Revue européenne de psychologie appliquée 61 (2011) 43–50

Original article

The effects of inattention on selective attention: How sadness and ruminations

alter attention functions evaluated with the Attention Network Test
Les effets de l’inattention sur l’attention sélective : comment la tristesse et les ruminations
altèrent les fonctions attentionnelles évaluées avec l’Attention Network Test
C. Pêcher a,∗ , C. Quaireau b , C. Lemercier a , J.-M. Cellier a
a
Cognition, langues, langage et ergonomie (CLLE), UTM, EPHE, CNRS, maison de la recherche, université de Toulouse-le-Mirail, 5, allée Antonio-Machado,
31058 Toulouse cedex 9, France
b
Laboratoire de psychologie expérimentale (LPE), CRP2C, UPRES EA 1285, université de Rennes 2 - Haute-Bretagne, place du Recteur-Henri-le-Moal,
35043 Rennes cedex, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In two in-laboratory studies, we investigated the influence of inattention when caused by sadness and
Received 17 October 2009 ruminations on attention functions. Being sad and ruminating over negative thoughts involves a long-
Received in revised form 22 October 2010 lasting attentional self-focus, altering the ability to process relevant information from the environment. It
Accepted 25 October 2010
subsequently leads to inattention, considered as a very specific attention deficit. In a preliminary method-
ological study, it was demonstrated that the combined imagery vignettes and music procedure was
Keywords: efficient to induce sadness and ruminations, propitious to inattention. Then, in a second experiment,
Inattention
sadness and ruminations were induced with this procedure in order to provoke inattention. The effects
Sadness
Ruminations
of inattention on selective attention processes were assessed using the Attention Network Test, which
Attention Network Test discriminates between three independent attention functions: alerting, orienting and conflict. Results on
Selective attention reaction times showed that only the orienting function was affected when inattentive, with a significant
alteration on spatial information processing. These results were discussed in the light of the literature on
emotion and attention.
© 2010 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

r é s u m é

Mots clés : Dans ces deux études réalisées en laboratoire, nous avons examiné l’impact de l’inattention, causée par la
Inattention tristesse et les ruminations associées à cet état, sur les fonctions attentionnelles. Être triste et ruminer des
Tristesse pensées négatives implique un repli sur soi attentionnel durable, altérant notre capacité à traiter les infor-
Ruminations mations pertinentes de l’environnement. Ce phénomène génère ainsi de l’inattention, considéré comme
Attention Network Test
un défaut de l’attention très spécifique. Tout d’abord, une étude méthodologique préliminaire a démontré
Attention sélective
que la procédure combinant la présentation de vignettes et de musique permettait d’induire efficace-
ment de la tristesse et des ruminations, propices à l’inattention. Ensuite, dans une seconde expérience, la
tristesse et les ruminations ont été induites à l’aide de cette procédure, dans l’objectif de provoquer une
situation propice à l’inattention. Les effets de l’inattention ont ensuite été mesurés grâce à l’Attention
Network Test, qui distingue trois fonctions attentionnelles indépendantes : l’alerte, l’orientation et le
conflit. Les résultats sur les temps de réactions montrent que seule la fonction d’orientation est détéri-
orée lorsque le sujet est inattentif, montrant des effets délétères lors du traitement des informations
spatiales. Ces résultats seront discutés au regard de la littérature sur les émotions et sur l’attention.
© 2010 Elsevier Masson SAS. Tous droits réservés.

1. Introduction

Task efficiency in daily activities depends on the capability to

select relevant information and inhibit distractors. Thus, dysfunc-
∗ Corresponding author. tions of these two processes are supposed to generate maladjusted
E-mail address: cpecher@univ-tlse2.fr (C. Pêcher). attention behaviours such as inattention. According to Lemercier

1162-9088/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.erap.2010.10.003
44 C. Pêcher et al. / Revue européenne de psychologie appliquée 61 (2011) 43–50
and Cellier (2008), inattention reflects a very specific deficit of
selective attention, which has to be drawn up Posner’s concept of
endogenous orienting of attention (Posner, 1980). Precisely, it is
the consequence of a long-lasting orienting of attention to a latent,
non-salient, irrelevant and endogenous stimulus. In other words,
inattention is a maladaptive orientation of attention on personal
thoughts, i.e. attention self-focus, which occurs to the detriment of
the processing of other relevant information.
Attentional self-focus is a main component in sadness (Frijda,
1986; Lazarus, 1991) and ruminations, i.e. repetitive negative
thoughts that capture attention for a long period of time and pre-
serve the negative emotional state (Joorman and Gotlib, 2008;
McLaughlin et al., 2007; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991, 2000; Nolen-
Hoeksema et al., 2008). Specifically, ruminations related to sadness
reflect a processing of repetitive negative thoughts that bear on
circumstances of one’s present sadness and which interfere with
problem resolution and imposed goal-oriented tasks (Conway
et al., 2000). Indeed, an abundant literature demonstrated an
interference of both sadness and ruminations on information pro-
cessing and particularly on attention processes (e.g., Huffziger
and Kuehner, 2009; Watkins and Teadale, 2001). For instance,
Philippot and Brutoux (2008) used a traditional Stroop test to mea-
sure the effects of dysphoria and ruminations on the inhibition
and flexibility functions, in control and dysphoric groups. The two
groups were induced in order to ruminate or to be distracted,
creating four experimental conditions: control/rumination, con-
trol/distraction, dysphoric/rumination and dysphoric/distraction.
Results indicated a degradation of the ability to impede irrele-
vant information when dysphoric and ruminating, compared to
the three other conditions. Additionally, the cognitive flexibility
was highly deteriorated for this group. Ruminations then alter
the ability to inhibit and disengage attention to a different infor-
mation source (Joorman et al., 2007; Leung et al., 2009). To our
point of view, those results also provide evidence that sadness and
ruminations provoke a long-lasting attention self-focus, leading
to inattention, and affect attention control as defined by Posner
(1980).
