Class 7

Vapor power cycles, simple

A field of mirrors
concentrates solar
energy onto a
tower. This
concentrated solar
energy is used to
drive a vapor power
cycle.
(PS20 and PS10
Solar Power Plant
in Andalusia, Spain)

G.G.M. Stoffels Thermal Engineering, University of Twente

 Recapitulate class 1 - 5
• Class 1: Introduction and basic concepts
• What is thermodynamics? → Science on using heat and power
• Properties, open/closed/isolated system, states, processes, equilibrium

• Class 2: Energy, work and heat transfer

• The energy of a system (e=u+ke+pe) can change due to work (w) and/or heat transfer (q)
and/or mass flow (m) with flow work (Pv) over the system boundary
• Enthalpy: h = u + Pv, entropy: s, efficiency

• Class 3: Thermodynamic properties of water

• Phases, phase change, phase diagrams and tables to look up values
• Saturated liquid, saturated vapor, saturated mixture, quality of the mixture (x), compressed
liquid, superheated vapor

• Class 4: The first law of thermodynamics

• Conservation of energy and conservation of mass
• Closed system: du = q + w
• Open system: qin +win + (h +ke +pe)in = qout + wout + (h +ke +pe)out

• Class 5: The second law of thermodynamics

• To describe the direction of spontaneous processes entropy (s in kJ/kgK) is introduced, it
is a measure of disorder and entropy is maximal in equilibrium,
• Entropy is not conserved, in the universe entropy always increases (second law)

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 2

 Recapitulate class 6
• A thermodynamic cycle is composed of a series of processes which return
to the initial state and works between a hot and a cold thermal reservoir
1. Heat power cycles produce power from heat
2. Refrigeration / heat pump cycles transport heat using power
• First law for a cycle: wnet = qnet
• Second law for a cycle: or
• Thermal efficiency for heat / power cycles:
• Carnot (ideal) cycle
• Carnot (maximum) efficiency Heat transfer reservoir THOT Heat transfer reservoir THOT
qIN
qOUT
wIN
wIN Refrigerator
Heat
• Kelvin-Planck & Clausius statement Engine or
Heat Pump wOUT
wOUT
(second law applied to cycles)
qOUT qIN
Energy flows in a heat engine (left) and
Heat transfer reservoir TCOLD Heat transfer reservoir TCOLD
in a refrigeration or heat pump cycle (right)

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 3

 Class 7: Vapor Power Cycles
• In previous classes we have introduced the tools we need to study real
thermodynamic systems that produce power or cold

• In class 7 vapor power cycles, cycles using a working fluid that under-
goes a phase transition (mostly water) through the cycle, are studied
• Piston steam engine & steam turbine
• Ideal and real Rankine cycles
• Heat and power in- and output
• Thermal efficiency
• Comparison to Carnot (and Brayton)
• Design parameters
• Mollier diagram for water Power generation using a vapor power cycle,
e.g. the power plant in Geertruidenberg (NL)
• Gas power cycles, cycles using gas as a
working fluid through the whole cycle will be treated later

• Refrigeration and heat pump cycles, cycles moving heat opposite to the
natural direction using power are treated in module 3
Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 21
 Vapor power cycles
• To produce power a thermodynamic cycle is used

• In a gas cycle the working medium is in the

gas phase through the whole cycle (chapter 9)
• In a vapor power cycle the working medium
changes phase (chapter 10)
• Liquid → Vapor → Liquid
• Externally heated engine where heat is trans-
ferred to a boiler or a heat exchanger is used
• Mostly a closed cycle (exception train)
• Vapor power cycles are first used in piston
steam engines begin 1700
• Around 1900, vapor power cycles are also
used in steam turbine cycles A steam train uses a piston steam
engine, some of them are still in use

• Today the biggest application of vapor power cycles is in steam turbine

cycles (Rankine cycles) in power generation in power plants

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 22

 The Aeolipile van Heron van Alexandrië
• Although the first steam engine was developed around 1700
already in antiquity the power of steam fascinated people
• An aeolipile (or aeolipyle, or eolipile), also
known as a Hero's engine, is a simple
bladeless radial steam turbine which spins
when the central water container is heated.
Torque is produced by steam jets exiting the
turbine, much like a tip jet or rocket engine. In
the 1st century AD, Hero of Alexandria de-
scribed the device in Roman Egypt, and many
sources give him the credit for its invention.
• The aeolipile Hero described is considered to
be the first recorded steam engine or reaction
steam turbine. The name – derived from the
Greek word Αἴολος and Latin word pila –
translates to "the ball of Aeolus", Aeolus being
the Greek god of the air and wind.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolipile
Some history, background information, not for the exam

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 23

 The piston steam engine
• A piston steam engine is a type of engine (or, more broadly a
kind of machine) that uses the thermodynamic characteristics
of water to produce work (power / electricity)
• The machine converts the energy of hot, pressurized steam
into mechanical work, by expanding the steam in one or more
cylinder / piston systems Heat out
Heat in
• The piston will be squeezed
by the expanding steam and
generates volume work
→ w = Pdv
Work
• Using a crank-connecting rod
mechanism, the energy of the
expansion is transferred to a
flywheel Animation from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamics

