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MATH2620: Fluid Dynamics 1: School of Mathematics, University of Leeds
MATH2620: Fluid Dynamics 1: School of Mathematics, University of Leeds
• A.I. Ruban & J.S.B. Gajjar: Fluid dynamics. Part 1, Classical fluid dynamics, OUP,
2014. (Recommended)
• P.K. Kundu & I.M Cohen: Fluid mechanics, AP, 2002. (Electronic resource)
Module summary:
Fluid dynamics is the science of the motion of materials that flow, e.g. liquid or gas. Under-
standing fluid dynamics is a real mathematical challenge which has important implications
in an enormous range of fields in science and engineering, from physiology, aerodynamics,
climate, etc., to astrophysics.
This course gives an introduction to fundamental concepts of fluid dynamics. It includes a
formal mathematical description of fluid flows (e.g. in terms of ODEs) and the derivation
of their governing equations (PDEs), using elementary techniques from calculus and vector
calculus. This theoretical background is then applied to a series of simple flows (e.g. bath-plug
vortex or stream past a sphere), giving students a feel for how fluids behave, and experience
in modelling everyday phenomena.
A wide range of courses, addressing more advanced concepts in fluid dynamics, with a variety
of applications (polymers, astrophysical and geophysical fluids, stability and turbulence),
follows on naturally from this introductory course.
Objectives:
This course demonstrates the importance of fluid dynamics and how interesting physical
phenomena can be understood using rigorous, yet relatively simple, mathematics. But, it also
provides students with a general framework to devise models of real-world problems, using
relevant theories. Students will learn how to use methods of applied mathematics to derive
approximate solutions to given problems and to have a critical view on these results.
Course Outline:
• Vorticity.
• Potential flow.
• Euler’s equation.
• Bernoulli’s equation.
• Lift forces.
iii
Lectures:
• You should read through and understand your notes before the next lecture... otherwise
you will get hopelessly lost.
• If you feel that the module is too difficult, or that you are spending too much time on
it, please come and talk to me.
• Please, do not wait until the end of term to give a feedback if you are unhappy with
some aspects of the module.
Lecture notes:
• Detailed lecture notes can be downloaded from the module’s website. You can print and
use them in the lecture if you wish; however, the notes provided should only be used as
a supplement, not as an alternative to your personal notes.
• These printed notes are an adjunct to lectures and are not meant to be used indepen-
dently.
• Examples will help you to understand the material taught in the lectures and will give
you practice on the types of questions that will be set in the examination. It is very
important that you try them before the example classes.
• There will be only two, yet quite demanding, pieces of coursework (mid and end of term
deadlines). Your work will be marked and returned to you with a grade from 1-100.
Notations 1
3 Vorticity 19
3.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Physical meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3 Streamfunction and vorticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4 The Rankine vortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.5 Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.6 Examples of vortex lines (vortices) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4 Potential flows 27
4.1 Velocity potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2 Kinematic boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.3 Elementary potential flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.3.1 Source and sink of fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.3.2 Line vortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3.3 Uniform stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3.4 Dipole (doublet flow) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.4 Properties of Laplace’s equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
v
vi CONTENTS
5 Euler’s equation 39
5.1 Fluid momentum equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.1.1 Forces acting on a fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.1.2 Newton’s law of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.2 Hydrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.3 Archimedes’ theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.4 The vorticity equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.5 Kelvin’s circulation theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.6 Shape of the free surface of a rotating fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6 Bernoulli’s equation 47
6.1 Bernoulli’s theorem for steady flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.2 Bernoulli’s theorem for potential flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.3 Drag force on a sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.4 Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.5 Unsteady flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.5.1 Flows in pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.5.2 Bubble oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.6 Acceleration of a sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
8 Lift forces 71
8.1 Two-dimensional thin aerofoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.2 Kutta-Joukowski theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.3 Lift produced by a spinning cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.4 Origin of circulation around a wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.5 Three-dimensional aerofoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
A Vector calculus 75
A.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
A.2 Suffix notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
A.3 Vector differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
A.3.1 Differential operators in Cartesian coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
A.3.2 Differential operators polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
CONTENTS vii
In fluid dynamics, it is crucial to distinguish vectors from scalars. In these lecture notes we
shall represent vectors and vector fields using bold fonts, e.g. A and u(x). Other commonly
used notations for vectors include A ~ or A (used in the lecture). A vector A, of components
A1 , A2 and A3 in the basis {ê1 , ê2 , ê3 }, will interchangeably be written as a column or row
vector,
A1
A = A2 = (A1 , A2 , A3 ) = A1 ê1 + A2 ê2 + A3 ê3 .
A2
Three main systems of coordinates will be used throughout to represent points in a three
dimensional space, Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) with x, y and z in R; cylindrical polar
coordinates (r, θ, z) with r ∈ [0, ∞), θ ∈ [0, 2π) and z ∈ R; and spherical polar coordinates
(r, θ, ϕ) with r ∈ [0, ∞), θ ∈ [0, π] and ϕ ∈ [0, 2π). Cylindrical polar coordinates reduce to
plane polar coordinates (r, θ) in two dimensions. The vector position r ≡ x of a point in a
three dimensional space will be written as
using the orthonormal basis {êx , êy , êz }, {êr , êθ , êz } and {êr , êθ , êϕ } respectively. Notice
p √
that kxk = x + y + z 2 in Cartesian coordinates, kxk = r2 + z 2 in cylindrical coordinates
2 2
For the sake of simplicity, we shall write integrals of multivariable functions as single integrals,
e.g. we shall use
ZZZ Z ZZ Z
f (x) dV ≡ f (x) dV or u(x) · n dS ≡ u(x) · n dS,
V V S S
for the volume integral of f in V and for the flux of u through the surface S with normal
vector n, respectively.
1
2 CONTENTS
Unless otherwise stated, we shall use the following naming conventions: ψ for planar stream-
functions and Ψ for Stokes’ streamfunctions; φ for the velocity potential; Ω for angular ve-
locity; ω for the vector vorticity and ω for its magnitude; Γ for fluid circulation; Q for the
volume flux; g for the vector gravity and g for its magnitude; p for pressure and patm for
atmospheric pressure; H for the Bernoulli function.
Chapter 1
Contents
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1 Introduction
Fluid dynamics (or fluid mechanics) is the study of the motion of liquids, gases and plasmas
(e.g. water, air, interstellar plasma) which have no large scale structure and can be deformed
to an unlimited extent (in contrast with solids).
It is an old subject (Newton, Euler, Lagrange) but still a very active research area, e.g.
These fluids differ widely in their physical properties (e.g. density, temperature, viscosity)
and in the time- and length-scales of their motion. However, they are all governed by the
same physical laws (e.g. Newton’s law of motion), which can be mathematically formalised
in terms of differential equations for scalar and vector fields.
3
4 1.1 Introduction
a d
δV
• If d lm (molecular scale) then δV contains many molecules and the fluctuations due
to individual motions are averaged out.
• If d a (macroscopic scale) then δV is approximately a point in space.
ū
d
lm a
Hence, if lm d a, the average velocity ū is a smooth function of position, independent
of d.
Continuum hypothesis. Molecular details can be smoothed out by assigning the velocity
at a point P to be the average velocity in a fluid element δV centred in P . Thus, we can
define the velocity field u(x, t) as a smooth function (shock waves break this assumption),
differentiable and integrable.
mass in δV
Similarly, ρ(x, t) = is the local density of mass.
δV
y
2
+y x2
x = y êx − x êy , where r2 = x2 + y 2 .
u=
− 2 2
x +y r
2 r2
0
1.2 Kinematics
(Ref.: Paterson,
§III.2)
In the first four chapters of the course we shall concentrate solely on kinematic properties of
fluid flows, i.e. on properties of fluid velocity fields, ignoring the causes of motion. Dynamics
(effects of forces) will be covered in subsequent chapters.
We shall first answer the question “How can we visualise fluid motion?”
Since the particle is suspended in the fluid, its velocity will be equal to that of the fluid. Hence
the particle position, x(t), satisfies the system of first order ODEs and Initial Conditions
dx
= u(x, t) with x = x0 at t = t0 , (1.1)
dt
or, equivalently, in Cartesian components form
6 1.2 Kinematics
dx dy dz
= u(x, y, z, t), = v(x, y, z, t), = w(x, y, z, t), (1.2)
dt dt dt
with the initial conditions x = x0 , y = y0 and z = z0 at t = t0 .
A particle path is a line of equation x(t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)), parametrised by the variable
time t.
u(x(t1 ), t1 )
u(x0 , t0 )
u(x(t2 ), t2 )
1.2.2 Streamlines
A streamline is a line everywhere tangent to the local fluid velocity, at some instant. At
fixed time t, the equation of the streamline x(s, t) = (x(s, t), y(s, t), z(s, t)), parametrised by
a parameter s (“distance” along the streamline, say), is
dx dx dy dz
= u(x, t) ⇔ = u, = v, = w, (1.3)
ds ds ds ds
in Cartesian components form or, equivalently,
dx dy dz
= = (= ds), (1.4)
u v w
since equations (1.3) are separable as u(x, t) is not explicitly function of s. (Notice that dx/ds
is the vector tangent to the line x(s).)
Example 1.3 (Stagnation point flow) x
Calculate the streamline passing through (x0 , y0 , 0) in the stagnation point flow u = −y .
0
dx dy
= ⇒ ln |x| = − ln |y| + C ⇒ xy = A = x0 y0 ,
x −y
Example 1.4 U0
Consider the time dependent flow u(t) = kt , where U0 and k are constants.
0
• Particle paths:
dx dy dz
= U0 , = kt, = 0,
dt dt dt
k
⇒ x(t) = U0 t + x0 , y(t) = t2 + y0 , z(t) = z0 , if x = x0 at t = t0 .
2
y
x = U s + x ⇒ s = x − x0 ,
dx dy 0 0 kt
= U0 , = kt ⇒ U0 ⇒y= (x − x0 ) + y0 .
ds ds y = kts + y , U0
0
At t = 0, streamlines are horizontal lines y = y0 ; at later time t > 0, they are straight
lines of gradient kt/U0 .
1.2.3 Streaklines
Instead of releasing a single particle at x0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) at t = t0 , say (case of particle path
tracing), release a continuous stream of dye at that point.
The dye will move around and define a curve given by {x(t0 , t)}, the position of fluid elements
that passed through x0 at some time t0 , prior to the current time t.