Indeed, Posner (1980) and later, Fan et al. (2002) characterized
attention control as a combination of three attention functions:
alerting, orienting and conflict (the executive control). Alerting
helps in the performance of continuous and vigilance tasks (acti-
vation of different levels of alertness), orienting involves directing
attention focus to a located stimulus to select information. Execu-
tive control, finally, requires the resolution of conflict among items.
The three functions have been tested with the Attention Network
Test (ANT), which is a visual-attention task combining a flanker
task and a cued reaction time task (Fan et al., 2002). As it is showed
in Supplementary data, Fig. 1b, the target is a leftward or right-
ward arrowhead surrounded by flankers, which can be neutral (no
direction), congruent (same direction), or incongruent (opposite
direction) with the target. Each target is preceded by a cue of four
types: no-cue, double, central and spatial (Supplementary data, Fig.
1a). In their first study, Fan et al. (2002) tested the ANT efficiency
and reliability with 40 normal adults. Results showed that alerting,
orienting and conflict are not correlated, supporting the indepen-
dence of the three functions. Precisely, alerting was characterized
by a benefit of 47 ms when double cues were presented compared
to no cues presentation. Orienting was characterized by a benefit
of 51 ms when spatial cues were presented compared to central
cues presentation. Finally, conflict was characterized by a benefit
of 84 ms when flankers were congruent with the target, compared
to incongruent flankers.
The ANT is a reliable and valid tool, which has already been
used to test the relationship between attention and working mem-
ory capacity (Redick and Engle, 2006) or specific disorders such as
schizophrenia or ADHD (Adólfsdóttir et al., 2008; Odludas et al.,
2008; Wang et al., 2005). Consequently, the ANT seems useful to
measure the effects of inattention, due to sadness and ruminations
on attention functions.
We challenge then the relevance and validity of the ANT to test
the impact of inattention on the three independent attention func-
tions. Plus, we examine the real impact of sadness and ruminations,
considered here as main causes of inattention on alerting, orienting
and conflict. Because inattention is precisely defined as a durable
orientation of attention on negative thoughts, we presume that
inattention will alter principally the orienting function.
Yet, before testing this hypothesis, we will propose a prelimi-
nary methodological study. It was conducted in order to determine
the efficiency of two induction procedures, i.e. the autobiographical
recall and the imagery procedure, to provoke sadness and rumina-
tions, propitious to inattention.
2. Study 1: methodological preliminaries
In this paper, we hypothesized that sadness and ruminations
give rise to attention self-focus, leading to inattention and sub-
sequently affect attention functions, when performing the ANT.
Before experimenting, a requisite is that sadness and ruminations
have to be strong and durable to generate ruminations and then
inattention. With regards to the abundant literature on induced
sadness and depression (e.g., Clark, 1983; Scherrer and Dobson,
2009; Velten, 1968), induction procedures appear as an interest-
ing experimental alternative to natural emotions. There are a large
number of induction procedures including mood self-statements,
social feedback, hypnotic suggestion, film, music, etc. (for a detailed
review, see Gerrards-Hesse et al., 1994, Juslin et al., 2008; Gilet,
2008; Martin, 1990). According to Martin (1990), procedures which
require participants’ imagination are one of the most efficient.
This category notably includes self-statements (Velten, 1968), auto-
biographical recall (Brewer et al., 1980) and combined imagery
vignettes and music procedure (Mayer et al., 1995).
This first experiment was thus performed to compare the effi-
ciency of the autobiographical recall and the imagery induction
procedure, to provoke both sadness and ruminations in normal par-
ticipants. It is also pointed out that some questionnaires such as the
Response Style Questionnaire (RSQ, Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991) or the
Beck Depression Inventory (BDI1A, Beck et al., 1996) help in dis-
criminating the presence, the strength and the type of ruminations.
Nevertheless, those questionnaires are principally addressed to a
clinical depressed population. Because only normal people were
recruited in our experiment, we used alternative techniques with
standard questionnaires and a post-experimental interview to be
sure of the presence of sadness and ruminations.
2.1. Method
2.1.1. Participants
Forty-five undergraduate students from the University of
Toulouse-2 voluntarily participated in the experiment. The sample
consisted of 20 males and 25 females, ranging from 21 to 35 years
(mean = 26.33 years, S.D. = 3.45 years). All had normal or corrected-
to-normal vision. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the
three experimental conditions: neutral induction (control; n = 16),
sad induction with the autobiographical recall (n = 15) and sad
induction with the imagery procedure (n = 14).
2.1.2. Materials
2.1.2.1. Experimental inductions. Neutral induction required the
participant to constantly focus on technical characteristics of eight
complex classic 1-min music pieces (e.g., prelude in B minor, op.28,
No. 6 by Chopin). They had to determine the number and the type of
all instruments for each excerpt. At the beginning of each excerpt,
 C. Pêcher et al. / Revue européenne de psychologie appliquée 61 (2011) 43–50
a vignette “Excerpt no. 1”, “Excerpt no. 2” etc. was presented on a
computer-screen to guide participants.
Sad induction with the autobiographical recall consisted of an
adaptation of Brewer et al. (1980) procedure. As for the neutral
induction, the same eight complex classic 1-min music pieces were
presented. For each excerpt, participants had to focus on the emo-
tional nature of music and on their emotions, and simultaneously
they had to mentally recall a sad personal event. At the beginning
of each excerpt, a vignette “Excerpt no. 1”, “Excerpt no. 2” etc. was
presented on a computer-screen to guide participants.
Finally, sad induction with the combined imagery and music
procedure consisted of the translated French version of the orig-
inal combined imagery vignettes and music procedure developed
by Mayer et al. (1995). Each vignette was presented on a PC com-
puter for 1 min, consecutively in a fixed order. Each vignette was a
descriptive sentence of a sad situation (e.g, “You are told by a young
relative that he has cancer and only six months to live”). Instructions
for participants were to read and imagine themselves in each situ-
ation and to feel the kind of emotions created by such a situation.