• Electricity can be produced by using a generator

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 24
 The Piston Steam Engine
• The invention of the (industrial) piston steam engine marked
the beginning of the industrial revolution
• For the first time mechanical power was available to drive
machines, where before manual power, draft animals, water
and wind mills had to be used
• The first piston steam engine is developed by Thomas
Newcomen in 1712 and used in the coal mines in England
• Historically piston steam engines used for
• Trains, boats and cars for propulsion
• Pumping stations to move water for draining
the polders in The Netherlands
• Factories e.g. textile-industry here in Twente
(Museum Twentse Welle)
• Nowadays the piston steam engine is almost completely
replaced by the steam turbine (Rankine cycle)
Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 25
 Newcomen Steam Engine
Some history, background information, not for the exam
• The atmospheric engine invented by
Thomas Newcomen in 1712, today refer-
red to as a Newcomen steam engine (or
simply Newcomen engine), was the first
practical device to harness the power of
steam to produce mechanical work
• First used to pump water out of coal
mines, starting in the early 18th century

Animation of a schematic Newcomen steam engine

Diagram of the Newcomen steam engine and a – Steam is shown pink and water is blue.
Newcomens style engine at ElsecarCentre – Valves move from open (green) to closed (red)

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 26

 Newcomen Steam Engine
Thomas Newcomen (1663-1729) conceived
of moving a piston inside a cylinder by using
the difference between atmospheric pressure
and the partial vacuum created by
condensing steam inside the cylinder,
produced his first successful engine in 1712.
He worked independently of Denis Papin,
who conceived a pump based on similar
principles.

Newcomen had worked for ten years to produce

a useful engine. Thomas Savery’s patent for an
engine based on fire caused Newcomen to
establish a firm with Savery to avoid patent infringement problems. The Newcomen atmospheric engine
had a piston connected to a large crossbeam (see the model and actual Newcomen engine in the British
Science Museum, London). The crossbeam was connected to a pump piston. Newcomen engines were
employed in many coal mines to drain water and allow mining to much greater depths, and also to provide
a water supply to communities.
The engine was inefficient and slow, chiefly because each injection of water chilled the cylinder, and
steam in the following part of the cycle was wasted in reheating the cylinder for the next stroke. In
addition, power was only produced on the down stroke, and the piston was returned to the original
position by a system of weights. Usual working speed was six to twelve strokes per minute. However, the
Newcomen engine was automatic in operation, and some were still in operation into the twentieth century.
They were gradually replaced by James Watt’s more efficient engines beginning in 1765.

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple Some history, background information, not for the exam GGM Stoffels 27
 James Watt and the Steam Engine
• James Watt’s (1736 – 1819) later
engine was an improved version of
the Newcomen steam engine
• Although Watt is far more famous,
Newcomen rightly deserves the first
credit for the widespread introduction
of steam power

James Watt

Steam engine designed by Boulton & Watt.

James Watt’s workshop Engraving of a 1784 engine
Some history, background information, not for the exam

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 28

 Boulton and Watt Steam Engine
• The Newcomen steam engine
was very slow and inefficient
• In 1763 James Watt was asked to
repair a Newcomen steam engine
• He made a number of
improvements and modifications
and transformed the engine to a
more efficient one
• He added the condenser
• He used the up as well as the
down stroke of the piston
• He added a crank to transform
the translation motion into
rotation
• Used in 1777 in a mine in Cornwal
Some history, background information, not for the exam Photo: British Science Museum, London

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 29

 First Steam Powered Road Vehicle
• Nicolas Joseph Cugnot (1725 - 1804) is credited with inventing and
crafting the first self-propelled road vehicle in 1769. It was a military tractor
that used a steam engine for power. It was used by the French Army to haul
artillery at 2 1/2 mph, and balanced on three wheels. The steam engine and
boiler were separate from the rest of the vehicle and placed in the front (see
the photograph of the tractor in the Arts et Metiers Museum in Paris). The
following year (1770), Cugnot built a steam-powered tricycle that carried
four passengers.
• In 1771, Cugnot drove one of his
road vehicles into a stone wall,
making him the first person to be
involved in a motor vehicle
accident. One of his financial
backers died and another was
exiled (=verbannen), and the
money for Cugnot's road vehicle
experiments ended.
Some history, background information, not for the exam

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 30

 Fire Department Steam Vehicle, 1881
• The use of steam engines increased
rapidly and they had a large impact on
society in several areas (draining,
transportation, factories)
• They were also used for fire fighting
• The steam which set in motion the
water pumps to the fire hoses was
provided by the coal boiler
• In less than 10 minutes it produced the
required pressure, which happened
while the car was on its way to the fire
• The car was pulled
either by man or mules

