not just their biological parents the whole community ensured that appropriate
discipline for positive growth and development was accorded to all children’s lives

Rapid changes of modernization

When a society undergoes rapid changes of modernization, people reach out for a

future they are ill prepared for. The most affected are children. They end up on streets

in urban areas.

Family

Majority of children living in difficult circumstances come from broken homes. Some
are children of young single mothers. Others come from one-parent families that

struggle to make ends meet.

Poverty and unemployment

Some parents and guardian may engage in illegal activities such as prostitution, petty

thievery, and selling of illegal brews due to poverty some of the children become

delinquent and hardcore criminals at tender ages. Others engage in antisocial habits like

drug and substance abuse.

Parents who are themselves victims of abuse

Individuals who were abused as children will, in turn, abuse their own children. They

only reciprocate what they know, which is cruelty.

Poor academic performance

This may lead to disillusionment and, hence, antisocial behaviour.

Attitude

Children perceived to be different due to their hand e.g left-handed, temperament or gender are
viewed negatively and can be mistreated.

Caregivers

Parents leave their children with caregivers some of whom have wanting behaviour.

Lavish parents

Other parents lavish their children with money and electronic gadgets and this may encourage
gang behaviour and mischief.

Intervention measures

Children living in difficult circumstances should be helped to become useful members of

the society in the following ways:

The law government and the community should address child abuse and neglect.
Children and adults should be sensitive on the forms of neglect and abuse, and what steps
they can take as concerned citizens.
Teachers can organize remedial lessons.
Families can be strengthened economically through the creation of employment
opportunity.
Parents should be encouraged to accept the children who have special needs.
We should be empathetic in children living in difficult circumstances and especially
desist from blaming them when they complain about abuse or neglect.
Schools should create a balance when implementing the curriculum to allow for emphasis
on formal, non-formal and informal elements of the curriculum.
Child centred methods of teaching and learning should be used to cater for individual
differences.
Guidance and counseling should be provided.

Referral

Teachers should identify these children and refer them to specifics or relevant organizations for
rehabilitation and support. Teachers may use various forums such as school prize giving days to
address the issue of children living in difficult circumstances.

I: MULTIPLE HANDICAPPED CHILDREN

Children with multiple handicaps have combination of two or more disabilities, for example:

Deaf and blind or deaf and dumb.

Deaf and mentally challenged.
Blind and,mentally challenged.
Physically and mentally challenged
Behavioural and emotional disorders and mentally challenged.
Cerebral palsy and lack of speech.

Characteristics of multiple handicapped children

The following are characteristics that may be observed in children with multiple handicaps:

They have delayed physical and motor development.

They have limited ability to move independently.
They are unable to sit or support themselves.
They have deformities of limbs ad body posture
They remain in bed for most of their lives, hence they are institutionalized.
They show appropriate behaviour such as rocking back and forth and self-sexual
stimulation.
They have self-inflicted injuries.
They lack self-care skills such as dressing, grooming and eating.

Causes of multiple impairments

The causes vary according to the individual cases and the type of impairments there may be

multiple causes to particular impairment. For example, a child who is totally blind and

who has physical handicaps may have had brain injuries, measles and other factors whichgive
rise to the two conditions. Other causes of multiple impairments include:

Genetic transmissions.
Chromosomal disorders
Infectious diseases such as syphilis, rubella and meningitis.
Intoxicants such as alcohol, drugs for relieving pain, food additives and heroine.
Accidents or trauma.
Improper nutrition.
Tumours in the brain, kidney, face, eyes, heart and lungs,
Exposure to radiation.
Unknown influences on foetus.
Maternal age- either too young or too old.

Intervention measures
Some of the children with multiple impairment may receive the following interventions. Mild
cases can be integrated easily into regular schools but then an individual may need extra support
from the teacher counselor.

Adjust the teaching and learning methods to suit the needs of these children.
Encourage other learns to provide support in class routines.
Organize remedial teaching.
Parents should be advised to get medication and other special devices such as spectacles,
artificial limbs, hearing aids and crutches.

Referral

Children with multiple handicap impairment need a high individualized precise and specialized
teaching and learning approach. This is because the nature of the handicaps may be so severe
that the child cannot adapt to a special class in either inclusive or integrated education.

Note: the teacher should not give children with special needs unnecessary special treatment.
They have to be challenged in order to complete and become independent. Children with special
needs are frequently out of school due to medication and therapy. Medication and therapy may
have adverse effects on their general growth and development, hence the need for support. Any
intervention measure, therefore, should be aimed at:

 Facilitating their performance in learning tasks

 Aiding them to understand and accept their conditions
 Enabling them to make sense of their environment and overcome their challenges to a
functional level.

An integrated approach should be encouraged as it fosters a partnership or teamwork between

society, the classroom teacher counselor and the exceptional children.

J: Socio-Emotional Challenges.

K: Theoretical Perspectives
References

Woolfolk, A. (2012). Educational Psychology. Prentice Hall.

Parke, R.D., Gauvain, M. & Schmuckler, M.A.(2010). Child Psychology: a contemporary

viewpoint(3rd

Canadian ed).Whitby, ON: Mcgraw hill. Ryerson.

Carr, A. (2001). Abnormal Psychology. Psychology. Psychology Press. ISBN9781841692425

Clark, B. (2008). Growing up gifted (7th ed.)   Upper Saddle River, NJ:  Pearson Prentice Hall.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Compare the Psychosexual and Psychosocial Approaches regarding the adolescent

2. Discuss the development characteristics of the adolescents in the following areas

i) Physical
ii) Emotional
iii) Moral
3. Using specific examples, explain how a child’s social environment can lead to maladjustment.
b) Explain how as a teacher counselor you can help such students