A streakline is the line x(t0 , t) for which
∂x
= u(x, t) with x = x0 at t = t0 . (1.5)
∂t
At t fixed, streaklines are lines parametrised by t0 . The point where the parameter t0 = t
corresponds to x0 , the locus of the source of dye.
8 1.2 Kinematics
Steady flows: For time-independent flows, which therefore satisfy ∂u/∂t = 0, particle
paths, streamlines and streaklines are identical. This is not true for unsteady flows in general.
Example 1.5
• Steady flow:
x
∂x ∂y ∂z
u(x) = −y ⇒ = x, = −y, = 0,
∂t ∂t ∂t
0
⇒ x(t0 , t) = A(t0 ) et , y(t0 , t) = B(t0 ) e−t , z(t0 , t) = C(t0 ).
At t = t0 , x = x0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ), so
x0 = Aet0 , y0 = Be−t0 , z0 = C,
−t0 t0
⇒A = x0 e , B = y0 e , C = z0 .
Hence,
x(t0 , t) = x0 e(t−t0 ) , y(t0 , t) = y0 e−(t−t0 ) , z(t0 , t) = z0 .
• Unsteady flow:
U0
u(t) = kt with U0 and k constants, Particle path (particle
0 released at t=0)
⇒ x(t0 , t) = x0 + U0 (t − t0 ),
k
and y(t0 , t) = y0 + (t2 − t20 ). (x0 , y0 )
2
Streamline at t=0
k
At t = 0, x(t0 , 0) = x0 −U0 t0 and y(t0 , 0) = y0 − t20 .
2
Eliminating t0 , one obtains the equation of a
parabola with negative curvature Streakline at t=0
k
y − y0 = − (x − x0 )2 .
2U02
Steady flows. In steady flows (i.e. flows such that ∂u/∂t = 0), the rate of change of f
following a fluid particle becomes
Df
= (u · ∇) f.
Dt
Furthermore, since particle paths and streamlines are identical for time-independent flows,
Df df
= kuk (ês · ∇) f = kuk
Dt ds
where s denotes the distance along the streamlines x(s) and ês is the unit vector parallel to
the streamlines, in the direction of the flow.
So, in steady flows, (u · ∇) f = 0 implies that f is constant along streamlines — the constant
can take different values for different streamlines however.
Chapter 2
Contents
2.1 Conservation of mass: the continuity equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Incompressible fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Two-dimensional flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Axisymmetric flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
MV can only change if mass is carried inside or outside the volume by the fluid.
The mass flowing through the surface per unit time (i.e. the mass flux) is
dMV
Z
− ρu·n dS = .
S dt
So,
d ∂ρ
Z Z Z
− ρu·n dS = ρ dV = dV, since V is fixed.
S dt V V ∂t
Applying the divergence theorem,
Z
∂ρ ∂ρ
Z Z
dV = − ∇·(ρu) dV ⇔ + ∇·(ρu) dV = 0.
V ∂t V V ∂t
11
12 2.2 Incompressible fluids
Since V is arbitrary, this equation must hold for all volume V . Thus, the continuity equation
∂ρ
+ ∇·(ρu) = 0 (2.1)
∂t
holds at all points in the fluid. Expand the divergence as ∇·(ρu) = ρ∇·u + u·∇ρ to derive
the Lagrangian form of the continuity equation
Dρ
+ ρ∇·u = 0. (2.2)
Dt
The density of a fluid particle, which moves with the fluid, only changes if there is an expansion
(i.e. divergence such that ∇·u > 0) or a contraction (i.e. convergence such that ∇·u < 0) of
the flow.
∇·u<0 ∇·u>0
∇ · u = 0, (2.3)
which means that the fluid velocity can be expressed in the form
u = ∇ × S, (2.4)
for some vector field S(x, t). Indeed, since ∇ · (∇ × F) = 0 for any vector field F, the flow
defined by equation (2.4) satisfies the continuity equation (2.3).
For the rest of this course we shall assume that ρ is constant. (So, the fluid is incompressible
and therefore ∇ · u = 0.) This is a good approximation in many circumstances, e.g. water
and very subsonic air flows.
2.3.1 Streamfunctions
∂ψ ∂ψ
u = ∇× (ψ êz ) ⇒ u= and v = − . (2.6)
∂y ∂x
∂u ∂v ∂2ψ ∂2ψ
∇·u= + = − = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂x∂y ∂y∂x
dψ ∂ψ dx ∂ψ dy dx dy dx
=0⇔ + = −v +u =u× = 0,
ds ∂x ds ∂y ds ds ds ds
where dx/ds is a vector tangent to the curve x(s). So, u is tangent to the curve where ψ
remains constant which is therefore a streamline.
Example 2.1
U0
Consider the 2-D flow u = , with U0 and k constants. Since ∇·u = 0, one can define
kt
the streamfunction
ψ(x, y, t) = U0 y − ktx + C,
where C is an arbitrary constant of integration. The value assigned to C does not affect the
flow, so we shall usually take C = 0 without loss of generality.
The streamfunction is constant along the lines ψ = U0 y − ktx = C, where C is a constant
identifying streamlines. So, the streamlines are lines of equation
kt C dy kt
y= x+ with gradient = .
U0 U0 dx U0
y
Example 2.2 2 2
x + y
The flow defined as u = is incompressible since
−x
x2 + y 2
∂u ∂v −2xy (−2y)(−x)
∇·u = + = 2 + = 0.
∂x ∂y 2 2
(x + y ) (x2 + y 2 )2
14 2.3 Two-dimensional flows
∂ψ y 1 2y 1
⇒ ψ(x, y) = ln x2 + y 2 + α(x).
So, =u= 2 2
= 2 2
∂y x +y 2x +y 2
∂ψ x dα dα
Then v = − =− 2 + ⇒ = 0. So, α is constant and
∂x x + y2 dx dx
1
ψ(x, y) = ln x2 + y 2
(choosing α = 0).
2
So, in plane polar coordinates, substituting S = ψ(r, θ, t) êz in u = ∇ × S for 2-D incompress-
ible flows gives
1 ∂ψ ∂ψ
u = ∇× (ψ êz ) ⇒ ur = , uθ = − . (2.7)
r ∂θ ∂r
Example 2.3 p
For the streamfunction ψ = ln x2 + y 2 = ln r, ur = 0 and uθ = −1/r. The streamlines are
circles about the origin with |uθ | decreasing as r increases. This is a reasonable model for a
bath-plug vortex.
êθ
uθ
r
P ψ = ψP
The flow rate or the volume flux through an arbitrary curve C : (x(s), y(s)), parametrised by
s ∈ [0, 1] and connecting P and T , is
Z 1
Q= u · n ds. (2.8)
0
Chapter 2 – Mass conservation & streamfunction 15
dx dy
Let dl = dxêx + dyêy = ds êx + êy be an infinitesimal
ds ds
displacement along the curve C. The infinitesimal vector normal
dl dy to dl is therefore
(x(s), y(s))
C dx dy dx
n ds = dyêx − dxêy = êx − êy ds.
nds ds ds
So,
1 1 ψT
∂ψ dy ∂ψ dx dψ
Z Z Z
Q= + ds = ds = dψ = ψT − ψP .
0 ∂y ds ∂x ds 0 ds ψP
Hence, the flux of fluid flowing between two streamlines is equal to the difference in the
streamfunction. Consequently, if streamlines are close to one another the flow must be fast.
Equivalently, the equation kuk = k∇ψk shows that the speed of the flow increases with the
gradient of the streamfunction, that is when the distance between two streamlines decreases.
in cylindrical polar coordinates, have only two non-zero components and two effective coor-
dinates.
A flow in a circular pipe or a flow past a sphere are examples of flows with axial symmetry.
êr
êz
i. Ψ is constant on streamlines.
∂Ψ ∂Ψ 1 ∂Ψ ∂Ψ
(u · ∇) Ψ = ur + uz = rur + ruz ,
∂r ∂z r ∂r ∂z
1 ∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ
− + = 0.
r ∂z ∂r ∂r ∂z
Thus, Ψ is constant in the direction of the flow.
Ψo Co
S
Ψi Ci
n
Proof.
1
Z Z
Q= u · n dS = ∇× Ψ êθ · n dS, (definition of Ψ)
S r
IS
1 1
I
= Ψ êθ · dl + Ψ êθ · dl, (Stokes’ theorem)
Co r Ci r
1 1
I I
= Ψo êθ · dl + Ψi êθ · dl, (Ψ ≡ Ψ{o,i} onto C{o,i} )
Co r Ci r
Z 2π Z 0
= Ψo dθ + Ψi dθ = 2π(Ψo − Ψi ) (recall, dl = dr êr + rdθ êθ ).
0 2π
Example 2.4
For a uniform flow parallel to the axis, ur = 0 and uz = U ,
∂Ψ ∂Ψ 1
= rU and = 0 ⇒ Ψ(r) = U r2 .
∂r ∂z 2
Chapter 2 – Mass conservation & streamfunction 17
(We choose the integration constant such that Ψ = 0 on the axis, at r = 0).
Now consider a streamtube of radius a.
a Ψ(0) = 0 z
S u
1 2
Ψ(a) = Ua
2
The volume flux
Z Z Z Z
Q= u · n dS = u · êz dS = uz dS = U dS = πU a2 .
S S S S
Also,
1 2
2π(Ψo − Ψi ) = 2π(Ψ(a) − Ψ(0)) = 2π Ua − 0 = πU a2 as required.
2
Example 2.5
Consider a flow in a long pipe a radius a:
U uz = 0 on r = a,
uz = 2 a2 − r2
ur = 0, with
a uz = U at r = 0.
n
a z
∂Ψ
= −rur = 0 ⇒ Ψ ≡ Ψ(r),
∂z
U a2 r 2 r 4
dΨ U 2 3
and = ruz = 2 (a r − r ) ⇒ Ψ(r) = 2 − + C.
dr a a 2 4
Hence,
U r2
Ψ(r) = (2a2 − r2 ) (choose C such that Ψ(0) = 0).
4a2
So, Ψ(0) = 0 and Ψ(a) = U a2 /4, and the volume flux
π
Z
Q= u · n dS = 2π (Ψ(a) − Ψ(0)) = U a2 .