In the background, the same eight complex classic 1-min music
pieces than for the neutral and sad inductions were presented to
immediately reinforce the emotional effects.
2.1.2.2. Emotional self-rating scale. Changes in the emotional state
were assessed using the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Sched-
ule, Expanded form (PANAS-X, Watson and Clark, 1999). This scale
includes 60 items describing emotions, feelings, and states (e.g.,
“happy”, “sad”, “energetic” etc.). For each item, participants rated
how they felt on a five point-Lickert scale from 1 “I do not feel
at all” to 5 “I extremely feel”. Although the PANAS-X allows the
measurement of general negative and positive affects as well as
11 specific emotional states, we interested in items for only three
specific states: sadness, joviality and attention. The PANAS-X was
presented two times: before and after the induction.
2.1.2.3. Post-experimental interviews. In order to provide comple-
mentary qualitative information, interviews were performed after
the induction for approximately 20 min. Participants were asked
about their difficulties and how they felt during the experiment. It
led them to discuss not only changes in their emotional state but
also changes in their way of thinking including the type of thoughts,
the duration and its perceived impact on their behaviours.
2.2. Procedure
Experiments were run individually. At their arrival, participants
were randomly assigned to one of the three induction conditions
and then filled the PANAS-X for the first time. After it, they were
induced, they filled the PANAS-X for the second time before being
interviewed about their feelings, thoughts etc. Finally, they were
thanked for their participation.
2.3. Results
2.3.1. Emotional manipulation checks
A repeated measure Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was con-
ducted on scores of sadness, joviality and attention, using the
condition (control, sad induction with the autobiographical recall,
sad induction with the imagery procedure) as the between-subjects
factor and the stage of the experiment (Panas 1 and Panas 2) as
within-subjects factor.
2.3.1.1. Sadness. Analysis revealed a significant effect of the condi-
tion (F(2,42) = 3,77; P < 0.05; 2 = 0.15; MControl = 5.62, MRecall = 7.40,
MImagery = 7.89). A main effect of the stage of the experiment was
45
found (F(1,42) = 14.32, P < 0.001; 2 = 0.25) with an increase of sad-
ness scores between the beginning and the end of the experiment
(MPanas1 = 6.11, MPanas2 = 7.83). Finally, the interaction between the
condition and the stage of experiment (F(2,42) = 8.65, P < 0.001;
2 = 0.29) was significant. Post-hoc analyses showed no differences
on scores of sadness after the neutral induction (t < 1; sad1 = 5.68;
sad2 = 5.56) and after the sad induction with the autobiographi-
cal recall (t(14) = −1.52; ns; sad1 = 6.93; sad2 = 7.86). Nevertheless,
after the sad induction with the imagery procedure, there was an
important increase of the score of sadness (t(13) = −3.36; P < 0.001;
sad1 = 5.71; sad2 = 10.07)
2.3.1.2. Joviality. Analysis showed no significant effect of the con-
dition (F < 1; MControl = 23.40, MRecall = 23.66, MImagery = 22.96). A
main effect of the stage of the experiment was found F(1,42) = 27.91,
P < 0.001; 2 = 0.39), indicating a decrease of the score of jovi-
ality after inductions (MPanas1 = 25.67, MPanas2 = 21.02). Finally,
there was an interaction between the condition and the stage of
experiment (F(2,42) = 5.70; P < 0.01; 2 = 0.21). Post-hoc analyses
indicated no differences on scores of joviality after the neutral
induction (t(15) = 1.07; ns; jov1 = 24.12; jov2 = 22.68). It appeared
a slight decrease of the score of joviality after the sad induction
with the autobiographical recall (t(14) = 2.61; P < 0.05; jov1 = 25.60;
jov2 = 21.70). Finally, after the sad induction with the imagery pro-
cedure, there was an important decrease of the score of joviality
(t(13) = 4.87; P < 0.001; jov1 = 27.28; jov2 = 18.64)
2.3.1.3. Attention. Analysis revealed no significant effect of the con-
dition (F < 1; MControl = 12.37, MImagery = 12, MRecall = 12). There was a
main effect of the stage of the experiment (F(1,42) = 20.20, P < 0.001;
2 = 0.32), which shows a higher score of attention before induc-
tion than after (MPanas1 = 12.89, MPanas2 = 11.35). Finally, there was
no interaction between the condition and the stage of experiment
(F(2,20) = 1.78, ns)
2.3.2. Post-experimental interviews
After the experiment, all participants were interviewed con-
cerning their emotions, their thoughts and perceived changes
due to the induction. First, participants who received a neu-
tral induction (controls) all explained they did not feel changes
after the induction. Because they had to focus on technical char-
acteristics of complex music pieces, all of them argued they
processed information related to music and instruments (e.g.
“Here, I hear a typical string instrument and it must be a violin”).
Finally, 68.75% of participants said that they sometimes dealt with
neutral factual thoughts (e.g. “There is a crow outside”) or with
prospective memory (e.g. “I must go to the bakery after the exper-
iment”).
Secondly, participants who received a sad induction with the
autobiographical recall all affirmed that they felt “sadder”, “in a
bad mood” and “nervous” after the induction. Nevertheless, they
all voluntarily recalled only slightly sad events as they found the
autobiographical recall intrusive and difficult. In consequence, 66%
of participants preferred to think about future events such as a
planned abroad-journey or the technical characteristics of music
excerpts.
Thirdly, participants who received a sad induction with
the imagery procedure all observed an important negative
change after induction as they felt “sadder”, “overwhelmed”,
“angry and disgusted” and “depressed”. For 84.61% of par-
ticipants, sad music excerpts helped in imagining dramatic
situations and in easily linking situations with dramatic per-
sonal events by creating a “heavy”, “moody” and “sad atmo-
sphere”. As a consequence, 92.85% of participants regularly and
durably focused on the true meaning of sentences and on
46 C. Pêcher et al. / Revue européenne de psychologie appliquée 61 (2011) 43–50
other personal things such as the death of one of their rel-
atives, a past separation with their lover, a personal failure,
etc.
