STUDY GUIDE

SEMESTER II-2022
Environmental Systems and Societies

Grade 12

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 CHAPTER 1
1.1 Environmental Value Systems

EVS: paradigm that shapes how individuals/groups perceive & evaluate environmental issues.

Conservationist: conserve so that nature can continue to supply goods & services sustainably

Preservationist: conserve nature unconditionally for its spiritual value

Environmental Movement Timeline:

Ecocentric (nature centred) Anthropocentric (people centred) Technocentric (centered around
technology)

Ecology central to humanity “Use not abuse” Technology to solve issues

intrinsic value
Strong regulation by authorities
Self-sufficiency of societies
Human health necessary in decision
making
Resource replacement to solve
resource depletion
Economic growth is important

1.2 Systems & Models

System: a set of interrelated parts working together to make a complex whole.

- Living or nonliving
- Open, closed, isolated
- Transfers & transformations.

Models: simplified version of reality

+ Easy to work with. - Garbage in Garbage out.

+ Show patterns. - Missing details.

+ Can be applied to other situations. - Accuracy lost if long term

predictions.

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Transfers: The movement or change in location of matter or energy – animals eating, water flowing
from a river into the sea, heat energy moving through ocean currents.

Transformations: Change in chemical nature, physical state of matter (solid-liquid-gas-plasma),

energy – Glucose converted to starch, light into heat, burning of fossil fuels, phase change of water.

Systems:

- Open system: exchanges energy and matter with its surroundings (most living systems, all
ecosystems).

- Closed system: exchanges energy but not matter with its environment (hydrological, carbon,
nitrogen cycles are closed).

- Isolated: exchanges neither matter not energy (universe).

1.3 Energy & Equilibria

Laws of thermodynamics:

1st: Energy is an isolated system that can be transformed but not created or destroyed (Principle of
conservation of energy).

2nd: Entropy (dispersal of energy) of an isolated system not in equilibrium increases over time

- Energy conversions are never 100% efficient.

- Some energy is always dissipated as waste heat.

Solar Energy to sugars = 1-2% efficiency

Herbivores assimilate only 10% of the total plant energy they consume

- Rest lost in metabolic processes + escaping from carnivore

HIGH COMPLEXITY = HIGH STABILITY

Efficiency: Work/energy produced/energy consumed

Equilibrium: A state of balance between parts of a system

o Steady state (dynamic equilibrium): Continuous inputs and outputs of energy and matter
but system still remains in a constant state (eg: body temperature (sweat/shiver to cool/warm body)

o Static: no change over time (pile of books that does not move) NON-LIVING.
o Unstable & Stable: system does not return to original vs system returns to original.

➕feedback: amplify changes & drive systems toward a tipping point (new equilibrium adopted)
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- Albedo Effect: rising global temp→ melting ice caps→ dark soil exposed→ more solarradiation
absorbed→ drop in albedo→ rising global temp.
- Melting permafrost: Higher concentrations of GHGs → strong greenhouse effect → rising
global temp. → melting permafrost → Release of CH4 → Stronger greenhouse effect → rising global
temp

➖feedback: stabilizes steady-state equilibrium; counteract deviation from equilibrium

Global Dimming: global temp↑ → ice caps melt→ more water in atmosphere→ moreclouds→ more
solar radiation reflected by clouds→ global temp fall

- More diverse + complex = more resilient due to more interactions between species
- ↑ species diversity = greater chance that one species can replace another if it gets extinct.
- ↑ genetic diversity = ↑ resilience (unlike monoculture)
- Faster rate of reproduction = faster recovery.

Tipping points: When a system experiences a shift to a new state (significant changes to its biodiversity
and services it provides).

- Related to positive feedback.

- Hard to reverse.
- Threshold point cannot be predicted precisely.

Resilience: The resiliency of an ecosystem (natural or not) relates to its tendency to avoid tipping points
and maintain stability.

1.4 Sustainability
Sustainability: Management of resources that allows full natural replacement of resources exploited &
full recovery of ecosystems affected by their extinction and use.

Sustainable development: Meet needs of present without compromising ability of future generations
to meet their own needs.

Natural Capital: Natural resources producing a sustainable natural income

Natural Income: Annual yield of goods and services obtained from natural resources

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2001): funded by UN (change in ecosystem: predictions) Facts:

- 25% of all fish stock overharvested.

- Species extinction rates are 100-1000 x above background rate.
- 50% of corals lost and degraded.

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Tragedy of the Commons:
- Acting in one's own self-interest (max utility)
- Destroys long term future of that resource.
o E.g.: hunting endangered animals makes them extinct.

Environmental Impact Assessment (1969 US):

- Baseline study (assess env, soc, econ impacts).
- Pros + cons of a development (mitigation).
• E.g.: dams/reservoirs, housing projects
- Con: hard to compare across countries, hard todetermine boundary of investigation.

CAFO: concentrated animal feeding operation

+ Pollutants reduced.

+ Concentrated wastage.

- Poor living conditions (high pop density).

- Feces+urine+160 gases (pollutants).

Ecological footprint: area of land & water required to sustainably provide all resources at the rate at which
they arebeing consumed by a given population.

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 EF > Area = unsustainability

1.5 Humans & Pollution

Pollution: Addition of a substance to the environment by human activity at a rate greater than which it
can be rendered harmless.

- Matter (solid, liquid, gas).

- Energy (light, sound, heat).
- Living organisms (invasive species).

Primary pollutants: Active on emission (e.g., carbon monoxide)

Secondary pollutants: formed by primary undergoing physical/chemical changes (SO3→ acid
rain)

Point source: single identifiable source (waste disposal pipe), easy to manage
Non-point source: numerous widely dispersed origins, gases from vehicles, cannot detect
Acute: large amount of pollutant released (a lot of harm): Bhopal Disaster 1984
Chronic: long-term release in small amounts (Beijing air): spreads widely, diff to clean up Persistent
Organic Pollutants: pesticides resistant to breaking down (remain active for long).

Eg: DDT (bioaccumulate in animal/human tissues & biomagnify in food chains)

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PCBs: cancers, hormone functions (polar bears in Arctic)

Biodegradable Pollutants: don’t persist in the environment,break down easily

E.g.: soap, domestic sewage

Microbeads: small, solid, manufactured plastic particles thatare less than 5mm and don't degrade or
dissolve in water.

- Bioaccumulation & Biomagnification (aquatic animals)

Direct detection of pollution:

- pH, DO (record, measure amount)

Indirect detection of pollution:

- record changes in biotic/abiotic factors (BOD, fecal colibacteria, lichen, mayfly).

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 CHAPTER 2
2.1. Species and Populations
Ecosystems: Made up of organisms and physical environment and the interactions between
living/non-living components within them.

Species: a group of organisms sharing common characteristics that interbreed and produce fertile
offspring.

Population: a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area and that same time,
and are capable of interbreeding.

Habitat: environment in which a species normally lives.

Population density: average number of individuals in a stated area.
Three factors affect it: natality, mortality, migration.
Niche: a particular set of biotic and abiotic factors to which an organism responds to and makes a living
towards

- Types/forms of niches: Fundamental & Realized

Fundamental niche: full range of conditions and resources in which a species survives and
reproduce.

Realized niche: the actual conditions and resources in which a species exists due to biotic
interactions.

Biotic factors: every relationship that organisms have, where they live, and how it alters
Abiotic factors: how much space, availability of light, water
Limiting factors: factors which slow down the growth of a population as it reaches its carrying
capacity

Carrying capacity: maximum number of a species or ‘load’ that can be sustainably supported
by a given area.
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 Vital categories: competition, predation, mutualism, parasitism.
Competition Predation Mutualism Parasitism

Intraspecific: between members of When one animaleats Relationship betweentwo or
the same species → drives evolution another Example: lion more species in which all
(natural selection)Example: seagull killszebra for food benefit and none suffer
community Example: lichens, clownfish
and anemones, alga (fungi
and algae)
Best example: Nitrogen-
fixing bacteria (rhizobium):
they absorb nitrogen
The relationship between
two species in which one
species lives within the
other
Example: bats and
interstitial worms,
mosquitos and
human/cows

Interspecific: individuals of different

species couldbe competing for the
same resource

They may simply out-compete each

other (competitive exclusion)
Example: trees → sunlight

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Herbivory: animal eating green plants

S & J-Curves: describes a generalized response of populations to a particular set of conditions

(biotic/abiotic)

- S-Curves: starts with exponential growth, levels off after awhile - stabilizes at carrying capacity
Example: mammals.