S 2
Indeed,
2π a
2πU a 2
Z Z Z Z
u · n dS = uz r drdθ = 2 (a r − r3 ) dr, (since dS = rdθdr)
S 0 0 a 0
a
2πU a2 r2 r4 πU a2
= 2 − = , as required.
a 2 4 0 2
18 2.4 Axisymmetric flows
Chapter 3
Vorticity
Contents
3.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.5 Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1 Definition
Consider the two short fluid line-elements AB and AC. The vertical differential velocity is
19
20 3.2 Physical meaning
B
δu
∂v
δy δv = vC −vA = v(x+δx, y)−v(x, y) ' δx (Taylor theorem).
δv ∂x
∂v
So, is the angular velocity of the fluid line-element AC.
∂x
A δx C
Similarly, the horizontal differential velocity
∂u
δu = uB − uA = u(x, y + δy) − u(x, y) ' δy .
∂y
∂u
So, − is the angular velocity of the fluid line element AB.
∂y
ω 1 ∂v ∂u
Thus, = − represents the average angular
2 2 ∂x ∂y
velocity of the two fluid line-elements AB and AC.
This could be measured using a crossed pair of small vanes
that float with the fluid.
Example 3.1 (Solid body rotation) x
For u = Ω × r, with constant angular velocity Ω and r = y ,
z
ω = ∇ × (Ω × r) = Ω(∇ · r) − (Ω · ∇)r,
Ω
= 3Ω − Ω = 2Ω.
Example 3.2 (Shear flow) 0
For u = ky, v = 0, the vorticity ω = 0 with ω = −k.
−k
∂ψ k
Streamfunction: = − ⇒ ψ = −k ln r (const. = 0). So,
∂r r
the streamlines are circles.
However, from
1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂k
ω= (ruθ ) − ur êz = êz = 0,
r ∂r r ∂θ r ∂r
one finds that the vorticity is zero everywhere in the flow except at r = 0 where the functions
u and ω are not defined. (In fact ω can be defined as a Dirac delta distribution.)
(
−Ω if r ≤ a,
1 d dψ
Hence, ψ ≡ ψ(r) and ∇2 ψ = r =
r dr dr 0 if r > a.
d dψ dψ Ω B
• r ≤ a: r = −r Ω ⇒ =− r+ = −uθ .
dr dr dr 2 r
We require uθ to be bounded at r = 0. So, B = 0 and, for r ≤ a,
Ω
uθ = r,
2
ψ = − Ω r2 .
4
d dψ dψ A
• r > a: r = 0 ⇒ uθ = − = .
dr dr dr r
Ω 2
The continuity of uθ at r = a implies that A = a .
2
dψ Ωa2 Ωa2
So, =− ⇒ψ=− ln r + D, and applying the continuity of ψ at r = a now
dr 2r 2
Ωa 2 r
gives ψ = − 1 + 2 ln .
4 a
So,
Ω
− r2 if r ≤ a,
4
ψ= 2
− Ωa 1 + 2 ln r
if r > a.
4 a
and
Ω
r
if r ≤ a : solid body rotation,
2
uθ = 2
Ωa
if r > a : bath-plug flow.
2r
uθ ω
Ω
∝r ∝ 1/r
a r a r
There is still a discontinuity in vorticity but the flow is quite adequate for predicting the shape
of the water surface.
3.5 Circulation
Consider a closed curve C in the flow. The circulation around C is the line integral of the
tangential velocity around C: I
Γ = u · dl. (3.4)
C
Chapter 3 – Vorticity 23
11111111
00000000
00000000
11111111
C
00000000
11111111
S
00000000
11111111 u
dl
(
2π
πΩr2 if r ≤ a,
Z
Γ= uθ (r) r dθ = 2π r uθ (r) =
0 πΩa2 if r > a.
When the vorticity is concentrated in thin filaments (tubes) as it is in the Rankine vortex, it
is useful to think in term of vortex.
i. Bath-plug vortex.
The shape of the free surface of water can be modelled using the Rankin vortex.
Note that the sense of rotation is not determined by the rotation of the Earth!
The characteristic vapour trails left by aircraft are vortex lines shed from the wing tips.
(The vortices have low pressure, so vapour water condenses there.) These vortices decay
very slowly and are a danger for small aircraft flying behind large ones.
Smoke rings and underwater bubble rings are examples of vortex rings.
Chapter 3 – Vorticity 25
Potential flows
Contents
4.1 Velocity potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2 Kinematic boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.3 Elementary potential flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.4 Properties of Laplace’s equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.5 Flow past an obstacle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.6 Method of images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.7 Method of separation of variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
We shall now consider the special case of irrotational flows, i.e. flows with no vorticity, such
that
ω = ∇ × u = 0. (4.1)
If in addition the flow is incompressible, the velocity potential φ satisfies Laplace’s equation
∇2 φ = 0. (4.3)
Indeed, for incompressible irrotational flows one has ∇ · u = ∇ · ∇φ = ∇2 φ = 0.
Hence, incompressible irrotational flows can be computed by solving Laplace’s equation (4.3)
and imposing appropriate boundary conditions (or conditions at infinity) on the solution.
(Notice that for 2-D incompressible irrotational flows, both velocity potential, φ, and stream-
function, ψ, are solutions to Laplace’s equation, ∇2 ψ = −ω = 0 and ∇2 φ = 0; boundary
conditions on ψ and φ are different however.)
27
28 4.2 Kinematic boundary conditions
Since the fluid cannot penetrate into the solid body, its velocity normal the surface, (u·n) n,
must locally equal that of the solid,
u · n = U · n.
So, since u = ∇φ,
∂φ
n · ∇φ = = U · n; (4.4)
∂n
the velocity potential satisfies Neumann boundary conditions at the solid body surface.
Consider an axisymmetric potential φ ≡ φ(r). From Laplace’s equation in plane polar coor-
dinates,
2 1 d dφ dφ m
∇ φ= r =0⇔ = ,
r dr dr dr r
one finds
φ(r) = m ln r + C, (4.5)
where m and C are integration constants. This potential produces the planar radial velocity
m
u = ∇φ = êr
r
corresponding to a source (m > 0) or sink (m < 0) of fluid of strength m. Notice that the
constant C in φ is arbitrary and does not affect u. By convention the constant m = Q/2π
where Q is the flow rate. This flow could be produced approximately using a perforated hose.
Point source/sink
one finds
m
φ(r) = − + C, (4.6)
r
where m and C are integration constants. This potential produces the three-dimensional
radial velocity
m
u = ∇φ = 2 êr .
r
corresponding to a source (m > 0) or sink (m < 0) of fluid of strength m. By convention the
constant m = Q/4π where Q is the flow rate or volume flux.
φ(z) = U z.
Three-dimensional flow
Consider a point sink of strength −m at the origin and a point source of strength m at the
position (0, 0, δ).
Sink Source
O z
δ
The velocity potential of the flow is formed by adding the potentials of the source and sink,
m m
φ= p −p ,
2
x +y +z2 2 x + y + (z − δ)2
2 2
m m
= −√ ,
r r − 2zδ + δ 2
2
where m > 0 is constant and r = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/2 . Expanding the potential to first order
in δ,
m m z
φ= − 1 + 2 δ + O(δ 2 ) ,
r r r
and taking the limit δ → 0, leads to the potential of a dipole
z
φ = −mδ 3 ,
r
where m → ∞ as δ → 0 so that the strength of the dipole µ = mδ remains finite. Thus,
µ·r
1
φ=− 3 =µ·∇ ,
r r
where µ = µêz and r ≡ x is the vector position. The three components of the fluid velocity,
u = ∇φ, are for a dipole of strength µ,
xz
ux = 3µ ,
r5
yz
uy = 3µ 5 ,
r
z2
µ
uz = − 3 1 − 3 2 .
r r
Planar flow
Similarly, combining a line sink at the origin with a line source of equal but opposite strength
at (δ, 0) gives
(x − δ)2 + y 2
m 2 2 2 2
m
φ=− ln(x + y ) − ln (x − δ) + y = ln , m > 0.
2 2 x2 + y 2
As in the three-dimensional case, we consider the limit δ → 0, with µ = mδ fixed. The
expression of the potential for a two-dimensional dipole of strength µ then becomes
µ·r
φ = − 2 = −µ · ∇ ln r,
r
where µ = µêx and r ≡ x is the vector position.
Chapter 4 – Potential flows 31
∇ · (f ∇f ) = f ∇2 f + |∇f |2
S Z Z Z
2
n ⇒ ∇ · (f ∇f ) dV = f ∇ f dV + |∇f |2 dV.
V V V
V So, using the divergence theorem
Z Z Z
2
f (∇f ) · n dS = f ∇ f dV + |∇f |2 dV. (4.7)
S V V
Proof. Suppose there exists two distinct solutions to the boundary value problem, u1 = ∇φ1
and u2 = ∇φ2 . Let f = φ1 − φ2 , then
∇2 f = ∇2 φ1 − ∇2 φ2 = 0
S′
The proof above holds for flows in a finite
n
domain. What about flows in an infinite V
11
00
domain — e.g. flow around an obstacle?
00
11
00
11
S
Proof. Let u0 be another incompressible but non vorticity-free flow such that u · n = u0 · n
on S and ∇ · u0 = 0 in V but with ∇ × u0 6= 0.
The fluid flow u is potential, so let u = ∇φ such that
Z Z Z
2 2
ρ |u| dV = ρ|∇φ| dV = ρ |∇φ|2 dV,
V VZ V
So,
Z Z
0 2
ρ |u|2 − 2ρu · u0 + ρ |u0 |2 dV,
ρ (u − u ) dV =
V ZV
ρ |u0 |2 − ρ |u|2 dV
= (from (4.8)).
V
Therefore, since (u − u0 )2 ≥ 0,
Z Z Z Z
ρ |u0 |2 dV = ρ |u|2 dV + ρ (u − u0 )2 dV ≥ ρ |u|2 dV.
V V V V
U r2 a3
Ψ(r, z) = 1− 2 . (4.10)
2 (r + z 2 )3/2
Outside the sphere Ψ > 0, but we also obtain a solution inside the sphere with Ψ < 0. This
flow is not real; it is a “virtual flow” that allows for fluid velocity to be consistent with the
boundary condition on a solid sphere.
34 4.5 Flow past an obstacle
1 ∂Ψ m mz 2 α0 (z)
⇒ =− + + ,
r ∂z r (r2 + z 2 )1/2 r (r2 + z 2 )3/2 r
m r2 + z 2 − z 2 α0 (z) α0 (z)
mr
=− + = − + ,
r (r2 + z 2 )3/2 r (r2 + z 2 )3/2 r
mr
= −ur = − .
