2.

1 Species and populations

Species, Habitat, Niche
Ecosystem
→ a community of interdependent organisms (biotic) and their interactions with the physical environment (abiotic) they inhabit.
Species
→ a group of organisms sharing common characteristics that can interbreed and produce offspring that also produce young.
Limitations: doesn’t classify extinct populations, doesn’t account for asexual organisms
Habitat → environment in which a species lives, where an organism can find food, shelter, protection, mates.
Niche
→ the set of biotic and abiotic conditions and resources that an organism or population responds to (not just habitat, but how an
organism interacts with others). No two species can have the same niche.
Fundamental Niche: full range of conditions/resources an organism can survive and reproduce in.
Realised Niche: actual conditions a species exists in due to biotic interactions.
→ different niches can still share the same habitat due to space, behaviour patterns etc
Abiotic Factors
The nonliving, physical factors that influence organisms and ecosystems.
Eg. temperature, sunlight, pH, precipitation, soil, landscape/topography.
→ there are upper/lower level limits beyond which a population cannot survive (optimal range → physiological stress →
intolerance)

Population Interactions
Predation → when one animal or plant hunts and eats another organism.
→ predator-prey relationships are controlled by negative feedback mechanisms
→ as prey increases, after time so do predators. Increase in predators reduces number of prey.
→ predation benefits prey - removes old/sick individuals, leaving superior breeding pool
Herbivory → where an animal feeds on a plant - the animal is known as a herbivore.
→ the plants as a food source affect the carrying capacity of the environment for the herbivore
Eg. hippopotamus grazing on vegetation / zooplankton feeding on phytoplankton
Parasitism → where one organism benefits at the expense of another (the host), type of symbiotic relationship
→ endoparasites live inside hosts, ecto parasites live on the surface of hosts
Eg. tapeworms (endoparasites) and ticks/mites (ectoparasites)
Eg. plants such as the Rafflesia flower via root systems
Mutualism → another form of symbiosis where both species benefit
Eg. coral reefs: zooxanthellae live within coral animal (polyp; they photosynthesise to produce food for themselves and the polyp; in
exchange they are protected.
Disease → aka. pathogen - can be bacteria, virus, fungi - reduces carrying capacity of infected organism.
Eg. Dutch elm disease, caused by fungus clogging vascular tissues in tree, preventing water movement.
Competition → demand by individuals for limited environmental resources
→ can be intraspecific (within a species) or interspecific (between diff species)
→ the degree to which niches (inter) overlap determines the level of competitive exclusion

Population Growth
Population
→ group of organisms in the same species living in the same area at the same time, capable of interbreeding.
→ abundance of resources affects population structure over time.
S Population Curve (aka sigmoid curve)
Rapid initial growth, then slowing as carrying capacity is reached, where population fluctuates
around K.
→ divided into lag phase, exponential growth phase, transitional phase, stationary phase

J Population Curve
 Increasingly rapid exponential growth with no signs of slowing, exhibited by
organisms that produce rapidly.
→ controlled by favourable abiotic components, results in a population crash

Limiting Factors → slow population growth as carrying capacity is reached

Density-Dependent Factors - lower birth rate/raise death rate as population grows
Density-Independent Factors - affect a population regardless of density, abiotic factors

2.2 Communities and ecosystems

Communities and Ecosystems
Community → all populations living and interacting in a common habitat at a specific time (only biotic)
→ involves many interactions among species, communities with higher diversities are more stable and resilient to disturbances.
Ecosystem → a community and the physical environment it interacts with (biotic interacting w/ abiotic)
→ divided into terrestrial, marine, and freshwater, defined uniquely by various abiotic factors

Photosynthesis and Respiration → all organisms respire, only producers photosynthesize

Photosynthesis → process by which a plant converts light energy from the Sun into usable chemical energy stored in organic matter.
Produces the raw material for biomass.
carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
Inputs: sunlight as energy, CO2, H2O
Outputs: glucose (foundation for other organic molecules)
Transformations: light energy → chemical energy stored in biomass
Respiration → conversion of organic matter to carbon dioxide and water in all living organisms, releasing energy for life processes.
“Wasted” energy is lost as heat, increasing the entropy in the ecosystem while allowing organisms to maintain low entropy.
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
Inputs: organic matter (glucose) and oxygen
Outputs: release of energy to maintain order (counteract entropy) and heat
Transformations: stored chemical energy → kinetic energy and heat energy

2.2.A1 Explain the transfer and transformation of energy as it flows through an ecosystem.

- All energy enters Earth’s ecosystems as solar insolation then energy is transformed & used by diverse organism variety.
- Through photosynthesis, producers transform sunlight into glucose, which they then use for respiration. 
- Chloroplasts in plant cells use sunlight to convert CO2 and water to glucose and oxygen gas.
- The plants' mitochondria then use the sugars for energy to drive respiration, their cellular processes required to stay alive.
Explain pathways of incoming solar radiation incident on the ecosystem including
- •loss of radiation through reflection and absorption
- •conversion of light to chemical energy
- •loss of chemical energy from one trophic level to another & •efficiencies of transfer
Feeding Relationships
Producers
→ autotrophs - organisms that convert abiotic components (sunlight) into living matter. Support the ecosystem through constant
input of energy and new biomass.
→ convert sunlight energy to chemical energy using photosynthetic pigments
Consumers
→ heterotrophs - organisms that eat other organisms to obtain energy and matter
→ pass energy and biomass from producers through to apex predators
Decomposers
→ break down tissue of dead organic matter and release nutrients for reabsorption by producers
→ improves the ability of soil to retain nutrients - the organic byproducts of decomposed matter contribute to the humus in soil
Trophic Levels, Food Chains, Food Webs
Flows of energy and matter can be shown through food chains. Interconnected chains form food webs.
 → the position an organism occupies is known as its trophic level. Producers form the first trophic level.
→ organisms can occupy different trophic levels depending on which food chain it is in
→ decomposers feed at every level of the food chain
Producer → Primary consumer → Secondary consumer → Tertiary consumer
Autotroph → Herbivore → Omnivore/carnivore → Carnivore

2.2.A2 Analyse the efficiency of energy transfers through a system.

