System Software

The Computer Defined

A computer is an electronic device that processes data, converting it into information that is useful to people. Any computer-regardless of its type-is controlled by programmed instructions, which give the machine a purpose and tell it what to do.

Digital and Analog Computers Digital computers are so called because they work 'by the numbers." That is, they break all
types of information into tiny units, and use numbers to represent those pieces of information. Digital computers also work in very strict sequences of steps, processing each unit of information individually, according to the highly organized instructions they must follow. A lesser-known type of computer is the analog computer, which works in a very different way from digital computers. The earliest computers were analog systems, and today's digital systems, owe a great deal to their analog ancestors. Analog and digital computers differ in many respects, but the most important distinction is the way they represent data.

Digital systems represent data as having one distinct value or another, with no other possibilities. Analog systems, however, represent data as variable points along a continuous spectrum of values. This makes analog computers somewhat more flexible than digital ones, but not necessarily more precise or reliable. Early analog computers were mechanical, weighing several tons and using motors and gears to perform calculations Computers can be categorized in several ways. Some computers are designed for use by one person Some are meant to be used by groups of people Some are not used by people at all. They also can be categorized by their power, which means the speed at which they operate and the types of tasks they can handle. Within a single category, computers may be subcategorized by price, the types of hardware they contain, the kinds of software they can run, and so on.

Computers for Individual Users

Most computers are meant to be used by only one person at a time. Such computer, are often shared by several people such as those in your school's computer lab), but only one user can work with the machine at any given moment.

The six primary types of computers in this category are:

Desktop computers Workstations Notebook computer, Tablet computers

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Handheld computers Smart phones

Desktop Computers The most common type of personal computer is the desktop computers, a PC that is designed to sit on (or under) a desk of table. Desktop computers are far more powerful than those of just a few years ago, and are used for an amazing array of tasks. Workstations Workstations is a specialized, single-user computer that typically has more power and features than a standard desktop PC. Workstations often have large, high resolution monitors and accelerated graphics handling capabilities, making them suitable for advanced architectural or engineering design, modeling, animation, and video editing. Notebook Computers Notebook a computers, as their same implies, approximate the shape of an 8.5by11-inch notebook and easily fit inside a briefcase. Because people frequently set these devices on their lap, they are also called laptop computers. Notebook computers can operate on alternating current or special batteries. Tablet PC The tablet PC is the newest development in portable, full-featured computers. Tablet PC offer all the functionality of a notebook PC, but they are lighter and can accept input from a special pencalled a stylus or a digital pen-that is used to tap or write directly on the screen. Handheld PCs Handheld personal computers, are computing devices small enough to fit in your hand. A popular type of handheld computer is the personal digital assistant PDA. A PDA is no larger than a small appointment book and is normally used for special applications, such as taking note, displaying telephone number, and addresses, and keeping track of dares or agendas. Many PDAs can he connected to larger computers to exchange data. Smart Phones Some cellular phones double as miniature PCs. Because these phones offer advanced features not typically found in cellular phones, they are sometimes called Smartphones. These features can include Web and email access, special software such as personal organizers or special hardware such as digital cameras or music players.

The Four Basic Functions of Computer

Input Computer can keep track of any different types of information. With software like microsoft word, notepad. it makes inputting any data such as words, articles relatively easy. Examples of input devices include, your keyboard, computer mouse, microphone etc. Processing Computer can rapidly solve all types of numerical problems. Solving numerical problems can be
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considered as an example of computer processing. With the ability of data manipulation of company, task can be completed efficiently with effectively. Saving lots and lots of time and effort, compared to human work. Storage Imagine you have a collections of ten thousand photos. With the advent of computer, you can just save that ten thousand photos and bring your laptop over. Thats that simple!. Example of computer storage include, harddisk, cd rom, dvd rom and others. Output Output is one of the most commonly used function in computer. It may refers to the graph that is being plotted in microsoft excel, the song that you are playing from media player, the powerpoint slide, so if anyone ask you, what is the basic functions of computer, always remember the below story.

Memory Devices
In a computer, memory is one or more sets of chips that store data and/or program instructions, either temporarily or permanently. Memory is a critical processing component in any computer. Personal computers use several different types of memory, but the two most important are called random access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM). These two types of memory work in very different ways and perform distinct functions. Random Access Memory The most common type of memory is called random access memory ( RAM). As a result, the term memory is typically used to mean RAM. RAM holds data and program instructions while the CPU works with them. When a program is launched, it is loaded into and run from memory. As the program needs data, it is loaded into memory for fast access. As new data is entered into the computer, it is also stored in memory-but only temporarily. RAM is volatile, meaning that it loses its contents when the computer is shut off or if there is a power failure. Therefore, RAM needs a constant supply of power to hold its data. For this reason, you should save your data files to a storage device frequently, to avoid losing them in a power failure. The most common measurement unit for describing a computer's memory is the by the amount of memory it takes to store a single character, such as a letter of the alphabet or a numeral. When referring to a computer's memory, the numbers are often so large that it is helpful to use terms such as kilobyte (KB), megabyte (MB), gigabyte (GB), and terabyte (TB) to describe the values Read-Only Memory Unlike RAM, read-only memory ROM, permanently stores its data, even when the computer is shut off. ROM is called non-volatile memory because it never loses its contents. ROM holds instructions that the computer needs to operate. Whenever the computer's power is turned on, it checks ROM for directions that help it start up, and for information about its hardware devices.