(r + z 2 )3/2
2
So, since α0 (z) = 0, α is a constant (set to zero). The Stokes streamfunction is therefore
U r2 mz
Ψ(r, z) = − .
2 (r2 + z 2 )1/2
p
At the stagnation point (r = 0, z = − m/U ), Ψ = m. Hence, the equation of the streamline,
or streamtube, passing through this stagnation point is
!
U r2 z
Ψ(r, z) = m ⇔ =m 1+ .
2 (r2 + z 2 )1/2
Notice that the straight line r = 0 with z < 0 satisfies the equation of the streamline Ψ = m.
For large positive z, the equation of the streamtube Ψ = m becomes
U r2
r
m
' 2m ⇒ r ' 2 .
2 U
Thus, the velocity potential and the Stokes streamfunction
! !
a2 U a2z
φ(r, z) = U z − and Ψ(r, z) = r2 −
4 (r2 + z 2 )1/2 2 2 (r2 + z 2 )1/2
p
provide a model for a long slender body of radius a = 2 m/U .
Chapter 4 – Potential flows 35
1 ∂2φ
2 1 ∂ ∂φ
∇ φ= r + 2 2 = 0,
r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ
f d2 g
g d df
⇒ r + 2 2 = 0,
r dr dr r dθ
1 d2 g
r d df
⇒ r + = 0, (division by f (r)g(θ)/r2 )
f dr dr g dθ2
1 d2 g
r d df
⇒ r =− .
f dr dr g dθ2
Since the terms on the left and right sides of the equation are functions of independent
variables, r and θ respectively, they must take a constant value, k 2 say. Thus we have
transformed a partial differential equation for φ into two ordinary differential equations for f
and g,
r d df 2 d df
r =k ⇒r r − k 2 f = 0,
f dr dr dr dr
1 d2 g 2 d2 g
= −k ⇒ + k 2 g = 0.
g dθ2 dθ2
Thus, g(θ) = A cos(kθ) + B sin(kθ). For a 2π-periodic function g, such that g(θ) = g(θ + 2π),
k must be integer. So
g(θ) = A cos(nθ) + B sin(nθ), n ∈ Z,
and f is solution to
d2 f df
r2 2
+r − n2 f = 0.
dr dr
Substituting nontrivial functions of the form f = arα gives,
α(α − 1) + α − n2 arα = 0 ⇔ α2 = n2 .
The two independent solutions have α = ±n; the general separable solution to Laplace’s
equation in plane polar coordinates is therefore
a4 a4
ur = 2Ar 1 − 4 cos(2θ) and uθ = −2Ar 1 + 4 sin(2θ)
r r
in Cartesian coordinates.
38 4.7 Method of separation of variables
Chapter 5
Euler’s equation
Contents
5.1 Fluid momentum equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.2 Hydrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.3 Archimedes’ theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.4 The vorticity equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.5 Kelvin’s circulation theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.6 Shape of the free surface of a rotating fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
We shall now study the dynamics of fluid flows and consider changes S
in motion due to forces acting on a fluid.
We derive an evolution equation for the fluid momentum by consider- V
ing forces acting on a small blob of fluid, of volume V and surface S,
containing many fluid particles.
The forces acting on the fluid can be divided into two types.
Body forces, such as gravity, act on all the particles throughout V ,
Z
Fv = ρ g dV.
V
Surface forces are caused by interactions at the surface S. For the rest of this course we
shall only consider the effect of fluid pressure.
39
40 5.2 Hydrostatics
Du
Z Z Z
ρ dV = −p n dS + ρ g dV.
V Dt S V
Du
Z Z
ρ dV = (−∇p + ρ g) dV,
V Dt V
Du
ρ = −∇p + ρ g + µ∇2 u. (5.2)
Dt
For the rest of the course we shall only consider perfect fluids which are idealised fluids,
inviscid and incompressible with constant mass density.
5.2 Hydrostatics
We first consider the case of a fluid at rest, such that u = 0. Euler’s equation is then reduced
to the equation of hydrostatic balance,
∇p = ρg ⇔ p(x) = ρg · x + C, (5.3)
where C is a constant.
Example 5.1
The density of mass in the ocean can be considered as constant, ρ0 , and the gravity g = −gêz .
(The coordinate z is the upward distance from sea-level.)
Chapter 5 – Euler’s equation 41
The buoyancy force is equal the weight of the mass of fluid displaced, M = ρ0 V , and points
in the direction opposite to gravity.
If the fluid is only partially submerged, then we need to split it into parts above and below
the water surface, and apply Archimedes’ theorem to the lower section only.
Consider a solid body of volume V and density ρs −ρ0 V2 g
partially submerged in a fluid of density ρ0 > ρs . V1
Let V1 be the volume of solid above the fluid surface
ρ0 ρs
and V2 the volume underneath. Since, the solid is in V2 ρs V g
equilibrium, its weight is balanced by the buoyancy
force, so that ρs V g = ρ0 V2 g.
Hence, the fractions of the volume of solid immersed in the fluid and not immersed are
V2 ρs V1 V2 ρ0 − ρs
= and =1− = ,
V ρ0 V V ρ0
respectively. For an iceberg of density ρs ' 0.915 kg m−3 floating in salted water of density
ρs ' 1.025 kg m−3 , V2 /V ' 89.3% and V1 /V ' 10.7%.
Question: A glass of water with an ice cube in it is filled to rim. What happens as ice melts?
42 5.4 The vorticity equation
Du ∂u
= + (u · ∇) u,
Dt ∂t
kuk2 kuk2
u × (∇ × u) = ∇ − (u · ∇) u ⇒ (u · ∇) u = ∇ − u × ω,
2 2
∂u 1
+ (u · ∇) u = − ∇p + g,
∂t ρ
kuk2
∂u p
+∇ − u × ω = −∇ +g (ρ constant),
∂t 2 ρ
∂ω
− ∇ × (u × ω) = 0,
∂t
∂ω
+ (u · ∇) ω − (ω · ∇) u + (∇ · u) ω − (∇ · ω) u = 0.
∂t
i. If ω = 0 everywhere initially, then ω remains zero. Thus, flows that start off irrotational
remain so.
ii. In a two-dimensional planar flow, u = (u(x, y), v(x, y), 0), the vector vorticity has only
one non-zero component, ω = (∂v/∂x − ∂u/∂y)êz , so that
d
(ω · ∇) u = ω u(x, y) = 0.
dz
Dω ∂ω
= + (u · ∇) ω = 0, (5.5)
Dt ∂t
shows that the vorticity of a fluid particle remains constant. If, in addition the flow is
steady, ∂ω/∂t = 0 then the vorticity is constant along streamlines.
Chapter 5 – Euler’s equation 43
The component ur represents a radial inflow and uϕ the swirling of the fluid. Since
∇ × (ur (r)êr ) = 0, only the swirling motion contributes to a non-zero vorticity
1 d 2 k
∇·u= 2
r ur = 0 ⇔ ur = − 2 ,
r dr r
where k > 0 is constant. Since the flow is steady, ∂ω/∂t = 0, the evolution equation for
the radial component of the vorticity, ωr , becomes
Dωr dωr dur d ωr ωr
= ur = ωr ⇔ ln = 0 ⇔ = α, constant.
Dt dr dr dr ur ur
Thus,
αk
wr = αur = − ,
r2
which demonstrates that the vorticity ωr increases as ur in-
creases; the initial vortex is stretched by the inflow.
This is the reason for the bath-plug vortex. A small amount
of background vorticity is amplified by the flow converging
into a small hole. (This mechanism can be interpreted as the
conservation of angular momentum of fluid particles.)
Proof. Let C(t) be a closed material curve, hence formed of fluid particles, of parametric
representation x(s, t) with s ∈ [0, 1], say. Using this parametric representation, the rate of
44 5.6 Shape of the free surface of a rotating fluid
d 1
Z 1
dΓ ∂ d ∂x
Z
= u(x(s, t), t) · x(s, t) ds = u(x, t) · ds,
dt dt 0 ∂s 0 dt ∂s
Z 1
∂2x
∂u ∂x ∂x
= + ·∇ u · +u· ds,
0 ∂t ∂t ∂s ∂s∂t
Z 1
∂u ∂x ∂u
= + (u · ∇) u · +u· ds,
0 ∂t ∂s ∂s
since ∂x/∂t = u is the velocity of the fluid particle at x(s, t). So, using Euler’s equation in
the form
∂u p
+ (u · ∇) u = ∇ − + g · x ,
∂t ρ
we find
1 Z 1
∂ kuk2 ∂ kuk2 p
dΓ p ∂x
Z
= ∇ − +g·x · + ds = − + g · x ds.
dt 0 ρ ∂s ∂s 2 0 ∂s 2 ρ
Thus, since the curve C(t) is closed,
kuk2 p
dΓ
I
= d − + g · x = 0,
dt C(t) 2 ρ
as required.
Recall that the circulation around a closed curve C is equal to the flux of vorticity through
an arbitrary surface S that spans C. So, from Kelvin’s circulation theorem,
dΓ d d
I Z
= u · dl = ω · n dS = 0;
dt dt C(t) dt S(t)
this demonstrates that the flux of vorticity through a surface that spans a material curve is
constant. Thus, many properties of the vorticity equation could equivalently be derived from
the circulation theorem (e.g. vortex stretching, persistence of irrotationality.)
in cylindrical polar coordinates. The velocity and vorticity fields of the fluid in uniform
rotation are u = uθ êθ and ω = ωz êz , where uθ = rΩ and ωz = 2Ω. Hence, the nonlinear term
in Euler’s equation
u × ω = uθ ωz êr = 2rΩ2 êr .
The radial component of the vector equation (5.7) (i.e. its scalar product with êr ) is therefore
∂p ρ du2θ ∂p
−2ρrΩ2 = − − =− − ρrΩ2 ,
∂r 2 dr ∂r
∂p
⇔ = ρrΩ2 . (5.8)
∂r
This shows that the pressure must vary with the radius inside the fluid, in order to balance
the centrifugal force. Moreover, the pressure must also satisfy the vertical hydrostatic balance
(i.e. balance between pressure and gravity).
From the vertical component of the vector equation (5.7) (i.e. its scalar product with êz ) we
find
∂p
0=− − ρg ⇒ p(r, z) = −ρgz + A(r),
∂z
where A(r) is a function to be determined using appropriate boundary conditions. At the
free surface the fluid pressure should match the atmospheric pressure. Hence, p = patm at
z = h(r), so that
patm = −ρgh(r) + A(r) ⇔ A(r) = patm + ρgh(r).