- J-Curves: population grows exponential curves (overshoot) and then they suddenly collapse
(diebacks) Example: bacteria.

2.2. Communities and Ecosystems

Three key ecological concepts: photosynthesis, respiration, and productivity

Photosynthesis: process by which green plants make their own food using energy from the sun and CO2
+ transformation of energy from one state to another

Respiration: conversion of organic matter into CO2 and water in all living organisms, releasing energy

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 Productivity
Compensation point: where something is not adding biomass or using it to stay alive, simply
maintaining itself.

Food chains: include producers + consumers.

Producers: organisms that make their own food.

Autotrophs: make their own food using energy from the sun + CO2

Chemosynthetic organisms: make their own food from other simple compounds (ammonia,
methane, etc.

Consumers (heterotrophs): feed of autotrophs or other heterotrophs to obtain energy

Ecological pyramids: graphical models of the quantitative differences between amounts of
living material stored at each trophic level of a food chain → snapshots of time.

Main ecological pyramids: Pyramid of numbers, biomass, and productivity.

Pyramid of numbers Pyramid of biomass Pyramid of productivity

Number of organisms at each trophic level Contains biomass of each individual(s) Rate of flow of energy or biomass
in a food chain at onetime at each trophic levelAdvantages (overthe year)
Advantages ▪ Overcomes some problems of Advantages
pyramid of numbers Disadvantages
▪ simple and easy ▪ Most accurate system: shows the
▪ Samples from population used, soit's actual energy transferred and allows
Disadvantages impossible to measure biomass exactly forrate of production
▪ All organisms included regardlessof size ▪ Organisms must be killed tomeasure ▪ Allows comparison of ecosystems
▪ Does not allow for juveniles dry mass based on relative energy flows

▪ Numbers can be too great to represent ▪ Time of the year affects data ▪ Pyramids are not inverted
accurately (i.e.; bacteria) ▪ Energy from solar radiation can be
added
Disadvantages

▪ Difficult + complex to collect

energy data (as the rate of biomass
productionovertime is required)

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2.3. Flows of Energy and Matter
Productivity: the conversion of energy into biomass over a given period of time and is measured
per unit area per unit time → rate of growth or biomass increase

▪ Gross - total amount

▪ Net - amount left after deductions (respiration, etc.)
▪ Primary - to do with plants
▪ Biomass - dry mass

Gross productivity: total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time
Net productivity: Gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time that remains after
deductions due to respiration

Gross primary productivity: total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time by
free plants

Net primary productivity: total gain in energy of biomass per unit area per unit time by
green plants after allow losses to respiration (NPP = GPP - R)

Gross secondary productivity: total energy/biomass assimilated by consumers (GSP =

food eaten - fecal loss).

Net secondary productivity: total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time by
consumers after allowing for losses to respiration (NSP = GSP - R).

Carnivores Herbivores

Assimilate 80% of energy in their diets (morethan Assimilate 40% of energy, egest 60%Graze static plants
secondary producers)

Egest about 20%

Usually have to chase moving animals so higher
energy intake is offset by increased respiration during
hunting = 90% respirationusage → 5-20% passed down
to the next trophic level on average

Where is carbon stored?

◦ Organic - biomass, fossilized life forms.
◦ Inorganic - locked up as sedimentary rocks and fossil fuels, soil, oceans.

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 Nitrogen cycle:
▪ Most abundant gas in the atmosphere, but it is unavailable to plants and animals
▪ Stored in organisms, soil, fossil fuels, atmosphere
▪ Flows in the cycle: fixation, nitrification, denitrification, feeding (absorption, assimilation,
consumption), excretion, death and decomposition.

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 Fixation Nitrification Denitrification Decomposition Assimilation
When atmosphere Bacteria that are Denitrifying bacteria in Supplies soil with more Once taken in by
nitrogen is made able to convert waterlogged and nitrogen than the living organisms,
available to plants ammonium to anaerobic conditions. fixation process. they assimilate it or
through fixation. nitrates, while some build more complex
convert nitrites to molecules.
nitrates.
Can be carried out Reverse the process by
in 5 ways: conversion of
ammonium nitrites, and
nitrate ions to nitrogen
gas.
- Nitrogen fixing
bacteria.
- Cyanobacteria.
- Lighting causing
oxidation of
nitrogen gas.
- The Haber
process (the
making of artificial
fertilizers from
ammonia).

Important Facts:
- Most energy that drives processes on earth comes from the sun
- Only about 1-4% of energy from the sun is available to plants
- About 50% of the energy from the sun is lost by the time it reaches the atmosphere

2.4. Biomes, Zonation, and Succession

Biome: collection of ecosystems sharing similar climatic conditions.
Biosphere: part of the Earth inhabited by organisms.
Biomes are defined by:

- Temperature and precipitation (rain + snowfall + isolation)

- Latitude - north & south
- Altitude - height above sea-level
- Ocean current - latent heat (Humboldt current - El Niño) and distribute surplus heat
energy at the equator towards poles
- P/E ratio (precipitation to evaporation ratio)
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Type of biomes: Aquatic, deserts, forests, grassland, tundra.

Ways our climate is changing:

◦ Temperature increase of 1.5 to 4.5C by 2100 (IPCC).
◦ Greater warming at higher latitudes.
◦ Warming in the winter more than summer (shorter winters).
◦ Stronger storms.
◦ Drier regions.

Biomes shifting:
◦ Africa’s Sahel region - woodlands becoming savannas
◦ Arctic - tundra becoming shrubland

Hotspots: area predicted to have high turnover of species due to climate change (Hawaii, Iceland,
yellowstone places, Himalayas, Mediterranean region, Madagascar, North American Great Plain and Great
Lakes)

**Fact: Up to one billion people live in areas vulnerable to biome changing. This can bring new
opportunities such as:

● Drilling for ice in the Arctic Ocean is easier with melting of ice
● Passages are opening up for ships and boats, which can enable extensivetrade between the North Pole
and North America

Zonation: change in community along an environmental gradient due to change in abioticfactors

(temperature, altitude, soil type, precipitation, solar insolation, interactions between species)

Succession: Change in species composition in an ecosystem over time

Primary succession: Occurs on bare inorganic surface → ex: Hydrosere (succession in use for
plants, Galápagos islands (increase in volcanic activity)

Secondary succession: When an established community is destroyed (due to fire, flood) →

wind brings seed to colonize land, climax communities.

Changes that occur during succession:

o Size of organisms increases
o Energy flow becomes more complex
o Soil depth, humus, mineral content increase
o Biodiversity increases
o NPP and GPP rise then fall
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o Productivity - respiration (R) falls

Arrested and deflected successions:

o May be stopped at a stage due to an abiotic factor - soil conditions suchas water logging
o Thus, development is ceased until the limiting factor is removed

Significance of changes:
o In early stages, GP = low
o Biodiversity increases due to arrival of more species but then decreases slightlyif a stable climax
community is reached
o Mineral cycling tends to be slow at start but increases strongly during this Period

K-Strategists (humans, elephants)

◦ Long life
◦ Slower growth
◦ Late maturity
◦ Predators
◦ Fewer large offspring

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R- Strategists (beetles, turtles)
o Short life.
o Rapid growth.
o Early maturity.
o Many small offspring

**Note: No net productivity when there is a switch from “r” to “k”

2.5. Investigating Ecosystems – Practical work

Quadrats: frame of specific size (depending on what is being studied) which may be divided into
subsections.

1. Random Quadrats: throwing quadrat over your shoulder but this method is notrecommended as it is
not only dangerous but also not random.
o Map our study area.
o Draw a grid over the study area.
o Number each square.
o Use a random number table to identify which squares you need to sample.
2. Stratified random sampling: used when there is an obvious difference within an area to be sampled
and two sets of samples are taken.
o Deal with each area separately.
o Draw a grid for each area.
o Number the squares in each area.
o Use a random number table to identify which squares you want to sample in each area.

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Transects: sample path along which you record the occurrence and or distribution of plants and animals
in a particular study area.