2.4. Discussion
As a basis for the measurement of the impact of inattention,
due to sadness and ruminations, on attention functions, this pre-
liminary methodological study aimed to test the efficiency of
the autobiographical recall and the combined imagery vignettes
and music procedure to induce sadness and ruminations. Results
showed that only the combined imagery and music procedure
(Mayer et al., 1995) provoke an important increase of sadness
and simultaneously a decrease of joviality. Additionally, post-
interviews provided additional information on how participants
felt and on the nature of their thoughts. Whereas sad induction with
the autobiographical recall led participants to plan events as well
as to reason on the task or music, sad induction with the imagery
procedure provoked a durable self-focus attention on negative per-
sonal thoughts.
In sum, the imagery procedure appeared as the most efficient to
induce sadness and to initiate ruminations propitious to inatten-
tion. Thus, in our second experiment, this procedure was used again
to test the effects of inattention, due to sadness and ruminations,
on attention functions. Besides the sad induction, sad music was
presented while performing the ANT (Fan et al., 2002) to maintain
the previous induction effects.
3. Study 2: measurement of the impact of inattention on
attention functions
3.1. Method
3.1.1. Participants
Sixty-nine undergraduate students from the University of
Rennes 2 voluntarily participated in the experiment. The sam-
ple consisted of six males and 63 females, ranging from 19 to 24
years of age (mean = 19.20 years, S.D. = 1.18 years). All had normal or
corrected-to-normal vision. Participants were randomly assigned
to one of the four experimental conditions: control (n = 17), sad
induction in phase 1 (n = 19), sad induction in phase 2 (n = 19) and
both induction in phases 1 and 2 (n = 14).
3.1.2. Materials
3.1.2.1. Experimental inductions. Four experimental conditions
(control, sad induction in phase 1, sad induction in phase 2 and
induction in phases 1 and 2) were created by crossing two main
factors: the induction type (neutral or negative) and the presence
of sad music during the ANT session to maintain sadness and rumi-
nations (with or without). Both neutral and sad inductions were an
adapted version of the procedure developed by Mayer et al. (1995).
Neutral induction required the participant to read and think
about eight vignettes, presented consecutively, in a fixed order in
Microsoft Power Point running on a PC computer. Each vignette
lasted 60 s and described a non-emotional situation (e.g., “Words fly,
writings remain”). The neutral induction was used for two groups:
control (neutral induction and no music during the ANT) and sad
induction in phase 2 (neutral induction and sad music during the
experimental phase, i.e. the ANT).
Negative induction was the translated French version of the
original combined imagery vignette and music procedure devel-
oped by Mayer et al. (1995). For a detailed description of vignettes
and instructions, see Section 2. In the background, similarly to
Mayer et al. (1995), a sad music excerpt was presented to immedi-
ately reinforce the emotional effects (e.g., “Alexander Nevsky op.78,
Russia under the Mongol Yoke”, Prokofiev, 1939). The negative induc-
tion was used for two groups: sad induction in phase 1 (sad
induction and no music during the ANT) and induction in phases 1
and 2 (sad induction and sad music during the ANT).
3.1.2.2. Music during the ANT session. In the control and sad induc-
tion in phase 1 conditions, the ANT session was performed without
music.
On the contrary, in the sad induction in phase 2 only and induc-
tion in phases 1 and 2 conditions, the ANT was realized with sad
music in background (e.g., “Alexander Nevsky op.78, Russia under
the Mongol Yoke”, Prokofiev, 1939). In accordance with Pêcher et al.
(2009), music here was supposed to create a heavy and dramatic
background, propitious to ruminations.
3.1.2.3. Emotional self-rating scale. Emotional changes were
assessed using the Brief Mood Introspection Scale (BMIS, Mayer
and Gaschke, 1988). It consists of 16 adjectives covering eight
emotions: happiness, loving, energetic, calmness, tiredness, fear,
sadness and anger. Participants were instructed to rate each
adjective on a four-point Likert scale from 1 “definitively do not
feel” to 4 “definitively feel” on the basis of what they felt at the exact
time they were completing the questionnaire.
The pleasant–unpleasant scale was scored via subtraction by
firstly summing up scores for all pleasant moods (happiness, loving,
energy and calmness), then summing up scores for all unpleas-
ant moods (tiredness, fear, sadness and anger). The total score was
obtained by subtracting the unpleasant total from the pleasant
total. The Brief Mood Introspection Scale was completed three
times during the experiment: before the induction (BMIS 1), just
after the induction (BMIS 2) and after the ANT session (BMIS 3).
3.1.2.4. The Attention Network Test. The Attention Network Test
determines the efficiency of three independent attention functions:
alerting, orienting and conflict (for a more detailed presentation of
the ANT, see Fan et al., 2002). Response times are dependent on
alerting cues, orienting cues and flankers. Stimuli were presented
via PROLAB, a commercial experiment application, on a Windows-
PC, presenting to a 15-inch DELL monitor. Participants viewed the
screen from a distance of 65 cm, and responses were collected via
two input keys on the keyboard. Stimuli consisted of a row of five
arrows pointing left or right, against a grey background. Partic-
ipants were instructed to determine the direction of the central
arrow (the target) by pressing the “Q” key for the left direction and
the “M” key for the right direction. As shown in Supplementary
data, Fig. 1b, the target was flanked on either side by two arrows in
the same direction (congruent condition), in the opposite direction
(incongruent condition), or by lines (neutral condition).
The Supplementary data, Fig. 1c presented a sequence of events.