So, substituting the expression of the pressure,
∂p dh r 2 Ω2
= ρg = ρrΩ2 ⇒ h(r) = h0 + ,
∂r dr 2g
where h0 is the height of the free surface at
r = 0, on the rotation axis. This result shows
that the free surface of a uniformly rotating
fluid in a cylindrical container is a paraboloid.
Bernoulli’s equation
Contents
6.1 Bernoulli’s theorem for steady flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.2 Bernoulli’s theorem for potential flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.3 Drag force on a sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.4 Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.5 Unsteady flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.6 Acceleration of a sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
In section (5.4) we obtained the momentum equation for ideal fluids (i.e. inviscid and with
constant density) in the form
∂u 1 2 p
−u×ω+∇ kuk = −∇ + g.
∂t 2 ρ
So, since the constant gravity g = ∇(g · x), one has
∂u
− u × ω + ∇H = 0, (6.1)
∂t
where
p 1
H(x, t) = + kuk2 − g · x (6.2)
ρ 2
is called the Bernoulli function.1
47
48 6.1 Bernoulli’s theorem for steady flows
(a) (c)
h1 h3
V1 (b)
S1 S3
h2
A1 S2 A1
A2
(Three narrow vertical tubes, (a), (b) and (c), are used to measure the pressure at different
points.)
The fluid velocity is assumed
Z inform on cross sections, S. Upstream the fluid velocity is V1 .
Mass conservation implies ρu · n dS = constant for any cross-section S, so
S
Z Z Z Z
ρu · n dS = ρu · n dS ⇒ u · n dS = u · n dS (ρ = constant),
S1 S2 S1 S2
A1
⇒ A1 V 1 = A2 V 2 ⇒ V 2 = V1 > V1 (since A1 > A2 ).
A2
Neglecting gravity, we apply Bernoulli’s equation to any streamline,
p1 1 2 p2 1 2 ρ
V22 − V12 ,
+ V1 = + V2 ⇒ p2 = p1 −
ρ 2 ρ 2 2
ρV 2
⇒ p2 = p1 − 12 A21 − A22 < p1 .
2A2
Thus, in the constriction the speed of the flow increases (conservation of mass) and its pressure
decreases (Bernoulli’s equation).
This can be measured by the thin tubes where there is fluid but no flow (i.e. fluid in hydrostatic
equilibrium). If h1 is the height of fluid in the tube (a) then
p2 − p0 p1 − p0 V2
− 1 2 A21 − A22 ,
p2 = p0 + ρgh2 ⇒ h2 = =
ρg ρg 2gA2
V12
A21 − A22 < h1 .
⇒ h2 = h1 −
2gA22
A(h) g
0
a U
Let h be the height of fluid level in the barrel above the outlet, which has cross-sectional area
a. If a A(h), then the flow can be treated as approximately steady.
dh dh
Mass conservation: −A = aU (with U > 0). So, if a A then |U |.
dt dt
Bernoulli’s theorem: consider a streamline from the surface of the fluid to the outlet,
1
p + ρkuk2 + ρgz = const.
2
dh
At z = 0: p = patm and u = U ; at z = h: p = patm and u = . So,
dt
2
1 1 dh
patm + ρU 2 = patm + ρ + ρgh,
2 2 dt
2
2 dh p dh
⇒U = + 2gh ⇒ U ' 2gh since |U |.
dt dt
We could have guessed this result from conservation of energy
L
A 0
g
C
50 6.2 Bernoulli’s theorem for potential flows
To start the siphon we need to fill the tube with fluid, but once it is going, the fluid will
continue to flow from the upper to the lower container.
In order to calculate the flow rate, we can use Bernoulli’s equation along a streamline from
the surface to the exit of the pipe.
At point A: p = patm , z = 0. We shall assume that the container’s cross-sectional area is
much larger than that of the pipe. So, UA ' 0 (from mass conservation; see example 6.2
−A dh/dt = aU ).
At point C: p = patm , z = −H, u = Uc ≡ U .
Bernoulli’s equation:
patm 1 2 patm 1 2 p
+ UA = + U − gH ⇒ U ' 2gH.
ρ 2 ρ 2
'0
pB 1 patm 1 2
+ U 2 + gL = + U − gH ⇒ pB = patm − ρg(L + H) < patm .
ρ 2 ρ 2
patm 105
For pB > 0, we need H + L < ≈ 3 = 10m.
ρg 10 × 10
∂u p 1
− u × ω = −∇H where H(x, t) = + kuk2 − g · x.
∂t ρ 2
If the fluid flow is irrotational, i.e. if ω = ∇ × u = 0, then u × ω = 0 and u = ∇φ; so, the
equation above becomes
∂φ
∇ + H = 0,
∂t
∂u ∂∇φ ∂φ
since = =∇ .
∂t ∂t ∂t
Thus, for irrotational flows,
∂φ ∂φ p 1
+H= + + k∇φk2 − g · x ≡ f (t) (6.5)
∂t ∂t ρ 2
is a function of time, independent of the position, x.
Example 6.4 (Shape of the free surface of a fluid near a rotating rod)
We consider a rod of radius a, rotating at constant angular velocity Ω, placed in a fluid.
Assuming a potential, axisymmetric and planar z
fluid flow, (ur (r), uθ (r)) in cylindrical polar coor- Ω
dinates, we wish to calculate the height of the free
surface of the fluid near to the rod, h(r). We also
assume that the solid rod is an impenetrable sur-
face on which the fluid does not slip, so that the
boundary conditions for the velocity field are g h(r)
ur = 0 and uθ = aΩ at r = a. r
a
From mass conservation, one has
1 d C
∇·u= (rur ) = 0 ⇔ ur (r) = ,
r dr r
where C is a constant of integration. However, the boundary condition ur = C/a = 0 at r = a
implies that C = 0. So, ur = 0 and the fluid motion is purely azimuthal.
As we assume an irrotational flow,
1 d k
∇×u= (ruθ ) êz = 0 ⇔ uθ (r) = ,
r dr r
where k is an integration constant to be determined using the second boundary condition. At
r = a, uθ = k/a = aΩ which implies that k = a2 Ω. So, the fluid velocity near to the rod is
a2 Ω
ur = 0 and uθ = .
r
Notice that the velocity potential, function of θ, can be determined using
1 dφ a2 Ω
u = ∇φ ⇒ = ⇒ φ(θ) = a2 Ωθ.
r dθ r
By applying Bernoulli’s theorem for steady potential flows to the free surface (which is not a
streamline, as streamlines are circles about the rod axis) we obtain,
patm 1 2 patm
H= + uθ (r) + gh(r) = + gh∞ ,
ρ 2 ρ
| {z } | {z }
near rod at large r
Alternatively, Euler’s equation could be solved directly (i.e. without involving Bernoulli’s
theorem) as in § 5.6 with an azimuthal flow, now potential, of the form uθ = a2 Ω/r. We
52 6.3 Drag force on a sphere
can then explain the result (6.7) in terms of centripetal acceleration; since the fluid particles
move in circles, there must be an inwards central force producing the necessary centripetal
acceleration (i.e. balancing the centrifugal force). Indeed, from the radial component of the
momentum equation, one has
u2θ ∂p ∂p a4 Ω2
−ρ =− ⇒ =ρ 3 .
r ∂r ∂r r
However, since the fluid is in vertical hydrostatic equilibrium, the pressure satisfies
∂p
= −ρg ⇒ p(r, z) = patm − ρg(z − h(r)).
∂z
Hence, we have
∂p dh a4 Ω2 a4 Ω2
= ρg = ρ 3 ⇒ h(r) = h∞ − ,
∂r dr r 2gr2
as in equation (6.7).
a3
φ(r, θ) = U cos θ r + 2 . (6.8)
2r
a3 a3
∂φ 1 ∂φ
ur = = U cos θ 1 − 3 and uθ = = −U sin θ 1 + 3 . (6.9)
∂r r r ∂θ 2r
p(θ) 1 2 p∞ 1 2
+ uθ r=a = + U ,
ρ 2 ρ 2
where êr = sin θ cos ϕ êx + sin θ sin ϕ êy + cos θ êz .
As the flow is axisymmetric, the only non-zero component of the force should be in the axial
direction, z. Indeed,
Z 2π Z π
2
Fx = F · êx = −a cos ϕ dϕ p(θ) sin2 θ dθ = 0,
0 0
and Z 2π Z π
2
Fy = F · êy = −a sin ϕ dϕ p(θ) sin2 θ dθ = 0.
0 0
However, after substituting for p(θ) in
Z π
2
Fz = F · êz = −2πa p(θ) sin θ cos θ dθ,
0
we find that
Z π Z π
1 9
Fz = −2πa2 p∞ + ρU 2 sin θ cos θ dθ − ρU 2 sin3 θ cos θ dθ = 0,
2 0 8 0
so that the total drag force on the sphere, due to the fluid flow around it, is zero!
D’Alembert’s paradox: it can be demonstrated that the drag force on any 3-D solid body
moving at uniform speed in a potential flow is zero (see, e.g., Paterson, § XI.9, p. 240).
This is not true in reality of course, as flows past 3-D solid bodies are not potential.
We can see why a potential flow past a sphere gives zero drag by looking at the streamlines.
U low p
high p S1 S2 high p
low p
The flow is clearly fore-aft symmetric (symmetry about z = 0); the front (S1 ) and the back
(S2 ) of the sphere are stagnation points at equal pressure, PS1 = PS2 = p∞ + 12 ρU 2 . At the
side, ur = 0 and u2θ > 0, so from Bernoulli’s theorem, the pressure there is lower than at
the stagnation points but it must have the same symmetry as the flow. Notice that, from
Bernoulli’s theorem, the pressure does not depend on the direction of the flow, but on its
speed kuk only.
However, the real flow past a sphere is not symmetric and, as a consequence, the fluid exerts
a net drag force on the sphere.
54 6.4 Separation
6.4 Separation
The pressure distribution on the surface a solid sphere placed is a uniform stream,
1 2 9 2
p(θ) = p∞ + ρU 1 − sin θ ,
2 4
reaches its minimum, pmin = p∞ − 5/8 ρU 2 , at θ = ±π/2. So, the pressure gradient in the
direction of the flow, (u·∇)p, is a positive from θ = 0 to θ = ±π/2 and negative beyond.
pmin
(u·∇)p < 0 (u·∇)p > 0
U pmax θ pmax U
• Surface roughness: paradoxically, a rough surface can reduce drag by reducing separa-
tion (e.g. dimple pattern of golf balls and shining of cricket ball on one side).