● Change in organisms as a result of changes along an environmental gradient (zonation along a slope,
grassland to woodland, changes in species composition with increasing distance from a source of
pollution)
● Quick + simple to conduct

Types of transects
- Line transect: measuring tape which is laid out in the direction of the
environmental gradient and species touching the tape are recorded.
- Belt transect: strip of chosen width through the ecosystem. Made by
laying two parallelline transects apart between which individuals are sampled.

Additional types
- Continuous transects: the whole line/belt is sampled
- Interrupted transects: points taken at regular intervals are sampled; quadrats are placed
at intervals along the belt

Salinity: concentration of salts expressed in % (parts of salt per thousand parts of water).

- Determined by measuring the electrical conductivity or the density of water.

- Seawater has pH above 7 (alkaline).

Temperature
- Affects the metabolic rates of marine organisms as many are ectothermic.
- Low temperatures = low metabolic rate.

Dissolved oxygen is affected by

- Temperature (high temp = lower concentrations of DO)
- Water pollution = low DO concentrations

Wave action: areas with high wave activity have high concentrations of DO (coral reefs)

Turbidity: cloudiness of a body of freshwater

- Important because it limits the penetration of sunlight and the depth at which
photosynthesis can occur.

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 Measuring it:
- Secchi Disc: black and white disc attached to a graduated rope. Slowly lower the
disc until it disappears from the view.
1. Read the depth from the graduated rope.
2. Slowly raise the disc until it is just visible again.
3. Read the depth from the graduated rope.
4. Calculate the average depth (Secchi Depth)

For reliable results a standard procedure must be followed (choose 1):

- Stand OR sit.
- Glasses OR no glasses.
- Always work on the shady side of the boat.
- Repeat on the same spot 3-5 times.

Air temperature: temperature varies temporally and spatially and can be measured using liquid
thermometers, min-max thermometers or electronic thermometers which can be used to measure
temperature continuously during a longer time.

Light Intensity: measured using electronic meters. Light intensity varies with time.

Soil moisture: amount of water in the soil

1. Place a sample of soil in a crucible.

2. Weigh it and record the weight.
3. Dry the sample (conventional oven)
4. Set the oven to 105 degrees; hot enough to try but not too hot that it burns off theorganic matter.
5. Leave for 24 hours and weigh the sample. Repeat this until its mass becomes constant. This takes
several days.

Soil organic content: plant and animal residues in various stages of decay

o Supplies nutrients to soil.

o Holds water.
o Helps reduce crusting and compaction.
o Increases infiltration.
o Dry sample.
o Heat the soil at high temp (500°C to 1000°C) for several hours.
o Weight the sample and repeat this until its mass becomes constant.

Plant biomass (‘constant dry biomass’):

o Select the plant sample required.
o Simply remove it and leave it out to dry.
o Once the plants/leaves seem (completely out of water), then measure its biomass
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o Wait till it is more of a constant measure and then jot down the quantitative data

Grasses and low vegetation:

o Place a suitably sized quadrant.
o Harvest all the above-ground vegetation in that area.
o Wash it to remove any insects.
o Dry it at 60-70 degrees until it reaches a constant weight. Water content can vary enormously so
all the water should be removed and the mass given as dry weight.
o This should be repeated 3-5 times to obtain a mean.
o Results can be extrapolated to the total biomass of that species in the ecosystem.

Trees and bushes:

o Select the tree or bush you want to test.
o Harvest the leaves from 3-5 branches.
o Repeat steps 3-6 from the above method.

Primary productivity: light and dark bottle technique (gross and net productivity)

- Take two bottles filled with water from the ecosystem.

a. One bottle is made of clear glass.
b. Second bottle is of dark class or ic covered to exclude light.
- Measure the oxygen concentration of the water by an oxygen probe or the WinklerMethod and
record it as mg oxygen per litre of water.
- Place equal amounts of plants of the same species into each of the bottles.
- Both bottles must be completely filled with water and capped (no air should be present).
- Allow to stand and incubate for several hours.
- Measure the oxygen levels in both bottles and compare with the original oxygen level in the
water. The incubation can take place in the lab/outdoors in the ecosystem of investigation.

Light bottle: photosynthesis and respiration have been occuring

Dark bottle: only respiration occurs

Terrestrial ecosystem (with square patches):

Catch insects:

Pitfall traps
Warning: make sure there are no venomous insects in the local area and do not handle the insects
directly (move them with tweezers or a pooter)

- Ideal for catching insects and small crawling animals that cannot fly away.
- Insects can be attracted by decaying meat of a sweet-sugar solution that must becovered so that the
insects do not fall in it and drown; insects will fall into trap.
- Do not put any fluid in the bottom of the trap to kill the insect.

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- Do not leave the traps unchecked for more than 24 hrs.

Sweep Nets
- Swept through grasses at various heights to catch many insects.
- Emptied into a large clear container and species and numbers may be counted

Tree beating:
- Find insects in tree branches.
- Place a catching tray beneath a tree branch and gently tap the branch.
- The tray will catch anything that falls from the tree and you can log the species and their numbers.
- Small insects and invertebrates can be caught with a pooter.

Aquatic ecosystems:
Kick sampling
- Place a sweep net downstream from you.
- Shuffle your feet into the streambed for 30 seconds.
- Empty the contents of the net into a tray filled with stream water.
- Use a pipette to sort the various insects into small plastic cups and record your results.
- Repeat three times to ensure good results.

Keys
- Used to identify species.
- Come in two formats (diagrammatic or dichotomous).

Lincoln Index (capture, mark, release, recapture): used to estimate the population size of
animals which move about or do not appear during the day.

- Establish the study area.

- Capture a sample of the population (method of capture depends on the size of theanimals)
- Mark each of the organisms captured and record how many you have marked (must bedone in a non-
harmful way).
- Release the captured individuals back into the environment and allow sufficient time to remix with the
population.
- Take a second sample in the same way as the first: count the number of organisms captured in this
sample and count how many of them are marked. At Least 10 percent ofthe marked sample should be
recaptured if this estimate is going to be fairly accurate.

Assumptions:
- Mixing is complete
- Marks do not disappear
- It is equally easy to catch every individual

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- There are no immigration, emmigration, births or deaths in the population between the times of the
sampling.
- Trapping the organisms does not affect their chances of being trapped the second time.
- Marks are not harmful nor increase predation by making the individual more easily seen.

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 CHAPTER 3
3.1. Biodiversity and Conservation
Biodiversity: quantifiable version of nature which helps policy-makers in suggesting them what to do
(helps make better science)

Different types of biodiversity: Genetic diversity, species diversity and habitat diversity Species
diversity: communities is a product of two variables - no. of species and relative proportions

Genetic diversity: range of genetic material present in a gene pool and the amount of variation that
exists between different individuals within different populations of a species. Therefore, to conserve the
maximum amount of genetic diversity, different populations of species need to be conserved

◦ Human can alter genetic diversity by artificially breeding or genetically engineering

populations
◦ Genetic variation = good thing, according to many conservationists
Habitat diversity: range of different habitats per unit area in a particular ecosystem or biome

Habitat with high biodiversity

Advantages Disadvantages

Resilience and stability genetic Could be a result of fragmentation of

diversity.
Some plants will have deep roots
so they can cycle nutrients
habitat managing grazing can be difficult
- tolerance is different between plant
species.

Hotspots: region with high level of biodiversity that is under threat from human activities

▪ include ten in tropical rainforests

▪ near to tropics - fewer limiting factors in lower latitudes
▪ cover only 2.3% land surface
▪ threatened areas where 70% of the habitat is lost
▪ tend to have large human habitations nearby
▪ contains more than 1,500 plant species that are already endemic

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Examples: Hawaii, Iceland, Yellowstone places, coral reefs, mangroves (hotspots of the ocean)

Tropical rainforests are vulnerable because:

▪ upsetting equilibrium due to deforestation

▪ flows of nutrients has imbalanced (very few nutrients are present in the soil, they’re mainly in living
material/biomass)

Ex: Palm oil extraction in Indonesia

Tropical Rainforests are hotspots (something that has a small area but high biodiversity): 6% of land
occupied (originally it was 14% 40 years ago, now it is at 6%)

- Traps water with roots from trees (adds to system energy).