Manufactured in England by
Merryweather & Sons-London
(Museu de Marinha, Lisbon)
Some history, background information,
not for the exam

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 31

Cruquius Stoomgemaal, The Netherlands
• In the Netherlands steam engines were used to move water for draining
• ‘Stoomgemaal Cruquius’, build in 1849, had a piston diameter of 3.66m
• This diameter made it the largest steam engine in the world
• Pumping-engine ’De Cruquius’ is one of the three pumping-engines used
for draining ‘De Haarlemmermeer’ between 1849 and 1852
• It is used for draining till 1933 when it is replaced by a more modern engine
• It is named after the Dutch engineer Nicolaus Samuelis Cruquius, born as
Nicolaas Kruik, in 1678 in Vlieland (NL)

Background information, not for the exam

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 32

Cruquius Stoomgemaal, The Netherlands
• Central piston lowest and highest position
• Water surface, piston going down and up

Cruquius in action on You Tube:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=beugzPrnmqo&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DdQcFlbXpII

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 33

 Woudagemaal in The Netherlands
• The steam engine seems to be old fashioned but is still in use
• The Ir. D.F. Woudagemaal is the largest steam engine in the world that is still used
• Its function is to lower the water level in Friesland (het FZP)
• In 1966 its function is taken over by the J.L. Hooglandgemaal in Stavoren
• The Ir. D.F. Woudagemaal however, is still used if the capacity of the new pumping-
engine is too low (last times at the storm at 2-9 January 2012 and Christmas 2012)
• The pumping-engine is positioned in Tacozijl (close to Lemmer) and is placed on the
UNESCO – world heritage list in 1998
Background information, not for the exam
Woudagemaal in action on YouTube:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wqgsSSc_6yw
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PjpQeCgteiI

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 34

 Woudagemaal in The Netherlands
Topdrukte bij Woudagemaal NOS Journaal Woensdag 4 jan 2012, 19:10u
Woudagemaal in actie bij hoogwater Door verslaggever Pauline Broekema
Het publiek moest vanmiddag even geduld hebben voordat men terecht kon in het Werelderfgoed Monument in Lemmer. Op een gegeven moment stonden de
mensen twee uur in de rij. 2400 bezoekers wilden het Woudagemaal in werking zien. Het personeel en de vrijwilligers zijn er zelf ook door overdonderd. Het
informatiecentrum bij het gemaal werd in oktober door Prinses Margriet geopend. "We hadden deze maand dicht willen gaan om even op adem te komen",
vertelt directeur Hilda Boesjes-Beljon. Maar toen kwam maandag het bericht dat het gemaal ging draaien. "Voor het eggie, zoals de mannen dat noemen,"
vertelt Boesjes-Beljon. Want het gemaal draait af en toe als proef. Om te zien of alles werkt en om nieuw onderhoudspersoneel ervaring op te laten doen.

Gigantisch
Twee jaar geleden draaide het Woudagemaal voor het laatst vanwege weersomstandigheden. En nu dus weer vanwege het hoogwater. Ook nog eens in de
kerstvakantie. Uit alle delen van het land komen de bezoekers. "Je weet dat het oud is. Maar dat het nog zo functioneert!" Freek Nieuwenhuis uit Raalte staat
vol bewondering bij de ketels. Hij wijst op een kijkgat, als je in de diepte tuurt zie je de vlammen. "Machtig", vindt hij. Fabian Nieuwland en Foppe-Jan
Mennema zitten zelf in de techniek. "Dit is zo gigantisch en zo degelijk gebouwd. En dat allemaal zonder computers. Als bij ons iets mis is, gaat een alarm af.
Zo indrukwekkend allemaal.“ Een familie heeft de logé uit Sydney meegenomen. Dit is waarschijnlijk maar één keer in zijn leven dat hij het gemaal in werking
zal zien. Hij glundert en volgt een van de technici die met een koperen oliekan de machines langsgaat.

Kraantjes
Ze zijn eerder gestopt met hun werk. De mannen van Neopost, een
bedrijf uit Drachten. "We bouwen enveloppevulmachines", legt Harrie
Heemstra zijn bewondering voor dit wonder van stoomtechniek uit.
"Je herkent dingen. De leidingen zijn bij ons stroomdraadjes. Hier
hebben ze kraantjes, wij hebben kleppen.“ Ze weten van geen
ophouden en dralen nog wat. Een laatste foto, een laatste blik in de
diepte van de machinekamer.