Chapter 6 – Bernoulli’s equation 55
A(h)
h(t) g
Let A(z) be the smoothly varying cross-sectional area of the pipe at height z, such that
A → A∞ as z → ∞ and A(0) = a.
We assume that the flow is potential and purely in the z-direction, uz = ∂φ/∂z ≡ w.
By conservation of mass the volume flux, Q(t) = −w(z, t)A(z), must be independent of height.
Hence, Z z
∂φ Q(t) dµ
= w(z, t) = − ⇒ φ(z, t) = φ(0, t) − Q(t) .
∂z A(z) 0 A(µ)
(Note that we could set φ(0, t) = 0 without loss of generality.) Applying Bernoulli’s theorem
for potential flows, p/ρ + kuk2 /2 + ∂φ/∂t − g · x = F (t), at the free surface and the exit gives,
patm 1 Q2 (t) d
at z = 0, + + φ(0, t) = F (t),
ρ 2 a2 dt
patm 1 dh 2 dQ h dz
d
Z
and at z = h, + + φ(0, t) − + gh = F (t).
ρ 2 dt dt dt 0 A(z)
The fluid height, h(t), is then solution to the nonlinear second order ordinary differential
equation
Z h 2 2
A2 (h)
dz d h 1 dh
A(h) 2
+ 1− 2
+ gh = 0. (6.13)
0 A(z) dt 2 a dt
A2∞
1
hḧ + 1 − 2 ḣ2 + gh = 0,
2 a
since, as h → ∞,
h h
dz dz h
Z Z
A(h) ∼ A∞ and ∼ = .
0 A(z) 0 A∞ A∞
56 6.5 Unsteady flows
Using the chain rule, ḧ = dḣ/dt = dḣ/dh dh/dt = ḣ dḣ/dh, one finds
A2∞ Z
dZ
+ 1− 2 + g = 0.
dh a h
a(t)
gas
liquid
We can model the oscillations of the bubble of air using a potential flow due to a point
source/sink of fluid at the centre of the bubble,
k(t) ∂φ k
φ(r, t) = − ⇒ ur = = 2.
r ∂r r
k
The boundary condition at the bubble’s surface, r = a, is ur = = ȧ. So,
a2
ȧa2 ȧa2 ∂φ äa2 aȧ2
k = ȧa2 ⇒ ur = and φ = − ⇒ =− −2
r2 r ∂t r r
Applying Bernoulli’s theorem (ignoring gravity) as r → ∞,
p 1 ∂φ p∞
+ k∇φk2 + = F (t) = (as r → ∞, φ → 0 and kuk → 0: the fluid is stationary).
ρ 2 ∂t ρ
At the bubble’s surface,
p(a) − p∞ 3
= äa + ȧ2 , (6.14)
ρ 2
where p(a) is the fluid pressure at the bubble’s surface. Now, if the gas inside the bubble of
mass m is subject to adiabatic changes, its equation of state is
3m
pg = Kργg where ρg = ,
4πa3
Chapter 6 – Bernoulli’s equation 57
and K is a constant to determine — the adiabatic index γ depends on the gas considered.
Moreover, since the bubble of gas is in balance with the surrounding fluid, continuity of
pressure pg = p(a) must be satisfied at the surface r = a(t).
Now, for a bubble in equilibrium, such that a = a0 and ȧ = ä = 0, equation (6.14) gives
p = p∞ and, imposing pressure continuity pg = p at r = a0 , one gets
γ γ
4πa30
3m
pg = Kργg =K = p∞ ⇒ K = p∞ .
4πa30 3m
For small amplitude oscillations about the equilibrium a(t) = a0 + (t) where || a0 , so that
˙ ä = ¨ and ȧ2 = ˙2 ' 0; the nonlinear terms are negligible at first approximation. Thus,
ȧ = ,
p∞ a3γ
0 p∞
a0 ¨ = 3γ − 1 ' −3γ ,
ρ ρ a0
a3γ
0 1+
a0
3γp∞
⇒ ¨ + = 0.
ρa20
3γp∞ 1/2
The bubble undergo periodic small amplitude oscillations with frequency ω = .
ρa20
Note that the frequency scales with the inverse of the (mean) radius of the bubbles. E.g. for
γ = 3/2, p∞ = 105 Pa and ρ = 103 kg m−3 ,
r
ω 1 3γp∞
f= = ⇒ f × a0 ' 3 kHz mm.
2π 2πa0 ρ
U a3
φ=− cos θ.
2r2
(This flow satisfies the following boundary conditions: u = ∇φ → 0 as r → ∞ together with
ur = U cos θ êr at r = a.)
58 6.6 Acceleration of a sphere
Rather than calculating the pressure via Bernoulli’s theorem, we calculate the work done by
the forces acting on the sphere as it moves at speed U , function of time, through the fluid.
The total kinetic energy of the system sphere of mass m plus fluid is
1 1
Z
T = mU 2 + ρ (∇φ)2 dV,
2 V 2
1 1
Z
= mU 2 + ρ ∇·(φ∇φ) − φ ∇2 φ dV, (using ∇·(f A) = A · ∇f + f ∇·A)
2 2 V |{z}
0
1 1
Z
= mU 2 + ρ φ∇φ · n dS, by divergence theorem.
2 2 S
Here S is the surface of the sphere of radius a. So n = −êr and dS = a2 sin θ dθ dϕ, such that
π
1 1 ∂φ
Z
T = mU 2 − ρ φ|r=a 2πa2 sin θ dθ,
2 2 0 ∂r r=a
π
1 πa3 2
Z
= mU 2 + ρU cos2 θ sin θ dθ,
2 2 0
Z π
1 πa3 2 1 π d cos3 θ 2
Z
= mU 2 + ρU since 2
cos θ sin θ dθ = − dθ = .
2 3 0 3 0 dθ 3
1 2
So T = (m + M )U 2 , where M = πa3 ρ is called the added mass and represents the mass of
2 3
fluid that must be accelerated along with the sphere.
The rate of working of the forces F acting on the sphere equals the change of kinetic energy,
dT dU
FU = = (m + M )U .
dt dt
dU
F = (m + M ) .
dt
Thus, the acceleration of a bubble (mass m and radius a) rising under gravity (see §5.3 on
Archimedes theorem) satisfies
4 3 dU
F = πa ρg −mg = (2M − m)g = (m + M ) , z
3 | {z } dt
weight
| {z }
buoyancy force buoyancy
dU 2M − m − 3m 4πa3 ρ
⇒ = g= 3
g.
dt M +m 2πa ρ + 3m
As mass density is much less for a gas than for a liquid, we can assume
m M , so that mg
dU
' 2g.
dt
dz
Alternatively: Consider a bubble of mass m rising under gravity with speed U = .
dt
Chapter 6 – Bernoulli’s equation 59
t
At height z the potential energy is
4
V = mgz − πa3 ρgz .
|{z} |3 {z }
weight
buoyancy
Contents
7.1 Conservation of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.2 Bernoulli’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.3 Flow over a hump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.4 Critical flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.5 Flow through a constriction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.6 Transition caused by a sluice gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
In this chapter we shall use conservation of mass and Bernoulli’s equation to study simplified
models of smooth steady flows in open channels, such as rivers and channels with weirs.
g
h(x) w u
Z(x)
z=0
x x + δx x
Consider a channel of large width which can be approximated as a two dimensional flow in
the (x, z)-plane and whose base lies on z = Z(x) (topography), with water of depth h(x). We
define ξ(x) = Z(x) + h(x), the height of the free surface.
For a steady flow (∂h/∂t = 0), the net mass flux through a volume δV between x and x + δx
(i.e. the mass flows in and out of δV ) must be zero. This leads to
Z ξ(x+δx) Z ξ(x) Z ξ(x) !
d
ρ u dz − ρ u dz = 0 ⇒ ρ u dz = 0.
Z(x+δx) Z(x) dx Z(x)
61
62 7.2 Bernoulli’s theorem
is independent of x.
Free surface
(streamline)
u
dl dξ
dx
ξ(x)
x
1
Let dl = dx be an infinitesimal line element along the free surface. Since u is parallel
dξ/dx
to streamlines
u 1 dξ
u × dl = × dx = 0 ⇒ w = u .
w dξ/dx dx
This
is similarly derived from the equation of streamlines dx/ds = u ⇔ dξ/w = dx/u.
Alternative derivation: the free surface is defined by the equation z = ξ(x) which is equivalent
−dξ/dx
to H(x, z) = z − ξ(x) = 0. Hence, ∇H = must be perpendicular the isosurface
1
H = 0, i.e. to the free surface. So u · ∇H = 0, leading again to
dξ dξ
−u +w =0⇒w =u ,
dx dx
on the free surface.
Thus, if the free surface is smooth, i.e. if |dξ/dx| 1, then w u can be neglected and,
from Bernoulli’s equation, we obtain
1 2 1
u + gξ = u2 + g(h + Z) = const. (7.2)
2 2
Equivalently,
F2
Z
gh +1+ = const., (7.3)
2 h
u
where the Froude number F = √ has no dimension and determines how flows react to
gh
disturbances. (Recall that Z = 0 when the topography is flat.)
Chapter 7 – Steady flows in open channels 63
H U h(x)
Zmax
z=0 x
Z(x)
Let H be the depth of water and U its velocity far upstream. Hence, the upstream Froude
U
number F = √ is given.
gH
Conservation of mass gives
H
Q = u(x) h(x) = U H ⇒ u = U ,
h
and Bernoulli’s equation
1 2 1
u (x) + g(h(x) + Z(x)) = U 2 + gH.
2 2
H2
Substituting for u2 = U 2 leads to
h2
1 2 H2 1
U 2 + g(h(x) + Z(x)) = U 2 + gH,
2 h 2
which can be rearranged as an equation for Z,
H U2 H2
Z= 1 − 2 + H − h,
2 gH h
2 2
Z F H h
⇒ = 1− 2 +1− ,
H 2 h H
U
where F = √ is the upstream Froude number. This gives the relationship between the
gH
height of the base of the channel, Z, and the depth of water, h, when F is fixed.