- Controls the weather (Amazon rainforest).

3.2. Origins of Biodiversity

How new species from: Charles Darwin - theory of evolution “The Origin of Species” (1859)

Speciation: gradual change of species over a long time When the population of the same species are
separated:

o cannot interbreed if inhabited environment changes.

o humans can speed up speciation by artificial selection of animals.

Physical barriers:
o Large flightless birds only occur on continents that made up “Gondwana” - Africa, Australia,
New Zealand, South America.
o Marsupials - in Australia as they split from Antarctic.
o Placental mammals prevailed in South America.
o Cichlid fish - ◦have been isolated from each other in the lakes of East Africa.

Land bridges:
o Allow species to invade new areas.
o May result from lowering of sea levels instead of continental drift.

Influence of plate activity on biodiversity:

o Convergence - created Himalayas, Andes, etc.
o Diverge - mid-Atlantic ridge, cause physical separation of populations.
o Slide past each other (e.g. the San Andreas Fault Line, California).

Continental drift:
o Resulted in new habitats.
o Antarctica was once covered with tropical forests, but its southward movement has led to snow and
ice covered-landscape.
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 Similar group of animals:
◦ Similarities between animals on different continents.

◦ Examples: Llama and Camel, Kangaroos play a role in Australia that cattle play in most of the world
(both are large herbivores, eat grass and convert it to meat).

Background and Mass extinctions

◦ Background extinction rate - natural extinction rate of all species.
◦ one species per million species per year.
◦ There are about 5000 mammal species alive today.
◦ 169 mammal species = critically endangered.

Holocene extinction - 6th mass extinction

◦ Believed that we are in it right now.
◦ Caused by anthropogenic influences.
◦ Wiping out of animal species.
◦ Pollution, overexploitation, etc.

Dinosaur extinction - 5th mass extinction (KT boundary) Permian

- Triassic (PT) boundary - 3rd mass extinction
◦ 251 million years ago.
◦ Known as ‘The Great Dying’.
◦ 95-96% of all species went extinct.

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3.3. Threats to Biodiversity Estimate of species alive:
o 7 million, excluding bacteria.
o 2/3’s are in the tropics.
o 50% of tropical rainforests have been cleared by humans.
o However, only 1.4-1.8 million species have been named (beetles are most identified - 25% of all
named species).

Factors maintaining biodiversity:

o Complexity of the ecosystem (more complex a food web is, the more resilient it is).
o Stage of succession (communities in young ecosystems that are undergoing succession may be more
vulnerable than older, more stable and resilient ones).
o Limiting factors (water in a desert, competition with other organisms, temperature, etc.).
o Inertia: property of an ecosystem to resist change when subjected to destructive force.

Factors leading to a loss of biodiversity

◦ Natural hazards (volcanoes, earthquakes, hurricanes, etc.).
◦ Loss of habitat (due to anthropogenic activities → Deforestation, in Mediterranean, only 10% of the
original forest cover remains).
◦ Fragmentation of habitats: large area is divided into smaller areas due to establishment of factories,
houses, cities, etc.
◦ Pollution (pesticides, oil spills, emissions - lead to acid deposition or photochemical smog, run-off
from fertilizers, climate change - alters weather patterns and shifts biomes away from equator).
◦ Overexploitation (overfishing - use of technology to find hotspots of fish).
◦ Introducing exotic/non-native species → It can work sometimes - potatoes from Americas to Europe
or Sometimes not: Rhododendrons were introduced to Europe from Nepal escaped into the wild, and
outcompete native plants and are toxic, Rabbits in Australia.
◦ Spread of diseases (ebola in 2014/15, Swine Flu in 2010 - endemic in pigs, bird flu).
◦ Modern agricultural practices (monocropping → less destructive).

What makes a species prone to extinction?

◦ Narrow geographical range
◦ Small population
◦ Declining population
◦ Low population density and large territory
◦ Few populations of species
◦ A large body
◦ Low reproductive rate
◦ Seasonal migrates
◦ Poor dispersers
◦ Specialized feeders

26
◦ Hunted for food/sport
◦ Minimal viable population size
• International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)Red List:
determines conservation status of a species based on criteria - most are stated above under “what
makes a species prone to extinction”

Criteria of judgement include: Extinct (dodo bird & tasmanian tiger), Critically Endangered (red
panda, sea turtles, orangutan, Sumatran rhinos), Endangered (rafflesia & sumatran/bengal tiger, sea
otters), Vulnerable, Least Concerned, Data Deficient, Not Evaluated

3.4. Conservation of Biodiversity

Why conserve biodiversity?

→ Economic, Ecological, Social, Aesthetic (PECe)

Value of biodiversity:
o Food sources (case studies: wheat rust disease, introduction of resistant genes from a wild strain of
wheat in Turkey.
o Scientific and education value.
o Biological control agents.
o Gene Pool.
o Recreational.
o Ecotourism.
o Ethical/intrinsic value.
o environmental services.

Natural products: Honey, oil palms, guano

If biodiversity is protected
1st law of thermodynamics → conservation of energy

o Energy in an isolated system can be transformed but not be created ordestroyed.

o Equilibrium is very important.
o Balance is required in the system.
o Order to disorder.

2nd law of thermodynamics → Entropy (unavailability of a system’s thermal energy forconversion

into mechanical work).

o Amount of disorder in the system.

o More entropy = less order.
o Energy of the universe dispersed (order > disorder) energy spreader asuniverse spreads infinitely.
o Energy conversions are never 100% efficient.
o Energy is always lost in the environment as heat.
27
o Organisms reverse entropy.

3rd law of thermodynamics → entropy is at a constant level.

Human health: Penicillin (first antibiotics) were from fungi.

o Periwinkle is curing children from leukemia.

o Gene/Seed banks: maintain genetic diversity for plants.

Complexity and Stable equilibrium:

Most ecosystems are very complex:

▪ Can withstand stress better and also a more stable system.

▪ Monoculture farming is very simple.
▪ Open to pests and diseases.
▪ Increases vulnerability.

Steady state equilibrium

◦ Human body sweats to cool down and shivers to heat up to keep a steady bodytemperature
◦ Non-living things are static

Approaches to conservation
◦ Human health
◦ Human rights
◦ Recreational
◦ Ecotourism
◦ Ethical/Intrinsic value

Keystone species: A keystone species is a species that has a disproportionately large effect on its natural
environment relative to its abundance

Examples: krill, beavers, bees, tuna, sea otters, elephants

28
 CHAPTER 4
4.1 Introduction to water systems
- 70% of Earth's surface is covered by water.
- 2.6% of water on Earth is freshwater.
- 68.7% in glaciers + ice caps, 30.1% groundwater, surface water (lakes, rivers) 0.3% 97% is saltwater.

Turnover time
- Oceans = 37,000 years
- Icecaps = 16,000 years
- Groundwater = 300 days
- Rivers = 12-20 days
- Atmosphere = 9 days

Water is renewable in atmosphere & rivers, replenishable in groundwater aquifers, and

nonrenewable in oceans & icecaps

Hydrological Cycle

Transfers: Stays in the same state

▪ Flooding, Surface run-off

▪ Stream flow/currents

29
Transformation: Changes state

▪ Evapotranspiration: liquid to water vapor

▪ Condensation: Water vapor to liquid
Human impact on water cycle Withdrawals (domestic use) Discharge (pollutants to water)

Changing speed of water flow and where itflows (canals, dams)

Diverting river sections to avoid flooddamage

Examples of changes caused by humans: Ganges Basin (deforestation increases flooding

because precipitation is not absorbed by vegetation)

Ocean Currents: movements of water horizontally and vertically.

Surface currents
1. Deep water currents: cause the oceanic conveyor belt
- Due to differences in water density caused by salt and temperature
- Warm water holds less salt and is less dense so it rises
- Cold water holds more salt and sinks because it is denser
- When warm water rises, cold water comes up to replace it (upwellings)
- When cold water rises, it has to be replaced by warm water (downwelling)
- In this way, water circulates.