Characteristics of Computers
1. Speed : The computer present in the modern world has the speed of nano and pico second. The various speed that are used by the computers from the former generations are as follows:
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1 1 1 1

milli second=1*10^-3 second micro second=1*10^-6 second nano second=1*10^-9 second pico second=1*10^-12 second

2. Accuracy: The accuracy of computers is quite high. They are reliable and robust. It ever makes a mistake. Most probably the error occurs due to the user rather than the computer. There may be certain hardware mistake but with the advanced technique in hand they are overcome. Example: Only accurate robots are used to perform the operations for the patients since human hands are not flexible for making operations. 3. Diligence: Unlike human beings, computers are persistent and are not afflicted by tiredness, monotony, lack of concentration, etc. If there are surplus amount of executions to be made then each and every execution will be executed at the same time period. They can perform their assigned task without taking any refreshment. Example: Computers which are used for controlling the satellites. 4. Reliability: Computers produce reliable and precise results. Humans cannot work with such precision. The computers are automatic. It may execute the process without any intervention of user once they are assigned to a work. Once the data or instruction are fetched from the secondary devices such as optical disks, hard disks etc. Immediately they get stored into RAM (primary memory) and then sequentially they get executed. 5. Versatility: Computers can work with different types of data like sound, graphics, audio, etc. In our day to day life computers has been a part, with their extended flexibility they are used, all over the world. They can be used as personal computers, for home uses, for business oriented tasks, weather forecasting, space explorations, teaching, railways, banking, medicine etc. All Modern computer can perform different kind of tasks simultaneously. 6. Memory: Computers can store large amounts of data for years till a hardware failure occurs. Secondary storage devices are the key for the data storage. They store the data for which the user wants to retrieve these data for future use. The examples for various secondary devices are Floppy disk, Optical disks (CS and DVD), Zip drives, Thumb drives etc. The data of smaller size can be easily fetched and they can be copied to the primary memory (RAM).

History and Generations of Computers

Although the computer is a 20th-century invention, its predecessors reach as far back as the 17th century. Computers have undergone four generations of development, with the first computers of the 1940s launching the first generation. Each generation of computer has become smaller, more versatile and more powerful. The most recent generation resulted in the rise of the personal computer, ushering in the information age. Precursors Historians of science see the abacus, first invented in Babylon in the 300s B.C.E., as a predecessor of the computer. In the modern era, William Schickland designed a mechanical calculator in 1623, a design which Blaine Pascal improved two decades later. Charles Babbage in England came up with the concept of a steam-powered calculating machine (the analytical machine) in the mid1800s, but he failed to convince the British government to finance the project. The First Electronic Computer The British government built an electronic computing device during World War II (1939-1945 in England) to break the German's Enigma code. It was called Colossus, and the Americans followed the British with a computer a few years later, known as the Electronic Numerical Integrator And
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Computer (ENIAC). The ENIAC is generally considered the first electronic computer because of the Colossus's limited computational ability. Scientists at the Ballistics Research Laboratory and the University of Pennsylvania designed and built the ENIAC on commission from the U.S. army to help formulate ballistics data for use in bombings and artillery. Generations The ENIAC represents the first generation of computers. Vacuum tubes composed the circuitry of computers like ENIAC; input to the computers was in the form of a punch card or magnetic tape, and output was in the form of print-outs. The invention of the transistor, which was a much smaller form of circuitry that used less power, ushered in the second generation of computers during the 1950s. The second generation of computers used programming languages like FORTRAN and COBOL, although the operating system had not yet been developed. Development of the Operating System In the mid-1960s, the integrated circuit replaced the transistor, which led, once again, to smaller and more powerful computers. During this third generation of computers, programmers developed more computer languages, like BASIC, C and Pascal. IBM OS/360 and UNIX debuted as the first operating systems. The development of the operating system, which standardized computer operations, led to the growth of commercial applications. Information Age The microprocessor inaugurated the fourth generation of computers. The integrated circuit had miniaturized the circuitry of a computer, but the microprocessor was a small chip that contained all of the basic functions of a computer (processing, memory and input/output). Intel introduced the first microprocessor in 1980--the Intel 4004. The reduction of size made possible by the microprocessor permitted the building of smaller computers, leading directly to the personal computer that dominates today as well as the Information Age.

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