Gekkenboel
De vrijwilligers. die de enorme bezoekersstroom in goede banen
leidden, evalueren na 17.00 uur de dag. Het ging prima allemaal.
"Een gekkenboel", stellen ze tevreden vast. Morgen er weer
tegenaan. Want het gemaal draait in ieder geval tot en met vrijdag.
Wie de lange wachttijden wil vermijden kan het beste zo vroeg
mogelijk komen. Vanaf tien uur is het gemaal open.
http://nos.nl/artikel/327866-topdrukte-bij-woudagemaal.html

Background information, not for the exam

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 35

 Woudagemaal in The Netherlands
'De vlam is in de ketels gegaan‘ NOS maandag 24 dec 2012, Door verslaggever Pauline Broekema
De afgelopen dagen heeft het veel geregend. Daardoor staat het water in ons land hoog. In Lemmer wordt daarom het Woudagemaal aangezet, om te
voorkomen dat de waterstand in de Friese meren en kanalen te hoog wordt.
De eerste bezoekers zijn er al. Ze moeten wachten tot morgen en komen niet verder dan de landzijde van het gebouw, dat spectaculair in nevelen is gehuld.
De eerste stoom, een voorbode van wat komen gaat. Aan een tafeltje in de imposante machinehal is het personeel bezig aan een laatste patatje. Die uren
voor de opstart zijn altijd spannend, vertelt Ido Boonstra, de chef machinist. "Even na zevenen is de vlam in de ketels gegaan", klinkt het plechtig.
Enorme pompen
De mannen, in vaste dienst van Wetterskip Fryslân, gaan de machines langs. Nu kunnen ze zich nog
verstaanbaar maken. Straks zal het geluid van de enorme pompen allesoverheersend zijn.
Het gemaal in Lemmer staat op de Werelderfgoedlijst. Het is het grootste stoomgemaal van de wereld.
De ervaring leert dat die enkele keer dat het draait de bezoekers er voor uit alle windstreken komen.
Verzadigd
"Het land is verzadigd", zegt Roel de Jong van het waterschap. "Het neemt geen water meer op."
Daarom moet het monument er aan te pas komen. Eerste Kerstdag, vanaf 10.00 uur, is het Woudagemaal
voor publiek open. Dan draaien als de voorbereidingen vandaag naar wens verlopen, de pompen volop.
http://nos.nl/artikel/455178-de-vlam-is-in-de-ketels-gegaan.html

Lange rij voor Woudagemaal NOS Woensdag 26 jan 2012 In Lemmer is vanochtend het Woudagemaal opge-
Het stoomgemaal in Lemmer heeft vandaag veel meer dan 2400 bezoekers gehad. Volgens directeur start. Het gemaal draait op stoom, dit zijn beelden
Hilda Boesjes was het een drukke dag. Op het hoogtepunt stond er een lange rij mensen die ongeveer van het op stoom komen van het gemaal. http://nos.
twee uur moesten wachten voor ze naar binnen konden. nl/video/455191-het-gemaal-komt-op-stoom.html
Gisteren kregen ongeveer 2200 bezoekers een rondleiding in het monument dat op de werelderfgoedlijst
van Unesco staat. Het ruim 90 jaar oude gemaal en het bezoekerscentrum ernaast zijn het hele jaar
geopend voor belangstellenden. Morgen hoopt de directeur de 50.000ste bezoeker van dit jaar te
verwelkomen.
Het waterschap Friesland zette maandag het antieke gemaal aan om overtollig water naar het
IJsselmeer te pompen. De waterstand in de Nederlandse rivieren is hoog door de regen in Duitsland en
Zwitserland en door de regen hier. Normaal gesproken wordt het overtollige water in Friesland via
sluizen gespuid in het Lauwersmeer en de Waddenzee, maar daar is de waterstand te hoog om het
water te kunnen lozen.
Het Woudagemaal is het grootste nog werkende stoomgemaal ter wereld. Het wordt vermoedelijk nog
tot en met morgen gebruikt, zegt directeur Boesjes.
http://nos.nl/artikel/455534-lange-rij-voor-woudagemaal.html
Background information, not for the exam Groepjes mensen kijken bij het Woudagemaal Hugo Janssen / NOS

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 36

 Steam Locomotive: De Arend
• De Arend: First Steam Locomotive running in The Netherlands

• Route:
Amsterdam
↔ Haarlem
• First ride:
20 September
1839

Photo taken in Het Spoorwegmuseum in Utrecht, The Netherlands Some history, background information, not for the exam

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 37

 Steam Locomotive Cut Away
• A widespread application of the piston steam engine is the steam locomotive

1.Water Compartment 9. Crown Sheet Valve 25. Piston

2. Coal Bunker 10. Safety Valve 18. Sand Dome 26. Crosshead
3. Worm Coal Conveyor 11. Turbine-Generator 19. Flue Tubes 27. Main Rod
4. Reverse Lever 12. Boiler Water 20. Superheated 28. Side Rod
(Johnson Bar) 13. Steam Dome Tubes 29. Sand Pipe
5. Stoker 14. Throttle Valve 21. Smoke box 30. Ashpan Hopper
6. Throttle Lever 15. Boiler Tubes 22. Blast Pipe 31. Brick Arch
7. Water Gauge 16. Dry Pipe 23. Steam Chest 32. Grate
8. Firebox 17. Water Delivery Check 24. Cylinder 33. Injector