Z h
For simplicity, let Z̃ = and h̃ = . (Z̃ and h̃ are nondimensional measures of the bump
H H
height and depth of water respectively.) Hence,
F2
1
Z̃ = f (h̃) where f (h̃) = 1− + 1 − h̃. (7.4)
2 h̃2
df F2
= − 1,
dh̃ h̃3
df d2 f F2
⇒ = 0 at h̃c = F 2/3 with = −3 < 0.
dh̃ dh̃2 h̃4
64 7.3 Flow over a hump
So, f has a unique maximum at h̃c = F 2/3 — or equivalently at hc = HF 2/3 ; its values is
given by
F2 F2 3
Z̃c = max (f ) = f (h̃c ) = 1 − F −4/3 + 1 − F 2/3 = + 1 − F 2/3 ,
2 2 2
1 2/3 2
= F −1 F 2/3 + 2 > 0. (7.5)
2
The function f reaches its maximum Z̃c at h̃c = F 2/3 . (Note that Z̃c and h̃c are determined
by the upstream Froude number, i.e. by the upstream properties of the fluid flow.)
Z̃
Z̃c
The equation f (h̃) = 0 has two solutions, h̃1 and h̃2 , one of which is h̃ = 1 (i.e. h = H);
indeed, far upstream Z/H = f (1) = 0.
Note also that, using equation (7.4), we find that the height of the free surface ξ = H ξ˜ = Z +h
is given by
F2
˜ 1
ξ = Z̃ + h̃ = 1 + 1− .
2 h̃2
Thus ξ˜ > 1 if h̃ > 1 and ξ˜ < 1 if h̃ < 1; the free surface goes up when the depth of water h̃
increases and goes down when the depth of water decreases.
Let the size of the hump (i.e. its maximum height) be less than the critical height, Z̃max < Z̃c .
Z̃
Z̃c
Z̃max
Supercritial
branch
1 h̃
h̃c
Starting from h̃ = 1, the depth of water first increases then decreases with Z̃ and returns
to h̃ = 1 (i.e. h = H). This is called a supercritical flow
Chapter 7 – Steady flows in open channels 65
U U
H H
Z̃
Z̃c
Z̃max Subcritical
branch
h̃c 1 h̃
Here, as Z̃ increases the water surface goes down and when Z̃ returns to zero, the depth
of water returns to h̃ = 1 (i.e. h = H). This is called a subcritical flow.
U U
H H
u2
Why these two different behaviours? The equation + g(h + Z) = const. expresses
2
the conservation of energy (kinetic energy, KE, and gravitational potential energy, PE). In
order to flow over the hump, the fluid has two choices. (i) To increase its KE by reducing its
PE, i.e. decreasing
√h; (ii) to increase its PE by reducing its KE, i.e. increasing h. The Froude
number, F = U/ gH is the ratio of kinetic to potential energy. If F > 1 then KE > PE
upstream, so that it is easier to reduce KE as the fluid flows over the bump; on the contrary,
if F < 1 then PE > KE upstream and conversion of PE into KE is preferred.
H U hc
Zmax = Zc
66 7.4 Critical flows
In this case, a subcritical flow upstream (F < 1) is transformed smoothly into a supercritical
flow downstream (F > 1). The condition for this to happen, Zmax = Zc , leads to h = hc =
HF 2/3 at the top of the hump.
From conservation of mass uh = U H ⇒ u = U H/h. So, the local Froude number f satisfies
3 3
u2 U2
2 H 2 H
f = = =F .
gh gH h h
At the top of the bump, hc /H = F 2/3 , so that f = 1. The local Froude number must be
equal to 1 at the top of the bump. (Note that the local f is a continuous function of x, less
than 1 upstream, greater than 1 downstream and equal to 1 at the top of the hump.)
Example 7.1
A flow along a uniform channel encounters a bump of height Z(x). Downstream the height of
fluid h0 is a half of the height upstream. Find the upstream and downstream fluid velocities
and the height of the bump.
Let U1 and U2 be the upstream and downstream fluid velocities respectively.
2h0 U1 h(x)
Zmax h0 U2
Z(x)
From conservation of mass,
1 2 1 1
u + g(h + Z) = U12 + 2gh0 = U22 + gh0 .
2 2 2
To find the height of the bump, Zmax (= Zc ), for a critical flow, use f 2 = 1 (local Froude
number) at the top of the bump.
We get Zmax from Bernoulli’s equation, using
u2c
f2 = ⇒ u2c = ghc .
ghc
Chapter 7 – Steady flows in open channels 67
Indeed
1 2 1 ghc
U1 + 2gh0 = u2c + g(hc + Zmax ) = + g(hc + Zmax ),
2 2 2
1 3 2
⇒ gZmax = U12 + 2gh0 − ghc but U12 = gh0 ,
2 2 3
7 3
⇒ Zmax = h0 − hc .
3 2
Next, hc can be eliminated using mass conservation, uc hc = 2U1 h0 , together with u2c = ghc
2
and U12 = gh0 :
3
1/3
8 8 2 2/3
u2c h2c = gh3c = 4U12 h20 = gh30 ⇒ hc = h0 = 1/3 h0 = 2h0 F1 .
3 3 3
H U h(x)
Top view
B U b(x)
Q = u(x)b(x)h(x) = U BH = const.,
Dividing by gH 3 B 2 ,
2 2 2
U2 h2 2
U h b h 2 h 2B
+2 1− = ⇒ F + 2 1 − = F ,
gH H B2 H 2 gH H2 H b2
U
where F = √ is the upstream Froude number.
gH
h b
Again, let us make use of the nondimensional variables h̃ = and b̃ = :
H B
h̃2 h 2 i 1
2
F + 2 1 − h̃ = .
F b̃2
Now, let
1 h̃2 h i
− 1 ≡ K(h̃) where K(h̃) = 2 F 2 + 2 1 − h̃ − 1. (7.7)
b̃2 F
2
The function K ∼ − 2 h̃3 → −∞ as h̃ → +∞ and K(0) = −1. Its derivative
F
dK h̃
= 2 2 F 2 + 2 − 3h̃ = 0
dh̃ F
F2 + 2
if either h̃ = 0 or h̃ ≡ h̃c = . Furthermore,
3
d2 K 2
= 2 F 2 + 2 − 6h̃ ;
dh̃2 F
d2 K 2F 2 + 4
so, K has a local minimum at h̃ = 0 since = > 0 at h̃ = 0; and K has a local
dh̃2 F2
d2 K 2F 2 + 4
maximum at h̃ = h̃c since =− < 0 at h̃ = h̃c .
dh̃2 F2
K
b̃−2
c −1
supercritical subcritical
branch branch
−1
h
The equation K(h̃) = 0 has two solutions, h̃1 and h̃2 , one of which is h̃ = = 1. Note also
H
F2 + 2
that h̃c = > 1 if F > 1 and h̃c < 1 if F < 1.
3
• If F > 1 (supercritical), then h̃1 = 1 and h̃ = h/H increases as b̃ = b/B decreases (i.e.
K increases). The height of the free surface rises through the constriction.
Once again, a smooth transition from a subcritical flow to a supercritical flow can occur if
the narrowest point in the constriction reaches a critical breadth, b̃c , defined such that
h̃2 h
1 1 i
− 1 = max − 1 = K(h̃c ) = c2 F 2 + 2 1 − h̃c − 1,
b̃2c b̃2 F
F2 + 2 u2
where h̃c = . In this case the local Froude number f 2 = satisfies
3 ghc
U 2 + 2g(H − hc ) U 2 + 2g(H − hc ) H
f2 = = ,
ghc gH hc
using equation (7.6). So,
2
2 U hc H 2 hc H
f = +2−2 = F +2−2 ,
gH H hc H hc
F2 + 2 F 2 /3 + 2/3
1
= F2 + 2 − 2 = = 1.
3 F 2 /3 + 2/3 F 2 /3 + 2/3
Thus, the local Froude number f = 1 at the narrowest point in the constriction for a critical
flow.
U1
H1
H2 U2
Using conservation of mass and Bernoulli’s equation for the free surface we obtain
1 2 1
U1 H1 = U2 H2U1 + gH1 = U22 + gH2 ,
and
2 2
1 2
1 2
H2
dividing by gH1 ⇒ F +2 = F +2 .
2 1 2 2 H1
Then, since
H22 U12 F12 H1 H23 F12
= = ⇒ = ,
H12 U22 F22 H2 H13 F22
one has
2+2 3 2+2 3
3 F 2 F F
3 1 2
F12 + 2 = F22 + 2 1
⇔ = .
F22 F12 F22
3
f2 + 2
Thus, G(F1 ) = G(F2 ) where G(f ) = . The function G(f ) → +∞ as f → 0 and as
f2
f → ∞. Its derivative
2 3
dG 6f 2 f 2 + 2 − 2 f 2 + 2 2
2 2 2
= 0 ⇒ f 2 = 1.
= = 0 ⇒ f + 2 6f − 2f − 4
df f3
70 7.6 Transition caused by a sluice gate
f <1 1 f >1 f
3
f2 + 2
The equation G(f ) = = C (where C > 27) has two solutions, one corresponding to
f2
a subcritical flow and one corresponding to a supercritical flow.
Chapter 8
Lift forces
Contents
8.1 Two-dimensional thin aerofoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.2 Kutta-Joukowski theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.3 Lift produced by a spinning cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.4 Origin of circulation around a wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.5 Three-dimensional aerofoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
How do aeroplanes fly? An Airbus A380 weights 560 tonnes (5.6 × 105 kg) at take-off and so
requires a lift force in excess of 5.6 × 106 N. The lift force is provided by the wings (span
≈ 80 m, area ≈ 845 m2 ) and is generated by aerodynamic forces.
In this section we shall give a brief discussion of the lift forces on aerofoils.
U pT x
pB
For a flat aerofoil, the force in the upward vertical direction will be the difference between
pressure forces on the bottom and on the top of the aerofoil. This force per unit length is
Z
F = (pB − pT ) dx.
pB 1 pT 1
Using Bernoulli’s theorem, + u2B = + u2T ,
ρ 2 ρ 2
ρ ρ
Z Z
2 2
F = (uT − uB ) dx = (uT + uB )(uT − uB ) dx.
2 2
71
72 8.2 Kutta-Joukowski theorem
For a thin aerofoil, both uT and uB will be close to U (the free stream velocity), so that
Z I
uT + uB ' 2U ⇒ F ' ρU (uT − uB ) dx = −ρU u · dl,
C
C
Thus, the force acting on the aerofoil,
I
F = −ρU Γ where Γ= u · dl,
C
a2
Γ
φ=U r+ cos θ + θ, Low velocity
r 2π High pressure
Flow direction Top spin
a2
ur = U 1 − 2 cos θ,
r High velocity
FL
a2 Low pressure
Γ
uθ = − U 1 + 2 sin θ.