Cold Currents (pole to equator): Humboldt Current (Peru)

Warm Currents (equator to poles): Angola Current

30
4.2 Access to Freshwater
o 1.1 billion people live without clean drinking water
o 2.6 billion lack adequate sanitation
o 3900 children die every day from waterborne diseases
o Water can be made usable through desalination plants, but these are very expensive and only found
in economically strong countries like Saudi Arabia
o WHO says a human should have 20L of fresh water access everyday.
o Egypt imports half of its food because they don’t have enough water to grow

Freshwater Issues:
o Climate change disrupting rainfall patterns: causing inequality of supplies
o Contaminated and unusable freshwater
o Fertilizers + pesticides pollute streams and rivers
o Underground aquifers are being exhausted (affects agriculture)
o Irrigation leads to soil degradation

Possible solutions:
o Increase freshwater supplies by reservoirs, desalination plants, and rainwater harvesting
o Grey water recycling from shower, baths
o Replace chemical fertilizers with organic ones + reduce fertilizer use
o Irrigation: select drought resistant crops
o Water treatment plants

4.3 Aquatic Food Production Systems

Continental shelf: extension of continents under the seas and oceans (creates shallow water)

- Important because it has 50 percent of oceanic productivity but 15 percent of its area
- Light reaches shallow seas so producers can photosynthesize
- Countries can claim it as theirs to exploit and harvest

Phytoplankton: single celled organisms that can photosynthesize (produce 99 percent of primary
productivity)

Zooplankton: single-celled animals that eat phytoplankton and their waste

Fishery: exists when fish are harvested in some way (capture of wild fish, aquaculture, fish farming)

- 90% happens in oceans and 10% in freshwater

- 70% of world 's fisheries are exploited

31
- Each person on average eats 20kg of fish and 8kg of meat annually Aquaculture: farming of aquatic
organisms in both coastal and inland areas involving interventions in the rearing process to enhance
production.

Example: China produces 62% of farmed fish worldwide (carp/catfish): grown in rice paddies and their
waste provides fertilizer for the rice.

Impacts of fish farms

- Loss of habitats
- Pollution (antibiotics, feed)
- Spread of diseases
- Escaped species (genetically modified organisms) may survive to interbreed with wild fish
- Escaped species may outcompete native species (pop crash)

Tragedy of the commons

- Idea of overexploiting a resource that seems to belong to everyone

Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY)

- SY: Increase in natural capital (natural income that can be exploited each year without depleting the
original stock)
- MSY: highest amount that can be taken without permanently depleting the stockThe force that pushes
the curve back is known as environmental resistance

Levels off at carrying capacity

Much better = Optimal Sustainable Yield (fishing quotas)

Carrying Capacity for each species depends on its:

- Longevity.
- reproductive strategy.
- Ecosystem.

4.4 Water Pollution

Pollutants can be
- Anthropogenic or natural.
- Point/Non- Point source.
- Organic or inorganic.
- Direct or indirect.

32
 Inorganic
Organic pollutant Both
pollutant
- Sewage - Nitrates and - Solid Domestic waste
phosphates
- Animal waste - Radioactive - Debris
material
- Pesticides - Heavy toxic - Suspended solids
materials
Example: Example: Example:
- Human waste - Fertilizers - Silt from construction
- Manure - Industry - Household garbage
- insecticides - Nuclear power
stations
Effects: Effects: Effects:
- Eutrophication - Eutrophication - Damage corals
- Loss of - Bioaccumulation - Plastics (great pacific
biodiversity and biomagnification garbage patch)

Freshwater pollution: Agricultural runoff, sewage, solid domestic waste

Marine pollution: Rivers, pipelines, human activities

Measuring water pollution

- BOD: amount of dissolved oxygen required to break down organic material in a givenvolume of water.
- Indicator species: plants and animals that show something about the environment by their
presence, absence, abundance, or scarcity.
- Biotic Index: indirectly measures pollution by assaying the impact on species within the community
according to their tolerance, diversity, and relative abundance.

Eutrophication: when lakes, estuaries, and coastal waters receive inputs of nutrients (nitrates and
phosphates) that result in an excess growth of plants and phytoplankton.

- When severe = dead zones; too less oxygen to support life

- Anaerobic water
- Loss of biodiversity and shorter food chains
- Increased turbidity of water
- Death of higher plants

Excess nutrients come from

- Detergents and fertilizers
- Drainage (intensive livestock rearing units)
- Sewage

33
- Increased erosion of topsoil into water

Process of eutrophication:
1. Fertilizer enters river/lake.
2. High level of phosphate lets algae grow faster.
3. Algae blooms form; blocks out light to plants that thus die.
4. More algae = more food for zooplankton/small animals that feed on them. They are food to fish,
hence there becomes a lack of zooplankton/small animals, thus less are there toeat algae.
5. Algae die and are decomposed by aerobic bacteria.
6. Not enough oxygen nonetheless, hence everything dies as the food chain collapses.
7. Oxygen levels fall lower. Dead organic material forms sediments on the lake or river bed and
turbidity increases.
8. All life is gone and sediment settles to leave a clear blue lake.

Eutrophication Management Strategies:

Before:

- Ban or limit detergents with phosphates or use eco detergents

- Stop leaching of animal waste
- Educate farmers about effective timing for fertilizer application

During:
- Treat wastewater before release to remove phosphates and nitrates.
- Divert or treat sewage waste effectively.

After:
- Pumping air through lakes
- Remove excess weeds physically or by herbicides

34
 CHAPTER 5
5.1. Introduction to Soil Systems
Soil: Is a mixture of mineral particles and organic material that covers the land, and in which terrestrial
plants grow. It is made up of minerals, organic material, gases, and liquid Pedosphere: Soil sphere

Soil model:

Translocation: Materials are sorted and layers are formed by water carrying particles either up or down
Horizons: Processes such as downward and upward movement of minerals leads to soil being processed
into distinct horizons (levels).

Types of Horizons
o O Horizon: Uppermost layer; has newly added organic material.
o A Horizon: Humus builds up - Humus Layer = "Good stuff” and forms via organic matter mixed
with organic matter.
o B Horizon: Soluble minerals and organic matter tend to be deposited from the layer above.
o C Horizon: Mainly weathered rock from which soil forms.
o R Horizon: Parent material (bedrock).

o **Note: Not ALL soils HAVE A, B and C.

Types of soil texture

o Sandy: Gritty and fall apart easily.
o Silty: Slippery and wet; hold together better than sandy soil.
o Clay: Sticky and can be rolled into a ball easily.
o Loam soil: Ideal for agriculture.

35
Porosity: Amount of space between particles.

Permeability: The ease at which gases and liquids and pass through the soil.

Acidification of soil: Acid rain causing pollution, adversely affecting soil and causing damage to evergreen
forestry.

Fertile soil = Nonrenewable resource

● Main nutrients are Nitrates, Phosphates and Potassium (NPK)
- N: For leaf and stem.
- P: For root system.
- K: Flower head/fruit.

5.2. Terrestrial Food Production Systems and

Choices
Types of farming systems
1. Subsistence farming
o Provision of food by farmers for their community or family
o No surplus
o Low inputs of energy: they are unlikely to produce more than they need

2. Commercial farming
o Large, profit-making scale.
o Monoculture or of one type of animal.
o High levels of technology.

3. Extensive and Intensive

o Extensive: more use of land with lower density.
o Intensive: uses intensive amount of land with higher input.

Basic food facts

o World food production is concentrated in the northern hemisphere temperate zone
o Africa: only 7% of the land area is cultivated
o LEDCs have 80% of the world’s human population

Factors that influence choice of food eaten and grown:

o Climate
o Cultural and religious
o Political
o Socio-economic
36
 History of farming and domestication
• Animal domestication: came before crop farming.
• Livestock are a useful means of converting plant material.

Arable Farming
• Seeds of crop plants deliberately sown into a soil.
• Plants are monoculture → they are grown in high density.

Harvesting
• Requires the removal of biomass from the field.
• Net loss of biomass, nutrients, minerals.

Crop Rotation
• One way of addressing loss of soil fertility.
• Leguminous crops (beans, peas, soya) add nitrogen to soil.

Farming energy budget

• Energy contained within the crop of harvested product per unit area.
• Efficiency: a system with inputs, outputs, and storage.
• Example: Rice Production in Borneo and California Borneo:

o Traditional, extensive rice production.

• Low inputs of chemical and energy.
• High labor intensity.
• Low productivity.