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple Background information, not for the exam GGM Stoffels 38
 Historical Importance of Steam Power
• It might be clear that the invention of the industrial piston steam
engine was very important and had a large impact on society
• Nowadays the invention of the steam engine is marked as the
beginning of the industrial revolution, mechanical power was
available to drive machines and a lot of processes, that before
were powered manually or with draft animals, water or wind
mills were accelerated
• Development of the steam engine was an empirical process,
the theoretical background, the theory of heat (thermodyna-
mics) would later be formulated in an attempt to make the first
steam engines more efficient
• The concept of entropy was only
discovered in 1865 (150 years later)
by Clausius to close the theory
• Nowadays steam power is mostly used
in steam turbines to produce electricity
Some history, background information, not for the exam

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 39

 Steam Turbine
• A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal
energy from pressurized steam, and converts it into rotary
motion, its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles
Parsons in 1884
• It has almost completely replaced
the reciprocating piston steam
engine primarily because of its
greater thermal efficiency and
higher power-to-weight ratio
• Because the turbine generates
rotary motion, it is particularly
suited to be used to drive an
electrical generator – about 80%
of all electricity generation in the
world is by use of steam turbines A rotor of a modern steam turbine, used
in a power plant
Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 40
 Steam Power Plant
• Now a days most of the electricity is generated in power plants
that use steam turbines in vapor power cycles
• Vapor power cycles using steam turbine are called Rankine
cycles, named after William John Macquorn Rankine

Steam power plant for power generation

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 41
 The British Steam Car
• Application of a steam turbine in a modern vehicle

Background information,
not for the exam Intermediair 15, 9 april 2009

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 42

 The British Steam Car
• The British Steam Car; Official Land Speed Record Holder
• On 25 August 2009, Team Inspiration of the British Steam Car Challenge broke the
long-standing record for a steam vehicle set by a Stanley Steamer in 1906, setting
a new speed record of 225.055 km/h at the Edwards Air Force Base, in the Mojave
Desert of California. This was the longest standing automotive record in the world.
It had been held for over 100 years.
• The car was driven by Charles Burnett III. FIA land speed records are based on an
average of two runs (called 'passes') in opposite directions, taken within an hour of
each other – in this case the maximum speeds reached were 219.037 km/h on the
first run and 243.148 km/h on the second. As of August 25 the record is subject to
official confirmation by the FIA.
• On August 26, 2009 the British Steam Car, driven this time by, the grandson of Sir
Malcolm Campbell, broke a second
record by achieving an average
speed of 238.679 km/h over
two consecutive runs over a mea-
sured kilometer. This was also
recorded and again, has
since been ratified by the FIA.
Background information, not for the exam

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 43

 The Rankine Cycle

Steam power plant

Note: typically some

of wout is consumed
internally by the
cycle as win

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 44

 Principle of the Ideal Rankine Cycle
Principle of the ideal Rankine cycle (reversible)
• 1 → 2 isentropic compression (win)
Fluid enters the pump and is compressed to a higher pressure, the pump is assumed
to be adiabatic and ideal (reversible, isentropic) work is taken from the turbine
• 2 → 3 isobaric heat addition (qin)
At high constant pressure heat is added to the fluid in the boiler, the fluid starts boiling
and vaporizes (phase change), it results in hot high pressure vapor
• 3 → 4 isentropic expansion (wout)
The hot vapor is expanded in the turbine producing work, at the turbine outlet the
working fluid is still in the gas phase or it is a mixture at
low temperature and pressure, the turbine is assumed
to be adiabatic and ideal (reversible, isentropic)
• 4 → 1 isobaric heat rejection (qout)
Heat rejection at constant low
pressure, in the condenser the
vapor / mixture is cooled and
condensed to fluid again (phase
change)

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 45

 Rankine Cycle
• The external source of hot thermal energy is not important for
our analysis
• It can be coal, nuclear, wood, solar, geothermal, etcetera
• Only the amount of energy (Qin) transferred to the working
fluid is important
• Mostly a boiler is used (examples next pages)

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 46

 Steam Boiler Construction
• Example of a steam boiler, the
steam passes three times through
1 the heated air in the boiler
1. Preheating
3 2. Evaporating
3. Superheating
2

Tangentially coal fired furnace

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 47

 Steam Boiler

Rentech vertical boiler hrsg Tangentially fired furnace

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 48

 Steam Turbine

Alstom Steam Turbine double action rotor

Alstom Steam turbine

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 49

 Comparison of Rankine to Carnot Cycle
• Carnot (ideal) vapor power cycle
• Cycle operating between two heat reservoirs
• Maximum heat engine efficiency for cycle between
Tmax and Tmin
Tmin
 carnot  1 
Tmax
Tmax
• But process 1→ 2:
• Pressure increase of
Tmin
a 2 phase mixture
• Mechanically difficult
to do reliably
• Modify cycle
Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 50
Comparison of Rankine to Carnot Cycle
• Simple Rankine power cycle
• Modify Carnot cycle to increase the pressure of a
pure liquid (not a mixture anymore)
• Mechanically more
reliable
• Thermodynamically
easier to implement
(note: wPUMP << wTURBINE)
• However lower efficiency
than Carnot cycle