Each trial began with a fixation period for random variable duration
(400–1600 ms). Then, a warning cue was presented for 100 ms (for
cues, see Supplementary data, Fig. 1a). Alerting was due to the four
types of cue: a neutral cue, a central cue, a double cue and a spa-
tial cue. There was a fixation period for 400 ms after the warning
cue and then the target and its flankers appeared above or below
the fixation point, until the participant responded (no longer than
1700 ms). The central arrow and its flankers disappeared imme-
diately after the participant’s response and a last fixation period
began (variable duration based on the duration of the first fixa-
tion and RT) (3500 ms minus duration of the first fixation period
minus RT) before a new trial. The three effects were measured as
following:
Alerting = RTNo cue − RTDouble cue
Orienting = RTCentral cue − RTSpatial cue
Conflict = RTIncongruent − RTCongruent
 C. Pêcher et al. / Revue européenne de psychologie appliquée 61 (2011) 43–50
Fig. 1. Scores on the Brief Mood Introspection Scale at the three stages of the experiment (BMIS 1, BMIS 2 and BMIS 3) as a function of the four conditions (control, induction
in phase 1, induction in phase 2 and induction in phases 1 and 2).
3.2. Procedure
The experiment was run with each individual. Upon arrival,
the participant was randomly assigned to one of the four condi-
tions: control, sad induction in phase 1, sad induction in phase 2
and induction in phases 1 and 2. He rated the Brief Mood Intro-
spection Scale and received the neutral or sad induction (15 min
approximately). Just after it, he filled in the second BMIS before
being exposed to the ANT for 10 trials. Each participant was
instructed to focus on the central fixation point and to respond
as quickly and accurately as possible to the target. When the
training session ended, he began the experimental session for
96 trials. Sad music was added during the task for sad induc-
tion in phase 2 and sad induction in phases 1 and 2. After the
15-min ANT session, the participant filled in the third BMIS. A
debriefing took place and the participant was thanked for com-
ing.
3.3. Results
3.3.1. Emotional manipulation checks
Fig. 1 showed changes of BMIS scores as a function of induction
groups and stages of the experiment. A repeated measure ANOVA
was conducted by using the condition (control, induction in phase
1, induction in phase 2 and inductions in phases 1 and 2) as the
between-subjects factor and the stage of the experiment (BMIS 1,
BMIS 2 and BMIS 3) as within-subjects factor.
Analysis revealed no significant effect of the condition
(MControl = 14.47, MInduction 1 = 12.98, MRumination 2 = 17.84 and
MInduction 1 + 2 = 12.54; F < 1). A main effect of the stage of the
experiment was found (F(2,136) = 43.78, P < 0.001; 2 = 0.39). It
revealed a linear decrease in BMIS scores between the beginning
and the end of the experiment (MBMIS 1 = 19.30, MBMIS 2 = 13.42
and MBMIS 3 = 10.64; linear contrast: F(1,68) = 67.64; P < 0.001;
2 = 0.49), indicating that participants became sadder as the
experiment progressed. Finally, the interaction between condition
and stage of experiment (F(6,136) = 6.17, P < 0.001; 2 = 0.21)
was significant. To be clear, we detailed for each condition its
interaction with the stage of experiment factor.
3.3.1.1. Control. No differences between scores on the BMIS 1 and
the BMIS 2 were found (MBMIS 1 = 15.88, MBMIS 2 = 14; t < 1). Further-
more, no differences between scores on the BMIS 2 and the BMIS 3
were observed (MBMIS 3 = 13.52; t < 1). The emotional state was not
affected by the neutral induction as it remained stable for the entire
duration of the experiment.
47
3.3.1.2. Induction in phase 1. Statistical differences between scores
on the BMIS 1 and the BMIS 2 were found (MBMIS 1 = 18.65,
MBMIS 2 = 9.65, t(18) = 4.25, P < 0.001). However, differences
between scores on the BMIS 2 and the BMIS 3 were not significant
(MBMIS 3 = 10.7; t < 1). These results indicated that participants
were sadder just after the sad induction and stayed into it during
the ANT session.
3.3.1.3. Induction in phase 2. No significant differences between
scores on the BMIS 1 and the BMIS 2 were found (MBMIS 1 = 22.05,
MBMIS 2 = 20.36; t < 1). Nevertheless, differences between scores
on the BMIS 2 and the BMIS 3 were significant (MBMIS 3 = 11.10;
t(18) = 5.19, P < 0.001). The emotional state was not affected by the
neutral induction. However, sad music during the ANT led partici-
pants to be sadder.
3.3.1.4. Induction in phases 1 and 2. Statistical differences between
scores on the BMIS 1 and the BMIS 2 were found (MBMIS 1 = 20.62,
MBMIS 2 = 9.75; t(15) = 3.76, P < 0.001). Additionally, differences
between scores on the BMIS 2 and the BMIS 3 were significant
(MBMIS 3 = 7.25, BMIS 2–BMIS 3; t(15) = 2.20, P < 0.001). Here, par-
ticipants felt not only sadness after the negative induction but also
after the presentation of sad music during the ANT.
Sad imagery and music inductions were efficient as participant’s
emotional state was modified. Additionally, music during the task
reinforced the induction effects.
3.3.2. Performances on the ANT
Table 1 reports errors rates and mean reaction times (S.D.) for
the three attention functions (i.e., alerting, orienting and conflict) as
a function of the induction conditions. Error rates were very low in
all conditions. Because no group differences in error rates were evi-
dent, only mean proportions of errors averaged over groups were
presented.
We carried out a 4 (condition: controls, induction in phase 1,
induction in phase 2 and induction in phases 1 and 2) × 4 (Cue type:
no cue, centre cue, double cue, and spatial cue) × 3 (Flanker type:
neutral, congruent and incongruent) repeated measure ANOVA.
Firstly, analysis showed no significant effect of the condition (F < 1).
A main effect of Cue type was showed (F(3,195) = 63.59, P < 0.001;
2 = 0.49), demonstrating significant alerting (MDouble = 527.53 ms,
MNo cue = 558.83 ms, F(1,65) = 71.24, P < 0.001; 2 = 0.51), and
orienting effects (MCentral = 535.15 ms and MSpatial = 514.77 ms;
F(1,65) = 41.50, P < 0.001; 2 = 0.36). A main effect of Flanker type
was also observed (MNeutral = 516.93 ms, MCongruent = 517.87 ms and
MIncongruent = 567.41 ms; F(2,130) = 179.59, P < 0.001; 2 = 0.73),
48 C. Pêcher et al. / Revue européenne de psychologie appliquée 61 (2011) 43–50
Table 1
Mean RTs in milliseconds (S.D.) for the three attention functions and error rates in % in each induction condition (control, induction in phase 1, induction in phase 2, induction
in phases 1 and 2).