37
 Terrestrial vs. aquatic food production systems
Terrestrial
o Usually harvested at first (crops) or second trophic level.
o Meat comes from primary consumers (pig, chicken).

Aquatic
o Mostly from higher trophic levels.
o Less efficient than terrestrial because of lack of balance in consumption from
trophic levels.

Factors causing decrease in agricultural land

o Soil erosion
o Salinization
o Desertification
o Urbanization

How to increase sustainability of food supplies

1. Maximizing yield: Improve technology, alter what we grow or a new Green Revolution.
2. Reduce food waste: Improve storage.
3. LEDC: waste mostly in production and storage (e.g.: no refrigeration, lack of goodstorage, severe
weather).
4. MEDC: mostly in consumption → buying more than what's needed, stricter standards in
supermarket (round apples only).
5. Monitoring and control: Regulate imports and exports to reduce unsustainableagricultural
practices.
6. Change attitudes towards diet and food: eat less meat, eat different crops, increase insect
consumption → more protein.
7. Reduce food processing: Decreases use of transport and packaging (ex: plastic, fuel, etc. - overall
decrease in energy use).

Predictions
o More people will eat meat
o Population - grow to 8 billion by 2030
o Decrease in hungry people to about 440m
o Extra billion tons of cereal will be needed

38
5.3. Soil Degradation
Types of processes (which give rise to soil degradation):
1. Taking away soil (erosion): Occurs when there is no vegetation in the soil.
2. Making soil less suitable for use:
o Chemicals entering soil which render soil useless in the long run.
o Human activities: overgrazing, deforestation, unsustainable agriculture.

Overgrazing:
- When too many animals graze in the same area.
- Leaves bare patches where roots don’t hold soil together.

**Sahel region: Africa → occurs there (1970-80s).

Overcropping:
- Depletes soil nutrients and makes soil dry (hence risk of erosion)
- Reduced soil fertility

Deforestation: Removal of forests

- Removal of vegetation leads to erosion → through water as areas with forests

arerelatively wet

Unsustainable agriculture techniques

- Total removal of crops after harvest
- Plowing in direction of the slope → makes ready-made channels for rainwater
to flow down
- Excessive use of pesticide
- Irrigation - can cause salinization as minerals dissolved in irrigation water
remain in the top layer of the soil and form a hard salty crust making the land unsuitable for farming.
Case study: Drip technology → Israel
- Monocropping: nutrients are depleted and soil loses fertility
Urbanization: refers to the increasing number of people that live in urban areas

- More people live in urban regions than in rural for the first time in human
history
- A lot of potential agriculturally suitable land is used for cities

Soil Erosion: 3 major processes:

1. Sheet wash: surface soil washed away during storm periods/landslides

2. Gullying: channels developing on hillsides after rainfall; become deeper over
time.
3. Wind erosion: drier soils are removed from the surface from high winds
39
 Soil conservation
o Insert soil conditioners
❖ Chalk, crushed limestone
❖ Counters soil acidification
o Wind reduction

❖ Plant trees/bushes between fields or alternate low and high crops (stripcultivation); or build
fences.

o Soil conserving cultivation techniques

❖ Terracing.

40
 CHAPTER 6
6.1 Introduction to the atmosphere
Atmosphere: dynamic system with inputs, outputs, storages and flows.

- 78% nitrogen (triple-bonded N2), 21% oxygen, rest (trace gases: CO2, argon,
ozone, etc.) Stratosphere (space) and Troposphere (earth) are where most reactions affecting life
occur.

Factors influencing climate:

o Abiotic factors - temperature and precipitation.
o Biotic - plants and animals.

Greenhouse effect: Natural and essential phenomenon for maintaining suitable temperatures
for living systems - good thing for life on Earth (no life without it)

41
- Caused by trapping gases in the atmosphere reducing heat losses by radiation
back into space.
- Solar radiation - nearly 50% is absorbed, scattered or reflected by the
atmosphere before it reaches Earth’s surface.
- Main gases involved: water vapor, methane, Co2

6.2 Stratospheric ozone

Ozone: found in two layers of the atmosphere (Stratosphere = good, Troposphere = bad)

- Ozone is a molecule made of three oxygen atoms

- Stratospheric ozone blocks incoming UV radiation from the sun
- Ozone is also a GHG which is reactive + found in lower stratosphere
- Ozone layer: example of dynamic equilibrium as it is continuously made of
oxygen atoms and converted back to oxygen
- UV radiation is absorbed in formation and destruction of ozone.

Oxygen-ozone cycle.

Three types of UV radiation:

UV-B, UV-C = most harmful type, UV-A = least harmful

Damaging:
- Genetic mutation.
- Skin cancer: high in Australia & NZ.
- Damage to photosynthetic organism (phytoplankton) and their consumers
(zooplankton).

42
 Beneficial:
- Vitamin D production is stimulated (in animals).
- Used as a sterilizer: water/air purifier.
- Lasers, forensic analysis.

ODS - Ozone Depleting Substances

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
- Extremely stable, persist in the atmosphere for up to 100 years.
- Refrigerants, spray cans.
- Release chlorine atoms: Leads to ozone destruction.
- 1 chlorine atom can destroy many molecules of ozone in a chain reaction with positive
feedback

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
- Replacement for CFCs (stronger GHGs).

Reducing ODS
Before - Alter human activity
- Replace CFCs with CO2 or replace gas-blown plastics

During - regulate and reduce pollutants

- Recover and recycle CFCs from refrigerators/AC units or capture CFCs from
scrap car AC units

After - Clean up and restore

- Add ozone to or remove chlorine fromstratosphere (not practical)

Montreal Protocol
- Agreement to phase out the production ofozone-depleting substances (ODS)
- Best example of international cooperation onan environmental issue
- Many experts came together to researchand solve problems
- First time regulations were carefullymonitored

6.3 Photochemical smog

Urban air pollution
- 1 billion people are exposed to outdoor air pollution p/year
- 1 million people die prematurely due to air pollution.

Primary pollutants: emitted directly from a process and produced:

43
- Carbon monoxide/dioxide
- Nitrogen oxides
- Sulphur oxides

Other sources: Building sites and forest fires

Secondary pollutants: when primary pollutants undergo reactions with other chemicals

- Tropospheric ozone
- Particles produced from gaseous primary pollutants

Tropospheric ozone: 10% of atmosphere ozone is in troposphere

- Ozone = GHG with GW potential of 2000x more than CO2

Formation of tropospheric ozone

Nitric Oxide + oxygen→ nitrogen oxide (brown gas = urban haze)

Nitrogen oxide absorbs sunlight and breaks up into nitric oxide & oxygen atomsThese oxygen atoms react
with oxygen molecules to form ozone

Possible effects of ozone

- Breathing issues (humans), photosynthesis problems (plants)
- Attacks rubber, plastic, cellulose

44
 Formation of particulates
- Burning fossil fuels releases small particles of carbon and other substances.

Dangers of particulates
- Our respiratory filters (nose) cannot filter them out, thus resulting in asthma,lung cancer, and other
respiratory problems
- Many are cancerous

Formation of photochemical smog

- Sunny days with a lot of traffic canlead to photochemical smog
- Burning of forests can contribute
- Mainly composed of nitrogen dioxideand ozone
- However, has a mixture of 100 differentprimary and secondary air pollutants
- Formed when ozone, nitrogen oxideand gaseous hydrocarbons from vehicle exhausts interact with
strongsunlight.

Occurrence of photochemical smog is influenced by factors such as local topography, climate, pop.
density, fossil fuel use.

Pollution Management Model for reducing urban air pollution

Before:
- Consume less, burn less fossil fuel.
- Lobby governments to increase renewable energy use.

During:
- Government regulation/taxation

After:
- Re-greening of cities (more trees + parks to absorb Co2)
- Afforestation to filter air

6.4 Acid Deposition

Acid coming down from the air

Wet: rain or snow form.

Dry: ash/dry particles.

Acidity: No acid rain until pH is below 5.6.

Acid Deposition Pollutants

- Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX). They react with water toform sulfuric and nitric
acids.
45
- CO2 also makes acid, but its weak (carbonic).
▪ Nitrogen dioxide + water —> nitric acid.
▪ Sulphur dioxide + water —> sulfuric acid.