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 51

Comparison of Rankine to Brayton Cycle
• Compare the Brayton cycle
to the Rankine cycle
• Compressor for air changed
by a pump for liquid
• Heat exchanger for air
changed by a condenser

• Brayton cycle
• Air everywhere
• Rankine cycle
• Liquid at the pump
• Gas at the turbine
• Phase change in steam
generator and condenser

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 52

 Comparison of Rankine to Brayton Cycle

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 53

Comparison of Rankine to Brayton Cycle
Phase
Constant
States Simple
Property
Process Brayton Rankine
Pressure
1→2 s Ideal Gas Liquid
Increase
Heat Transfer
to Working 2→3 P Ideal Gas Liq.-Vapor
Fluid
Expansion 3→4 s Ideal Gas Liq.-Vapor
Heat Transfer
from Working 4→1 P Ideal Gas Liq.-Vapor
Fluid
Property Ideal Gas
Steam Tables
Source Law/Tables
Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 54
Comparison of Rankine to Brayton Cycle
• Compare ratio between power used and produced
wPUMP,IN
• Modern Rankine power plant: ~ 0.01
w TURB,OUT
w COMP,IN
• Modern gas turbine: ~ 0.50
w TURB,OUT

• Why is this ratio so different?

• Therefore a Rankine cycle can operate with inefficient pump

and turbine: 1712 Thomas Newcomen's steam engine used
in coal mines
• But for a Brayton cycle to work an efficient compressor and
turbine is needed: 1939 First flight of turbojet engine using
Hans von Ohain design

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 55

Simple Ideal Rankine Cycle without Superheat
• Simple Rankine Cycle (No Superheat)
• Representative of early fossil fuel steam engines
• Expansion of 2-phase
fluid 3 → 4 (mixture) in Saturated vapor

the turbine causes

erosion and reliability
problems
• Solution: Superheating,
heat the saturated
vapor to higher
temperatures

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 56

 Ideal Rankine Cycle with Superheat
• Ideal Rankine Cycle with superheat
• Superheat reduces turbine erosion and reliability
problems as the working fluid in the turbine is mostly
in the vapor phase Superheated vapor
• Temperature in the boiler is
higher than the saturation
temperature, vapor gets
superheated after the fluid
has vaporized completely
• Fossil plants have more
superheat than nuclear or
solar power plants or geo-
thermal plants
Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 57
 Ideal Rankine Cycle
• The 4 basic components and processes of the Rankine cycle
Process Component q w Const.
Prop
1→2 Pump 0 wIN s
2→3 Steam generator (boiler, superheater) qIN 0 P
3→4 Turbine 0 wOUT s
4→1 Condenser qOUT 0 P

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 58

 Ideal Rankine Cycle Analysis
• We have seen that a Rankine cycle consist of 4 basic
processes occurring in a series of open devices
• For each device assume
• No kinetic and potential energy change
• In an ideal cycle devices are adiabatic and reversible →
isentropic (s = constant, ds = 0)
• The liquid phase is incompressible (v = constant, dv = 0)
• Remember for each process the energy balance is given by
 W
QIN
 m
IN 
 h  ke  pe IN  Q OUT  W OUT  m h  ke  pe OUT
 Q
 W
IN
   Q
IN

OUT  WOUT   m hOUT  hIN 
 
  qIN  wIN    qOUT  wOUT   hOUT  hIN  h

• For the total cycle each device is analyzed separately

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 59
 Ideal Rankine Cycle Analysis
• Process 1 → 2, isentropic pressure in-
crease by ideal pump (compression)

• Applying energy balance to pump

 qIN  wIN    qOUT  wOUT   h

wPUMP,IN  hOUT  hIN  h2  h1

• and recalling dh = Tds + vdP

0,
w PUMP,IN  dh  T ds ISENTROPIC  v dP
wPUMP,IN  v POUT  PIN   v P2  P1  kJ / kg Do not forget
at the exam
Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 60
 Ideal Rankine Cycle Analysis
• Process 2 → 3, isobaric heat transfer in
boiler

• Appling energy balance to boiler

 qIN  wIN    qOUT  wOUT   h

qIN,BOILER  hOUT  hIN  h3  h2

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 61

 Ideal Rankine Cycle Analysis
• Process 3 → 4, isentropic pressure
decrease in ideal turbine (expansion)

• Applying energy balance to

turbine

 qIN   
 wIN  qOUT  wOUT  h
w TURBINE,OUT  hIN  hOUT  h3  h4

• Some of the work is consumed by the pump

• The net work leaving the system is

wNET  w T,OUT  wP,IN  h3  h4   h2  h1 

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 62

 Ideal Rankine Cycle Analysis
• Process 4 → 1, isobaric heat transfer in
condenser