Induction conditions
Control
Alerting
Double 510.49 (67.80)
No cue 542.45 (58.17)
Difference −31.96
Orienting
Spatial 501.54 (67.04)
Central 524.60 (63.40)
Difference −23.06
Conflict
Congruent 502.69 (66.74)
Incongruent 553.98 (63.80)
Difference −51.29
Error rates in % (S.D.) 1.16 (0.32)
indicating a conflict effect (F(1,65) = 320.18, P < 0.001; 2 = 0.72). A
significant interaction between Cue type and Flanker type was also
observed (F(6,390) = 5.49, P < 0.001; 2 = 0.17). RTs were longer in
the no-cue condition compared to others cued conditions. Addi-
tionally, RTs increased in all Cue type conditions for incongruent
flankers, compared to neutral and congruent flankers. There were
no significant interactions between condition and Cue type factors
(F < 1), as well as between condition and Flanker type factors
(F < 1). Finally, there was no triple interaction between condition,
Cue type and Flanker type factors (F < 1). Because we interested in
the effects of inattention on the three attention functions for each
condition, complementary analyses were performed and results
are displayed for the four conditions independently.
3.3.2.1. Control. An alerting effect was found (F(1,16) = 48.83,
P < 0.001; 2 = 0.75), with faster responses for double cue condi-
tions (510.49 ms) compared to no cue conditions (542.45 ms). There
was also an orienting effect (F(1,16) = 11.89, P < 0.001; 2 = 0.42)
with shorter reactions times for spatial cue conditions (501.54 ms)
compared to central cue conditions (524.60 ms). Finally, a conflict
effect was found (F(1,16) = 125.80, P < 0.001; 2 = 0.88) with shorter
reactions times for congruent trials (502.69 ms) compared to incon-
gruent trials (553.98 ms).
3.3.2.2. Induction in phase 1. An alerting effect was observed
(F(1,18) = 14.03, P < 0.001; 2 = 0.43) with shorter responses for
double cue conditions (518.92 ms) compared to no cue condi-
tions (541.40 ms). There was an orienting effect (F(1,18) = 18.97,
P < 0.001; 2 = 0.51) with shorter reaction times for spatial
cue conditions (493.05 ms) compared to central cue conditions
(517.71 ms) Finally, there was a conflict effect (F(1,18) = 127.23,
P < 0.001; 2 = 0.87) with shorter reaction times for congruent tri-
als (516.64 ms) compared to incongruent trials (551.77 ms). In the
present study, the negative induction did not affect any of the three
attention functions.
3.3.2.3. Induction in phase 2. An alerting effect was found
(F(18) = 24.65; P < 0.001; 2 = 0.57) with shorter reactions
times for double cue conditions (524.24 ms) compared to no
cue conditions (558.38 ms). Secondly, an orienting effect was
found (F(1,18) = 28.46; P < 0.001; 2 = 0.61) with shorter reac-
tion times in spatial cue conditions (511.73 ms) compared to
central cue conditions (541.01 ms). Finally, a conflict effect was
observed (F(1,18) = 95.96; P < 0.001; 2 = 0.84) with shorter
reaction times for congruent trials (518.55 ms) compared
to incongruent trials (567.18 ms). Again, the presentation of
Induction in phase 1 Induction in phase 2 Induction in phases 1 and 2
518.92 (87.62) 524.24 (81.31) 556.31 (80.90)
541.40 (72.10) 558.38 (79.79) 593.08 (96.19)
−22.48 −34.14 −36.77
493.05 (92.54) 511.73 (73.72) 552.77 (93.58)
517.71 (82.85) 541.01 (76.37) 557.26 (80.10)
−24.66 −29.28 −4.49
516.64 (67.06) 518.55 (68.39) 547.15 (86.44)
551.77 (85.77) 567.18 (71.96) 596.71 (82.01)
−35.13 −48.63 −49.56
1.20 (0.31) 1.26 (0.31) 1.38 (0.34)
music during the task did not affect any of the three attention
functions.
3.3.2.4. Induction in phases 1 and 2. An alerting effect was found
(F(13) = 9.36, P < 0.001; 2 = 0.42) with shorter reactions in dou-
ble cue conditions (556.31 ms) compared to no cue conditions
(593.08 ms). There was no more orienting effect, F < 1 with simi-
lar reaction times in spatial cue conditions (552.77 ms) compared
to central cue conditions (557.26 ms). Finally, a conflict effect was
observed (F(1,13) = 95.96, P < 0.001; 2 = 0.73) with shorter reac-
tions for congruent trials (547.15 ms) compared to incongruent
trials (596.71 ms). Interestingly, the combination of the sad induc-
tion and the presentation of sad music during the task degraded
only the orienting function.
The three attention functions were tested using the ANT in the
four induction conditions. In the control condition, we replicated
results by Fan et al. (2002). In the three other induction conditions,
analyses on mean reaction times indicated that alerting and conflict
were not affected. Nevertheless, orienting was deteriorated only in
the induction in phases 1- and 2-condition.
4. General discussion
In this paper, we investigated the consequences of inattention,
due to sadness and ruminations, on attention functions. Inattention
was firstly defined as a dysfunction of selective attention, emerg-
ing from an endogenous orientation of the attention control, and
involving deteriorations on performances (Lemercier and Cellier,
2008; Posner, 1980). With regards to the literature on emotions,
it was suggested that inattention would be encouraged in spe-
cific emotional states such as sadness, associated with ruminations.