Acid Deposition Sources

- Sulphur dioxide: produced by volcanic eruptions
- Sulfur is common in oil and coal, but usually absent in natural gas
- Nitrogen oxides (formed by reaction of oxygen and nitrogen in the air)
- Emitted by human activities such as combustion of fossil fuels

If primary air pollutants remain in the atmosphere for long enough, a variety of secondary air
pollutants can be formed

Effects of acid deposition on soil, plants, water:

- Direct: weakening coniferous (pine trees) forests growth, reducing pH of water in lakes
- Indirect: toxic effects and leaching of nutrients

Effects of acid deposition on coniferous forests:

- Leaves and buds become yellow
- Reduced growth
- Releases toxic aluminum ions from soil particles which damages root hairs

Toxic effects of acid deposition:

Aluminum ions: effects on aquatic organisms
- Fish are sensitive to aluminum in water
- Low concentrations: aluminum disturbs ability to regulate the amount of salt in the body
- High concentrations: solid is formed on the gills, leading to death

Lichens
- Sensitive to gaseous pollutants (like sulfur dioxide)
- Indicator species of high levels of air pollution (indirect measure of pollution)

Buildings
- Limestone buildings react with acid and dissolve

Peat bogs affected by acid rain

- Produce 40% less methane than before (reduces methane in atmosphere
- Human health: dry deposition (lung diseases)

Regional effect of acid deposition

- Dry: closer to source of acidic substances, consists of sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, and nitrogen
oxides.
46
- Wet: slightly longer distances than source, consists of sulfurous acid, nitric acid, and sulfuric acid.

Geological effects
Acid rain does little harm to limestones and chalks (they are derived from calciumcarbonate rocks). They
are alkaline soils; neutralizing the acids.

Role of international agreements in reducing acid deposition

Clean Air Act (1995) - to reduce SO2

- 50% reductions on average achieved in 2000 (Europe).

- Due to clean technology and changes in lifestyle.

Reducing effect of acid depositions

Before
- Reducing emissions (renewable energy sources)
- Reduce demand for electricity through education campaigns (evaluate India + China)
- Reducing SO2 emissions by removing sulfur from fuel before combustion

During
- End of pipe measures (removes SO2 and NOx from waste gases)
- Catalytic converters (converts NOx to nitrogen gas): expensive to buy

After
- Liming lakes to neutralize acidity
- Expensive, and only treats symptoms, not the cause
- International agreements (difficult to establish + monitor)

47
 CHAPTER 7
7.1 Energy Choices & Security
Energy security: ability to secure affordable, reliable, efficient energy for needs of a country.

Depends on: availability of supply, technological developments, politics, economics, sustainability,

environmental considerations.

❖ Coal = 230 yrs.

❖ Gas = 170 yrs.
❖ Oil = 100 yrs.

There is low investment in renewables:

- TNCs are committed to carbon economy
- Fossils are cheaper (ignore environmental cost)
- Countries are locked into trade agreements
- Renewables are location dependent

Bridge fuel: promoting natural gas consumption through oil/gas companies convincing govts to get the
country off coal until renewables are developed.

CO2 emissions: China, USA, EU (industrial) Per capita: USA,

Singapore

48
 Coal +Cheap to burn
+ plentiful supply
Oil +high heat of combustion
+ once found = cheap
Natural Gas +cheap
+cleaner than oil/coal
+ energy dense (compared to
other fossil fuels)
Nuclear fission +no co2
Small mass of radioactive
material produced a lot.
+ extremely energy dense
Hydroelectric +good safety record
+creates water reserves
Biomass +cheap/readily available
+if crops replanted: sustainable
Wood +cheap/readily available
+trees replaced = sustainable
Solar photovoltaic +can be distributed (green jobs)
Safe to use + infinite
Concentrated solar +renewable
+cost same as fossil stations
Solar passive +Minimal cost if properly
designed
Wind +Green jobs
+Clean energy
Tidal +Ideal for island countries
+Prevent flooding
Wave +Island countries
+Small operations
Geothermal +Infinite supply
+Used successfully in NZ
49
-co2 (non-renewable)
-smog + lung disease
-oil spill danger
-co2 emitted when burned
-Leaks are dangerous
-30% cleaner than oil/coal
-high extraction costs
-reactors are expensive
-dams (ecological impacts)
- costly to build + run
-not replanted: unsustainable burned= GHG
-low heat of combustion
-high transportation costs
-costly maintenance
-needs sunshine
-new so still improving
-tropics (high insolation area)
-Needs good architects
-Noise pollution
-Needs wind to blow
-Construction is costly
-Impact on wildlife
-Storms damage them
-Construction is costly
-expensive to set up
-only volcanic activity areas
7.2. Climate Change: causes and impacts
Weather: daily result of changes in temperature, pressure, and precipitation in the atmosphere.

Climate: average weather patterns over many years for a location on Earth.

Difference: timescale

Similarities: both are affected by clouds, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, human activities Climate
Change: long term change and has always happened

Factors that affect it:

- Fluctuations in solar insolation affecting temperature.
- Changing proportions of gases in atmosphere released by organisms.
- Anthropogenic activities: human activities (that increase GHGs).

Gases include: water vapor, Co2, methane, CFCs, HFCs, nitrous oxide, ozone
3 points that are confusing when reading about climate change:
- Role of ozone and CFCs.
- Role of water vapor.
- Whether figures refer to total GHG effects of enhanced greenhouse gas effect.

GWP: Relative measure of how much heat a known mass of GHG traps over a number of years
compared to the same mass of Co2

GWP of different gases:

Ozone in stratosphere: acts as a coolant CFCs: chemicals made by humans Sources of methane:

- Cattle: they are ruminants with bacteria in their stomachs that break down cellulose in the grass
they eat, release methane as a waste product.
- Rice paddy fields: releases methane due to anaerobic respiration by bacteria in soil (release only
when flooded)
- Tundra: permafrost melting releases methane (positive feedback loop)
50
 Impacts of Climate Change:
- Oceans and sea levels: water expands and ice melting on land slips off into the sea increasing the
volume of seawater (thermal expansion) + ocean buffering: MALDIVES
- Polar ice caps: Melting of land ice (glaciers), could open trade routes, make traveleasier, allow
exploitation of undersea resources but con is undersea ice (methane): GREENLAND AND ANTARCTICA
- On glaciers: glacial summer melt provides a fresh water supply to people but alsocauses flooding
and landslides (GANGES)
- Weather patterns: more heat means more energy in climate so weather will be moreviolent (global
weirding)
- Food production: warmer temperatures increase photosynthesis but there may be noincrease in
NPP, small increase in temperature kills plankton
- Biodiversity and ecosystems: plants cannot move (can become extinct), wildfires & droughts
affect animals. Increase in temperature of water can kill sensitive animals

Water supplies: increased evaporation rates can cause

lakes/rivers to dry up
- Human health: algal blooms/red tides (asthma/chest infections)
- Human migration: if people can’t grow food, they will migrate
(environmental refugees)
- National Economies: gains and losses

Positive Feedback Negative feedback

- More evaporation leads to moreclouds - More evaporation leads to moreclouds

which traps more heat. which reflects more heat.

- Ice has high albedo which means thatwhen it - Warmer air carries more water vapor so
melts, it has low albedo and itabsorbs more heat and more rainfall, some of which will besnow so more
more ice melts. snow, more reflection, lower temperatures, more ice.

- As temperature rises, permafrostmelts and - Forests absorb Co2 and act as a carbon sink
methane is released. to decrease temperature.

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7.3. Climate Change - mitigation and adaptation
Mitigation: reduction/stabilization of GHG emissions and their removal from the atmosphere.
Adaptation: adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli
or their effects which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.