• Applying energy balance to condensor

 qIN  wIN   qOUT  wOUT   h

qOUT,COND  hIN  hOUT  h4  h1

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 63

 Rankine Cycle Efficiency
• Net work output

Q H,IN

• Heat added

w OUT,TURBINE  w IN,PUMP
RANKINE 
qIN
w NET,OUT  h3  h4    h2  h1 
 
qIN h3  h2

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 64

 Non-Ideal Rankine Cycle
• For a real (non-ideal) Rankine cycle isentropic efficiencies for
pump and turbine have to be included
hOUT,S  hIN vICL POUT  PIN  hIN  hOUT,A
S,PUMP   and S,TURB 
hOUT,A  hIN hOUT,A  hIN hIN  hOUT,S

• The entropy in the pump and the turbine increases

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 65

 Design parameters Rankine Cycle
• How can the efficiency of the basic Rankine cycle be increased
• Remember the net work output is the area enclosed in the
graph, the net heat input is the area below the curve 2 – 3
• The area can be enlarged by
• Changing the turbine input pressure
• Changing the turbine inlet temperature
• Changing the condenser temperature/pressure

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 66

 Design parameters Rankine Cycle
• The effect of increasing the boiler pressure on the ideal
Rankine cycle
• Power output: hardly
any change
• Heat input: hardly any
change but a higher
temperature
• Efficiency: increases
anyway
• Quality of the saturated
mixture at the turbine
exit decreases (more
liquid, less vapor)

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 67

 Design parameters Rankine Cycle
• The effect of superheating the vapor to higher temperatures on
the ideal Rankine cycle
• Power output: increases
• Heat input: increases
• Efficiency: increases
• Quality of the saturated
mixture at the turbine exit
increases (less liquid, more
vapor)
• Note; the temperature in
the system is limited to
about 620°C by the
material properties
(Connection to Material Sciences)
Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 68
 Design parameters Rankine Cycle
• The effect of increasing the boiler pressure and superheating
the vapor to higher temperatures on the ideal Rankine cycle
• Pressure 3 Mpa → 15 MPa
• Temperature 350°C → 600°C

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 69

 Design parameters Rankine Cycle
• The supercritical Rankine
cycle, an extreme
situation, the boiler
pressure goes to
supercritical pressures,
the curve rises above the
critical point

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 70

 Design parameters Rankine Cycle
• The effect of lowering the condenser pressure on the ideal
Rankine cycle
• Power output: increases
• Heat input: no change
• Efficiency: increases

• Quality of the saturated

mixture at the turbine exit
decreases (more liquid,
less vapor)

• Note: the condenser pressure

is related to the condenser temperature which always has to
be higher than the temperature of the environment
Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 71
Mollier Diagram Water for Rankine Cycle
• The h-s diagram of water, called Mollier Diagram, can be used
to analyze the Rankine cycle.
• Do you see the vapor dome, isobars, isotherms, vapor mass
fraction?
3000 T=300C
T=500C
200C
Enthalpy, h (kJ/kg)

x = 90%

80%
400C 70%
2000
60%
300C
50% P = 0.01 bar

40%

1000
2 4 6 8 10
Entropy, s (kJ/kgK)

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 72

Mollier Diagram Water for Rankine Cycle
• The Mollier diagram for water that we
use to analyze the Rankine cycle enthalpy
• Enthalpy (kJ/kg) on the y-axis, (kJ/kg)
horizontal line → dh = 0
• Entropy (kJ/kgK) on the x-axis,
vertical line → ds = 0
• Saturated vapor line divides
superheated vapor and mixture
region Saturated
vapor line
• Isobars (in Bar !!) Isotherm
• Isotherms (in degree Celsius)
• Constant mixture fraction lines
• Reference line for exergy
• Compressed liquid area not shown, Reference line
lines are very close to each other in Constant
for exergy
that area → diagram is not usable, mixture
fraction entropy
use tables
(kJ/kgK)

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 73

 Example Rankine Cycle
• Steam power plant on Rankine cycle between P3=10MPa and P4=10kPa
• Temperature of the steam at the turbine inlet is T3=500°C
• Isentropic efficiencies of the pump and the turbine are 0.8, mass flow is 5 kg/s
• Draw schematically the set up of the cycle
• Draw the T-s and h-s diagram
• Give for every point two characteristics
(with two characteristics the point can be found)
• Calculate heat and work in- and output
• Calculate the net power output and the efficiency

First Second
1 10kPa Tsat@10kPa
2s 10MPa s2s=s1
2 10MPa  = 0.8
3 10MPa 500°C
4s 10kPa s4s=s3
4 10kPa  = 0.8

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 74

 Example Rankine Cycle
• Rankine cycle First Second
1 10kPa Tsat@10kPa
2s 10MPa s2s=s1
2 10MPa  = 0.8
3 10MPa 500°C 3
4s 10kPa s4s=s3 h3
4 10kPa  = 0.8