Therefore, in a preliminary study, different emotional induction
procedures were used to create a propitious situation to inatten-
tion. Results have showed that the combined imagery and music
procedure, compared to the autobiographical recall, was the most
efficient to induce sadness and to initiate ruminations, propitious to
inattention. In a second study, the effects of inattention on atten-
tion functions, i.e alerting, orienting and conflict, were tested by
performing the Attention Network Test (Fan et al., 2002). Because
inattention reflects a durable endogenous orientation of attention
on thoughts, we thus hypothesized that it would degrade princi-
pally the orienting function.
First, considering methodological matters, analyses revealed
that after the sad induction with the imagery procedure (phase
1), scores to BMIS highly decreased, showing that participants
were sadder. Also, participants’ reports attested that this effect was
 C. Pêcher et al. / Revue européenne de psychologie appliquée 61 (2011) 43–50
strengthened when sad music was presented all along the ANT ses-
sion (phase 2). Music not only evokes emotions in listeners (Juslin
et al., 2008; Krumhansl, 1997; Västfjäll, 2002; Pikler, 1961) but also
creates a favourable environment for self-focus and ruminations
(Mayer et al., 1995; Sutherland et al., 1982). Thus, the combination
of the imagery procedure and music while performing the task are
relevant and useful to create inattention.
Second, with regards to reaction times in the control condition
while performing the ANT, we replicated the effects on the alerting,
orienting and executive networks, as primarily found by Fan et al.
(2002). In the control condition (neutral induction, no music during
the ANT), an alerting effect was observed (31 ms), indicating that
double cues activate the nervous system and help in detecting the
target, compared to the no cue situation. An orienting effect was
also found (23 ms), giving evidence that the target is more rapidly
detected when the cue is spatial rather than central. Finally, a con-
flict effect was observed (51 ms), pointing that participants are able
to detect conflict between items and to resolve it more rapidly when
flankers are congruent with the target rather than incongruent. Our
results support the idea that the ANT is reliable and valid to study
independently the three attention functions. It also highlighted that
the control group is a reference group to which we may compare
the three other induction conditions.
The most important point of discussion concerns the deterio-
ration of the orienting effect only for the induction in phases 1-
and 2-condition. Here, participants were negatively induced and
sadness was maintained during the task with music to provoke a
ruminative process, propitious to inattention (Conway et al., 2000;
Joorman and Gotlib, 2008; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991). Interestingly,
analysis revealed that their reaction times in central and spatial
cue conditions were similar. In the ANT, spatial cues are supposed
to inform about the potential target location whereas central cues
only warn about the target arrival. In our study, results showed that
inattentive participants were ready to detect the target as the alert-
ing function was not affected. In addition, they were able to resolve
conflict between items as the executive control was not deterio-
rated. As a consequence, spatiality is a very specific dilemma while
inattentive: participants saw the spatial cue but did not expect
anything about it with regards to the target location.
It has been previously demonstrated that sadness affects cog-
nition in many ways as it tends to promote a local and bottom-up
information processing (Clore and Palmer, 2009), where attention
focus is on available immediate information (Power and Dalgleish,
2008; Silvia et al., 2005). Future event anticipation is consequently
degraded. In our experiment, we hypothesize that spatial cues have
actually been seen, similarly to other cues but the informative
nature on spatiality has not been used to anticipate the target loca-
tion. In sum, information was partially processed when inattentive.
In a dynamic and complex situation requiring spatial attention such
as driving, implications are severe. In case of inattention due to sad-
ness and ruminations, road signs using spatial information to warn
about dangers and future events (e.g., arrival at a new place, lane
changes, and motorway exits) could not be processed and have dra-
matic consequences on traffic. In further research, a replication of
this study in a simulated environment would help in verifying the
influence of inattention on driving parameters.
An alternative explanation of this deficit of the orienting func-
tion when inattentive may be expressed in terms of degradations
to the ability to switch from one source to another source of infor-
mation (Kessler et al., 2009; Logan, 2005; Ruthworth et al., 2005).
Because they ruminate, inattentive people focus their attention
on their thoughts and disengage it with difficulties to a different
stimulus (Leung et al., 2009; Philippot and Brutoux, 2008).
In summary, there were fairly consistent effects of inattention
on the orienting effect. When people are sad and ruminate, they
are likely to be inattentive. This state leads to a deterioration of
49
spatial information processing. The study also emphasized the need
to distinguish inattention from other attention deficits. The real
challenge now is to provide a better understanding of the role of
inattention in driving performances. Therefore, further research
is required to replicate findings with alternative methods and to
extend results to a simulated driving environment.
Conflicts of interest statement
There is no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
The study was performed as part of the French National Project
PREDIT-DACOTA AR2 “Défauts d’attention en conduite automobile”
(2005–2008). The support of the Agence Nationale de la recherche
(ANR) is then gratefully acknowledged. Additionally, the authors
would like to express their gratitude to contributors and members
of the European project Subvention FEDER for their support.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.erap.2010.10.003.
References
Adólfsdóttir, S., Sørensen, L., Lundervold, A.J., 2008. The attention network test: a
characteristic pattern of deficits in children with ADHD. Behavioural and Brain
Functions 4, 9.
Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A., Ball, R., Ranieri W, 1996. Comparison of Beck Depression Inven-
tories -IA and -II in psychiatric outpatient. Journal of Personality Assessment 67,
588–597.
Brewer, D., Doughtie, E.B., Lubin, B., 1980. Induction of mood and mood shift. Journal
of Clinical Psychology 36, 215–226.
Clark, D.M., 1983. On the induction of depressed mood in the laboratory: the
evaluation and comparison of the Velten and musical procedure. Advances in
Behavioural Research and Therapy 5, 27–49.
Clore, G.L., Palmer, J., 2009. Affective guidance of intelligent agents: how emotion
controls cognition. Cognitive Systems Research 10, 21–30.
Conway, M., Csank, P.A.R., Holm, S.L., Blake, C.K., 2000. On assessing individual dif-
ferences in rumination on sadness. Journal of Personality Assessment 75 (3),
404–425.