PRECAUTIONARY STRATEGY: ACT NOW IN CASE

Mitigation strategies:
A: Stabilize or reduce GHG Emissions
- Reduce energy waste by using it more efficiently (hybrid/electric vehicles).
- Changing lifestyles and business practices (public transport).
- Adopt carbon taxes and remove fossil fuel subsidy.
- Improve efficiency of energy production.
- Reduce methane production (change cow diets).
- Sustainable agriculture

B: Remove Co2 from atmosphere

- Increase photosynthesis
- Carbon capture and storage
- Use more biomass as a source of fuel (if same crop is planted in the following year, an =amount of
CO2 to that is released by burning the fuel is then captured by photosynthesis)

C: Geoengineering
- Release sulphur dioxide from airplanes to increase global dimming
- Send mirrors to space between the Earth and Sun to deflect solar radiations
- Build with light colored roofs to increase albedo and reflect more sunlight

Adaptation strategies
- Change land use through planning legislation
- Build to resist flooding
- Change agricultural production (rainwater harvesting, growing diff crops, drought tolerant crops)
- Managing the weather (planting trees)
- Migrating to other areas
- Managing water supplies (desalination, increasing reservoirs)
- Vaccination against water borne diseases

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 CHAPTER 8
8.1 Human Population Dynamics
Demographics: study of dynamics of population change

Crude Birth Rate: (# of births/pop) *1000

Crude Death Rate: (# of deaths/pop) *1000

Natural Increase Rate: rate of human growth ((CBR-CDR)/10)Doubling Time: time it takes in years for
pop to double in size Total Fertility Rate: avrg #of children/woman/lifetime

NIR of 1%= will double pop in 70 years Doubling Time = 70/NIRMEDCs: 2.03 (Italy, Japan)
LEDCs: 2.16 (India)

Human Development Index: a measure of wellbeing of a country

MEDCs LEDCs

Europe, North America, South Africa, Israel, Sub-Saharan, Asian, South America Less
JapanIndustrialized nations + high GDP industrialized/barely any industriesNatural
capital processed in MEDCs Lower GDP: high
Rich population
poverty
No poverty/starving
Low standards of living
High resource use per capita High pop growth rates (falling CDR)Low
ecological footprints
Low pop growth due to low CBR but high CDR
High ecological footprints

Why are we more flexible than other species: Carrying capacity

- Import food. Reducing family size:
- Adaptation/mitigation. - Education, health, enhance
income.
- Adopt to food choices. (microfinance), resource
management.

Reasons for large families:

- High infant mortality rate.
- Security in old age.
- Economic assets: agriculture.
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- Status of women.
- Low availability of contraceptives

Demographic Transition Model:

❖ Stage 1: high stationary (high birth due to no birth control,high infant mortality rates, large
families due to cultural factors, high death rates due to famine and little medicine).

❖ Stage 2: early expanding (death rate drops, disease reduces, lifespan increases, birth rate still
high, child mortality falls).

❖ Stage 3: late expanding (birth rates fall due to contraceptives, education, empowerment, pop
levels off, smaller families, low infant death rate).

❖ Stage 4: low stationary, low birth and death rates, industrialized countries, stable pop).
❖ Stage 5: declining, fertility rate low, problems of ageing workforce.

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Limitations:
● Initial model didn’t have 5th stage - only recently countries have become part
of this (Germany, Sweden).
● Fall in death rate hasn’t been as steep.
● Death from AIDS-related diseases can affect this.
● Fall in birth rate assumes availability of contraceptives and allowances from
religious practices.
● Assumes increasing education and literacy for women (not always the case).

Malthusian Theory: Boserup Theory:

- Food supply was a limit to pop growth Technology to increase

food production
- Pop can never increase beyond food supplies pop growth leads to
developmentNecessary to support it. Assumption of closed
community
- Too simplistic Migration happens in
overpopulated areas
- Ignores reality (only poor go hungry) Overpopulation can lead to
bad farming
- Did not consider technology (globalization)

8.2 Resource Use in Society

Renewable natural capital: can be generated/replaced as fast as it is being used Non-renewable
natural capital: either irreplaceable or only replaced over geological timescales (fossils, minerals)

Natural capital: resource that has value to humans

Capital includes:
- Natural sources with value (trees, water).
- Natural sources that provide services (flood protection).
- Processes (water cycle).
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Renewable natural capital Non-renewable natural capital

Living species and ecosystems that use solarenergy Finite amounts: not renewed/replaced afterthey’ve
and photosynthesis been used/depleted

Groundwater and ozone layer Alternatives need to be found

Recyclable resources: iron ore is non-renewableSteel & iron in cars can be recycled.

Iron extracted from ore = renewable.

Arctic:
- Mineral riches surrounding Arctic Ocean (hydrocarbons).
- Climate change causing it to warm up (more ice-free days).
- Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Russia, US have Arctic Ocean coastlines.
- They are jostling for ownership of the region's frozen seas.

Antarctic:
- 98% covered in ice and snow.
- Humans exploit it through tourism, fishing and whaling.
- Nobody owns it but seven have staked territorial claims via “The Antarctic
Treaty”.

Changing value of natural capital

● Cork forests.
- Previously used to seal wine bottles.
- Being replaced by screw top bottles and plastic corks.
- Forests losing value due to not being used as natural capital to humans.
- Not a good thing because they are not biodegradable.
● Lithium.
- More than half of lithium reserves are under a desert salt plain in Bolivia.
- Lithium production not enough to power electric cars if they were to replace
cars with petrol engines.

Valuing Natural Capital

● Use Valuation - use natural capital we can put prices on.
- Economic price of marketable goods.
- Recreational functions (tourism).
● Non-use Valuation - natural capital that it is impossible to put a price on.
- If it has intrinsic value (right to exist).
- If it has future uses we aren’t aware of (science, medicine).
- If it has existential value (Amazon rainforest).
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8.3 Solid Domestic Waste:
- Trash, garbage, rubbish
- Something is waste when there is no value for the producer

Linear model of producing: take, make, dump

The circular economy aims to:

- Be restorative of the environment
- Use renewable energy source
- Eliminate or reduce toxic wastes
- Eradicate waste through careful design

Strategies to minimize waste

Reduce
- Change shopping habits, buy things that will last
- Buy energy efficient, recyclable goods

Reuse
- Compost food waste
- Use old clothes as cleaning rags
- Read E Books

Recycle
Strategies for waste disposal
Landfills
+ Cheap initial cost

+ Away from highly populated areas

+ Lined with special plastic liners to prevent liquid waste from leaving the area

+ Methane used to generate electricity

- Issues with leaking gases

- Contaminate groundwater & crops
- Cause health problems

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 Incinerators
- Burning waste causes air pollution (release harmful gases)
- Expensive
- Need a lot of waste to use this (does not discourage waste reduction)

+ Generates steam and powers heat powered buildings nearby

+ Ash can be used in road building

+ Space taken up is smaller than landfills

Anaerobic digestion
Biodegradable matter broken down by microorganisms in theabsence of oxygen.

+ Renewable.
+ Methane used as fuel and waste used as fertilizer.

- High set up cost.

- Feasible for large farms mainly.

Domestic Organic Waste: can be composted or put into anaerobic bio-digesters

+ Eco-friendly and methane produced can be used as fuel, improve soil health

- Takes up space, only organic matter can be used, health and safety concerns (smell)

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8.4 Human Systems & Resource Use
Carrying capacity: the maximum number of species or load that can be sustainably supported by a
given area.

Difficulties in measuring human carrying capacity

- Greater range of resources used
- Substitution of resources if others run out
- Resource use varies person to person
- Import resources from outside our immediate environment
- Developments in technology

Importing resources —> increases carrying capacity for local population (no influence on global carrying
capacity)

Ways to change human carrying capacity

1. Ecocentric
- Try to reduce their use of non-renewable resources
- Use solar cells for electricity and rain water for water supply
2. Technocentric
- HCC can be expanded through technological innovation
- Reuse, recycle and remanufacturing

Ecological footprint: area of land and water required to support a defined human population at a
given standard of living

- The model estimates demand that human population place on the environment
- Vary country to country (due to lifestyle choices)
- 2012: EF of all people was equivalent to 1.5 Earths

Depends on several factors

- Area of land needed to absorb wastes (water, sewage, CO2)
- Pop size
- Cropland to grow food
- WORLD CARRYING CAPACITY DOES NOT CHANGE BUT LOCAL DOES.

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REFERENCES

Diploma Programme (2015). Environmental systems and societies guide. Published by International
Baccalaureate Organization.

Dunya School of Khazar University. (2020). https://www.coursehero.com/. From

https://www.coursehero.com/profile/ProfessorTreeHippopotamus/#/documents/course/14237052

Kognity online textbook, chapter 1.4. Environmental Systems and Societies text book.

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