2πr r
Z 2π
Γ
On r = a, ur = 0 and uθ = − 2U sin θ; the circulation is Γ = a uθ |r=a dθ.
2πa 0
So,
2
Γ 2
2 Γ ΓU
sin θ + 4U 2 sin2 θ.
uθ r=a = − 2U sin θ = −2
2πa 2πa πa
The pressure at the cylinder surface can now be calculated using Bernoulli’s theorem,
1 ρΓ2 ρΓU
p = p∞ + ρU 2 − 2 2 + sin θ − 2ρU 2 sin2 θ.
2 8π a πa
Chapter 8 – Lift forces 73
I Z 2π
F= −p n dl = −p n a dθ, where n = êr = cos θ êx + sin θ êy .
0
The force can be decomposed into its components parallel and perpendicular to the free stream
velocity (in the x direction): F = Fk êx + F⊥ êy , with Fk = 0 (no drag force) and the lift force
F⊥ = −ρΓU (Kutta-Joukowski theorem). This is called the “Magnus effect” (e.g. football,
tennis, table tennis).
However, small viscous effects allow the aerofoil to shed a vortex off the trailing edge, so that
downstream separation occurs at the trailing edge.
This vortex, called the starting vortex, remains behind on the runway. Its circulation is equal
and opposite to the circulation around the wing.
pT
pB
Since pB > pT , there is a pressure gradient driving a flow around the edge of the wing. This
leads to a vortex from the edge of the wing.
Trailing vortex
Starting vortex
Trailing vortex
These trailing vortices are parts of a single vortex tube formed by the wings, the trailing
vortices and the starting vortex. (Vortex tubes must be closed as they cannot start or end in
an inviscid fluid.)
Appendix A
Vector calculus
A.1 Definitions
A physical quantity is a scalar when it is only determined by its magnitude and a vector
when it is determined by its magnitude and direction. It is crucial to distinguish vectors from
scalars; standard notations for vectors include ~u ≡ u ≡ u. A unit vector, commonly denoted
by ı̂ ≡ ı̂, has magnitude one. The coordinates of a vector a are the scalars a1 , a2 and a3 such
that
a1
a = a1 e1 + a2 e2 + a3 e3 ≡ (a1 , a2 , a3 ) ≡ a2 ,
a3
in the basis {e1 , e2 , e3 }. If {ê1 , ê2 , ê3 } are orthonormal (i.e. êi · êj = δij ) the magnitude of
p
the vector is |a| = a21 + a22 + a23 .
is a scalar.
is a vector with magnitude |a||b| sin θ and a direction perpendicular to both vectors a and b
in a right-handed sens.
[a, b, c] = a · b × c = a × b · c = b · c × a
is a scalar.
is a vector.
75
76 A.2 Suffix notation
Summation convention.
Dummy suffices are summed over from 1 to 3 whilst free suffices take the values 1, 2 and
3. Hence, free suffices must be the same on both sides of an equation whereas the names of
dummy suffices are not important (e.g. ai bi ck = aj bj ck ).
The Alternating Tensor is antisymmetric, ijk = −jik , and it is invariant under cyclic per-
mutations of the indices, ijk = jki = kij .
The tensors δij and ijk are related to each other by ijk klm = δil δjm − δim δjl .
Examples.
Standard algebraic operations on vectors can be written in a compact form using the suffix
notation.
A scalar product can be written as a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = aj bj and the ith component
of a vector product as (a × b)i = ijk aj bk .
• The directional derivative (F·∇) is a differential operator which calculates the derivative
of scalar or vector fields in the direction of F. (It is not to be confused with the scalar
∇ · F.)
The directional derivative of a scalar field is given by the scalar field
∂f ∂f ∂f
(F · ∇) f = F · ∇ f = F1 + F2 + F3 .
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
If n̂ is a unit vector, (n̂ · ∇)f gives the rate of change of f in the direction of n̂.
The directional derivative of a vector field G is given by the vector field
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
• The Laplacian ∇2 = + + is a differential operator which can act on scalar
∂x21 ∂x22 ∂x23
or vector fields:
∂2f ∂2f ∂2f
∇2 f = + +
∂x21 ∂x22 ∂x23
is a scalar field and
∇2 F = (∇2 F1 , ∇2 F2 , ∇2 F3 )
is a vector field.
D d ∂
f (x, t) = f (x(t), t) = f (x, t) + (u · ∇)f (x, t)
Dt dt ∂t
78 A.3 Vector differentiation
and
D d ∂
F(x, t) = F(x(t), t) = F(x, t) + (u · ∇)F(x, t),
Dt dt ∂t
respectively, with u(x, t) = dx/dt and where ∇ acts upon the variables (x1 , x2 , x3 ) only.
dF dF1 dF2 dF3
Notice that if F = F(t) then = , , .
dt dt dt dt
∂f
(gradf )i = (∇f )i = ,
∂xi
∂Fj
div F = ∇ · F = ,
∂xj
∂Fk
(curl F)i = (∇ × F)i = ijk ,
∂xj
∂f
(F · ∇)f = Fj .
∂xj
Notice that the operator ∂/∂xj cannot be moved around as it acts on everything that follows
it.
The differential operators defined above in Cartesian coordinates take different forms for differ-
ent systems of coordinates, e.g. in cylindrical polar coordinates or spherical polar coordinates.
Let p and u = ur êr + uθ êθ + uz êz be scalar and vector fields respectively, functions of (r, θ, z).
∂p 1 ∂p ∂p
∇p = êr + êθ + êz ,
∂r r ∂θ ∂z
1 ∂ 1 ∂uθ ∂uz
∇·u = (rur ) + + ,
r ∂r
r ∂θ ∂z
1 ∂uz ∂uθ ∂ur ∂uz 1 ∂ ∂ur
∇×u= − êr + − êθ + (ruθ ) − êz ,
r ∂θ ∂z ∂z ∂r r ∂r ∂θ
∂p uθ ∂p ∂p
(u · ∇)p = ur + + uz ,
∂r r ∂θ ∂z
1 ∂ ∂p 1 ∂ 2p ∂2p
∇2 p = r + 2 2 + 2.
r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z
Chapter A – Vector calculus 79
∇ · (∇ϕ) = ∇2 ϕ,
∇ · (∇ × F) = 0,
∇ × (∇ϕ) = 0,
∇(ϕψ) = ϕ∇ψ + ψ∇ϕ,
∇ · (ϕF) = ϕ∇ · F + F · ∇ϕ,
∇ × (ϕF) = ϕ∇ × F + ∇ϕ × F,
∇ × (∇ × F) = ∇(∇ · F) − ∇2 F,
∇(F · G) = F × (∇ × G) + G × (∇ × F) + (F · ∇)G + (G · ∇)F,
∇ · (F × G) = G · (∇ × F) − F · (∇ × G),
∇ × (F × G) = F(∇ · G) − G(∇ · F) + (G · ∇)F − (F · ∇)G,
∇2 F = ∇ (∇·F) − ∇× (∇×F) ,
1
F× (∇×F) = ∇ (F · F) − (F·∇) F.
2
• The curl of a vector field gives a measure of how much rotation or twist there is in the
field.
where S is the closed surface enclosing the volume V and n is the outward-pointing
normal from the surface.
where C is the closed curve enclosing the open surface S and n is the normal from the
surface.
1
Z Z
dy = g(x)dx,
f (y)
Linear equations
An equation of the form
dy
a(x) + b(x)y = f (x)
dx
can be integrated using an integrating factor. First put the equation into standard form by
dividing through by a(x),
dy b(x) f (x)
+ y= .
dx a(x) a(x)
which can be calculated. Multiply through by the integrating factor and if everything has
been done correctly the equation can now be written
d p(x)g(x)
(p(x) y) =
dx a(x)
81
82 B.2 Second order equations
d2 y dy
a 2
+b + cy = 0.
dx dx
Seeking solutions of the form y1 = eλx leads to the quadratic auxillary equation
aλ2 + bλ + c = 0.
So, y1 = Aeλ1 x +Beλ2 x where λ1 and λ2 are the roots of the quadratic and A and B constants.
The solution becomes y1 = (A + Bx)eλx if λ is a double root. (Notice that solutions can be
written in terms of sine and cosine functions when roots have complex values.)
Next, find a particular integral — a special case y2 that gives the correct RHS — by trying
functions y2 that look like the desired RHS.
The solution sought is the sum of the general solution to the homogeneous equation with the
particular integral, y = y1 + y2 .
Cauchy equations
Equations of the general form
d2 y dy
ax2 + bx + cy = 0.
dx2 dx
can be solved by seeking solutions of the form y = xλ , giving, as above, an algebraic auxillary
equation
aλ2 + (b − a)λ + c = 0.
dx
= f (x, y, z, t),
dt
dy
= g(x, y, z, t),
dt
dz
= h(x, y, z, t).
dt
The method of solution depends upon how the equations are coupled.
Chapter B – Ordinary differential equations 83
• Example 1:
dx dy
= x + y, = −y.
dt dt
Here the equation for dx/dt depends upon knowing y(t), however since dy/dt does not
contain x(t) we can be compute y(t) first. This has the general solution, y(t) = y0 e−t .
We can now substitute this expression for y(t) to give
dx
= x + y0 e−t .
dt
This is a linear equation so it can be solved using an integrating factor p(t) = e−t to
give
d
xe−t = y0 e−2t ,
dt
so that
y0
x(t) = − e−t + Cet .
2
• Example 2
dx dy
= 2x + y, = −x.
dt dt
Here, dx/dt depends on y(t) and dy/dt depends on x(t) therefore, we can’t solve either
equation directly as it depends on the solution to other equation, which we don’t know.
Instead, we can eliminate y(t) to form a second-order equation for x(t). Differentiating
dx/dt = 2x + y with respect to t on both sides shows that
d2 x dx dy
2
=2 + .
dt dt dt
Then, substituting dy/dt by its expression results in
d2 x dx
=2 − x.
dt2 dt
This is a constant coefficient second-order differential equation and can be solved via an
auxillary equation, to give
x(t) = (At + B)et .
Once x(t) has been found, this can be plugged into the equation for y(t) which can then
be solved to find
dx
y(t) = − 2x = (A + At + B)et − 2(At + B)et = (A − B − At)et .
dt