• Point 1: h1 from tables at P=10kPa and

Tsat@10kPa
s increases !!
• Point 2s: h2s from h2s – h1 = v(P2 – P1)
h2S  h1 4
• Point 2: h2 from S,PUMP  h  h h4
2 1
• Point 3: h3 from diagram h4s
• Point 4s: h4s from diagram 4s
h3  h4 h3  h4
S,TURB 
•  
Point 4: h4 from S,TURB h  h h3  h4s
3 4s

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 75

 Example Rankine Cycle
• Find the h value of every point
P T h phase
(kPa) (°C) (kJ/kg)
1 10 45 192 Sat L
2s 10000 193 Com L
2 10000 193.3 Com L 3
h3
3 10000 500 3375 Sup V
4s 10 45 2125 X=0.81
4 10 45 2375 X=0.91
• win = h2 – h1 = 1.3 kJ/kg
s increases !!
• qin = h3 – h2 = 3181.7 kJ/kg
• wout = h3 – h4 =1000 kJ/kg 4
h4
• qout = h4 – h1 =2183 kJ/kg
• See win + qin = wout + qout (first law) h4s
 net = m
• W  (w –w )=5·998.7 = 4993.5 kW 4s
out in h3  h4
S,TURB 
w out  w in  h3  h4    h2  h1  h3  h4s
RANKINE    31%
qin h3  h2

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 76

 Example Rankine Cycle
• Consider the Rankine cycle from the
previous example and analyze it using
second law analysis (exergy analysis)
• What is the second law efficiency?
• What is the exergy of the steam at the
turbine outlet and the turbine inlet as Turbine inlet
determined from the diagram? h3

RANKINE Turbine
SECOND LAW  RANKINE  0.31 outlet
CARNOT
TCOLD 45  273
CARNOT  1   1  0.59
THOT 500  273 Reference
line exergy
0.31 Exergy turbine
SECOND LAW   0.52  52%
0.59 inlet h3 – hx

hX
• Exergy inlet: in = h3 – hx = x Note: Exergy
3375 – 2100 = 1275 kJ/kg turbine outlet
is 0 (on line)
• Exergy outlet: out = 0 kJ/kg
Exergy and second law analysis is is not part of the exam, this is material for the project

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 77

 Example: Rankine Cycle, check 1st & 2nd law
• Consider the steam cycle qin
• Energies in and out wuit
• win = 1 kJ/kg
win
• qin = 3182 kJ/kg at Tin ¼ 311°C
• wout = 1000 kJ/kg
• qout = 2183 kJ/kg at Tuit = 45°C
quit
• Check the first law: qin – qout = wout – win → qnet = wnet
qnet = qin – qout = 3182 – 2183 = 999 kJ/kg
→ qnet = wnet ! Right !
wnet = wout – win = 1000 - 1 = 999 kJ/kg

• Check the second law: (Clausius inequality: )

• Both laws are valid for this cycle 1: energy is conserved (ein = eout)
2: entropy is created (dsout > dsin)
Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 78
 Recapitulate class 7
• Vapor power cycles (Rankine cycles): cycles using a
working fluid that changes phase throughout the cycle
• Piston steam engine & steam turbine
• Comparison to Carnot (and Brayton)
• Ideal and real Rankine cycles
• Heat and power in- and output:

wNET  w T,OUT  wP,IN  h3  h4   h2  h1 

• Thermal efficiency:

• Design parameters
• Turbine inlet pressure and temperature
• Condenser pressure and temperature T-s diagrams showing
• Mollier diagram for water the real Rankine cycle

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 79

 Next class 8: Advanced Vapor Cycles
• How to improve the efficiency of the Rankine cycle by

• Reheating

• Regenerative feed water heating

• Cogeneration

Power generation using a vapor power cycle,

e.g. the power plant in Geertruidenberg (NL)

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 80

 Keep in mind: Important Formulas
• Specific volume v = V/m [m3/kg] and density  = 1/v = m/V [kg/m3] • Phase diagrams
• Volume work w = Pdv
• Enthalpy h = u + Pv, (u internal energy, P pressure, v volume)
• Thermal efficiency
• Mixture fraction
• Conservation of mass min = mout, mass flow rate
• Conservation of energy, first law of thermodynamics
• Closed system du= q+ w → u = q + w
• Open system qin + win +(h + ke + pe)in = qout + wout +(h + ke + pe)out
• S increases, second law dstotal = dssystem + dssurroundings = sgen ≥ 0
• Inequality of Clausius (= for reversible process)
• Reversible heat transfer qnet,rev = Tds, irreversible qnet,irrev < Tds
• Gibbs equations Tds = du + Pdv and Tds = dh - vdP
wIN,S w
OUT , A
• Isentropic efficiencies INPUT ,S  w , OUTPUT,S  w
IN, A OUT ,S

• Thermal efficiency power cycles

• Carnot efficiency
• Coefficient of performance  COP   qHOT,OUT and  COP REF 
qCOLD,IN
HP
w IN w IN

Class 7: Vapor power cycles, simple GGM Stoffels 81