Fan, J., McCandliss, D., Sommer, T., Raz, A., Posner, M.I., 2002. Testing the efficiency
and the independance of attentional networks. Journal of Cognitive Neuro-
sciences 19 (1–2), 340–347.
Frijda, N.H., 1986. The Emotions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Gerrards-Hesse, A., Spies, K., Hesse, F., 1994. Experimental induction of emotional
states and their effectiveness: a review. British Journal of Psychology 85, 55–78.
Gilet, A.-L., 2008. Procédures d’induction d’humeurs en laboratoire : une revue cri-
tique. [Mood induction procedures: a critical review]. L’Encéphale 34, 233–239.
Huffziger, S., Kuehner, C., 2009. Rumination, distraction, and mindful self-focus in
depressed patients. Behaviour Research and Therapy 47, 224–230.
Joorman, J., Gotlib, I.H., 2008. Updating the contents of working memory in
depression: interference from irrelevant negative material. Journal of Abnormal
Psychology 117 (1), 182–192.
Joorman, J., Yoon, K.R., Zetsche, U., 2007. Cognitive inhibition in depression. Applied
and Preventive Psychology 12, 128–139.
Juslin, P.N., Liljeström, S., Västfjäll, D., Barradas, G., Silva, A., 2008. An experience
sampling study of emotional reactions to music: listener, music and situation.
Emotion 8 (5), 668–683.
Kessler, Y., Shencar, Y., Meiran, N., 2009. Choosing to switch: spontaneous task
switching despite associated behavioral costs. Acta Psychologica 131 (9),
120–128.
Krumhansl, C., 1997. An exploratory study of musical emotions and psychophysiol-
ogy. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology 51 (4), 336–352.
Lazarus, R.S., 1991. Emotion and Adaptation. Oxford University Press, New York.
Lemercier, C., Cellier, J.M., 2008. Les défauts de l’attention en conduite automo-
bile : inattention, distraction, et interférence [Attention deficits in car driving:
inattention, distraction, and interference]. Le travail humain 71 (3), 271–296.
Leung, K.-K., Lee, T.M.C., Yip, P., Li, L.S.W., Wong, M.M.C., 2009. Selective attention
biases of people with depression: positive and negative priming of depression-
related information. Psychiatry Research 165, 241–251.
Logan, G.D., 2005. The time it takes to switch attention. Psychonomic Bulletin and
Review 12, 647–653.
Martin, M., 1990. On the induction of mood. Clinical Psychology Review 10, 669–697.
Mayer, J.D., Gaschke, Y.N., 1988. The experience and meta-experience of mood.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55, 102–111.
50 C. Pêcher et al. / Revue européenne de psychologie appliquée 61 (2011) 43–50
Mayer, J.D., Allen, J.P., Beauregard, K., 1995. Mood induction for four specific moods:
a procedure employing guided imagery vignettes with music. Journal of Mental
Imagery 19 (1–2), 133–150.
McLaughlin, K.A., Borkovec, T.D., Sibrava, N.J., 2007. The effects of worry and rumi-
nation on affect states and cognitive activity. Behavior Therapy 38, 23–38.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., 1991. Responses to depression and their effects on the duration
of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 100 (4), 569–582.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., 2000. The role of rumination in depressive disorders and
mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 109,
504–511.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Lyubomirsky, S., Wisco, B.E., 2008. Rethinking rumination. Per-
spectives on Psychological Science 3, 400–424.
Odludas, Y., Posner, M.I., Dishion, T.J., 2008. Functional MRI of attention and language
in adolescent chronic marijuana abuse. International Journal of Psychophysiol-
ogy 69 (3), 209–210.
Pêcher, C., Lemercier, C., Cellier, J.M., 2009. Emotions drive attention: effects on
driver’s attention. Safety Science 47 (9), 1254–1259.
Philippot, P., Brutoux, F., 2008. Induced rumination dampens executive processes in
dysphoric young adults. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychi-
atry 39 (3), 219–227.
Pikler, A.G., 1961. Music as an aid in psychotherapy. Acta Psychologica 18, 317–333.
Posner, M.I., 1980. Orienting of attention. The Quaterly Journal of Experimental
Psychology 32, 3–25.
Power, M., Dalgleish, T., 2008. Cognition and Emotion: from Order to Disorder. Psy-
chology Press, Hove, UK, New York, USA.
Redick, T.S., Engle, R.W., 2006. Working memory capacity and Attention Network
Test performance. Applied Cognitive Psychology 20, 713–721.
Ruthworth, M.F.S., Passingham, R.E., Nobre, A.C., 2005. Components of attentional
set-switching. Experimental Psychology 52 (2), 83–98.
Scherrer, M.C., Dobson, K.S., 2009. Predicting responsiveness to a depressive mood
induction procedure. Journal of Clinical Psychology 65, 20–35.
Silvia, P.J., Eichstaedt, J., Phillips, A.G., 2005. Are rumination and reflection types
of self-focused attention? Personality and Individual Differences 38, 871–
881.
Sutherland, G., Rachman, S., Newman, B., 1982. Experimental investigations of the
relations between mood and intrusive, unwanted cognitions. British Journal of
Medical Psychology 55, 127–138.
Västfjäll, D., 2002. Emotion induction throughout music: a review of the musi-
cal mood induction procedure. Musicae Scientiae 6 (Special Issue 2001/2002),
171–203.
Velten, E., 1968. A laboratory task for induction of mood states. Behavioral Research
and Therapy 6, 473–482.
Wang, K., Fan, J., Dong, Y., Wang, C.Q., Lee, T.M.C., Posner, M.I., 2005. Selective
impairment of attentional networks of orienting and executive control in
schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 78 (2–3), 235–241.
Watkins, E., Teadale, E., 2001. Adaptive and maladaptive self-focus in depression.
Journal of Affective Disorders 82, 1–8.
Watson, D., Clark, L.A., 1999. The PANAS X: Manual for the Positive Affect and Neg-
ative Affect Schedule-Expanded Form. Unpublished Manuscript. University of
Iowa, Iowa City.