- Gross primary production is a measure of the energy that a plants transform from the sun.
- The fraction of that energy that is converted into glucose reflects the gross productivity of the plant.
- The energy remaining after respiration is considered the net primary production.
- Energy will decrease with each increase in trophic level- 2nd law of thermodynamics states that during any transfer of
energy, some is lost due to the tendency toward an increase in disorder (entropy). 
- Energy for higher trophic levels is also constrained by loss due to metabolic respiration. 
- Energy transfer between trophic levels is generally inefficient, such that net production at one trophic level is generally only
10% of the net production at the preceding trophic level.
Efficiency of Energy Transfers Through an Ecosystem
Only ~10% of energy is transferred to the next trophic level - trophic efficiency = 10%.
→ 2nd law of thermodynamics states energy transformations inefficient, so energy is lost at each level
→ most energy is lost as heat energy through respiration
→ each trophic level has a smaller energy pool from which it can withdraw energy, thus limiting the No. of trophic levels in food
web

Pyramids of Numbers, Biomass, Productivity

Ecological Pyramids
→ models showing the quantitative differences between the trophic levels of an ecosystem, measured for a given area and time.
Shows feeding relationships in a community.
Pyramid of Numbers → records number of individuals at each trophic level in an ecosystem
→ numbers tend to decrease along food chain and pyramid tends to narrow at apex
→ can be inverted when size of individuals at lower trophic levels is large (eg. tree)
Advantages: easy method of comparing changes in population numbers over different times
Disadvantages: numbers too great to be accurate, doesn’t represent energy flow accurately

Pyramid of Biomass → the standing stock or storage of each trophic level

→ measured in g m-2 (grams per m2) or j m-2 (joules per m2)
→ can depend on seasonal variations as they are a snapshot in certain time
Advantages: overcomes problems w/ pyramid of numbers
Disadvantages: only uses sample populations, organisms must be killed to measure dry mass, subject to seasonal variations, gives
no indication of productivity over time

Pyramid of Productivity → shows flow of energy through trophic levels, the rate at which biomass is being generated.
→ measured in g m-2 yr-1 (energy per unit area per unit time)
→ shows amount of energy available as food to next trophic level, more useful in measuring a system’s changes over time
→ always show a decrease, as transfer of energy is inefficient
Advantages: shows rate of productivity of a system

Relevance of Thermodynamics
First Law → energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.
→ Solar energy is absorbed by plants and converted to stored chemical energy. Chemical energy is used and lost as heat energy.
Second Law → energy transformations result in a loss of energy, leaving less energy to maintain order, increasing entropy over
time.
→ Energy is transferred when trophic levels feed off one another, thus more energy is lost through each trophic level.
Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
Bioaccumulation → build up of persistent / non-biodegradable pollutants within an organism/trophic level because it cannot be
broken down.
Biomagnification → increase in concentration of persistent / non-biodegradable pollutant along a food chain.
***biomagnification does not occur due to higher trophic levels eating more - the respiration of biodegradable biomass leaves non-
biodegradable toxin in higher concentration.
Impact of Pollutant → DDT, a non-biodegradable pollutant used as a pesticide by farmers.
→ producers take in DDT, organisms in 2nd trophic level retain the pesticide in their body tissue from the producers
(bioaccumulation) as it is unable to be broken down
→ process continues, with more DDT accumulated at each level. Top carnivores are ultimate accumulators, and are the most
vulnerable to ecosystem disruption due to their small population and high doses of toxins they receive.

2.3 Flows of energy and matter

Transfer and Transformation of Energy
As solar radiation (insolation) enters the atmosphere, some energy becomes unavailable for ecosystems as the energy is absorbed by
inorganic matter / reflected back into the atmosphere.
→ 51% of available energy from sun does not reach producers
→ 49% absorbed by ground - only 0.06% of all radiation is captured by chloroplasts
Producers convert light energy to chemical energy, which is then available for other organisms to use; all energy is lost from an
ecosystem in the form of heat → Ecological efficiency = energy used for growth (biomass development) x 100
Energy supplied
Energy Pathways →
1. Light → chemical
2. Transfer of chemical from one trophic level to another
3. Conversion of visible light and UV to heat energy
4. Re-radiation of heat energy to atmosphere
2.3.A2 Analyse the efficiency of energy transfers through a system.
- Large amounts of energy are lost from the ecosystem between one trophic level & next level as energy flows from the
primary producers through the various trophic levels of consumers and decomposers.
- The main reason for this loss is the second law of thermodynamics, which states that whenever energy is converted from
one form to another, there is a tendency toward disorder (entropy) in the system.

Primary and Secondary Productivity

Primary Productivity (PP) → the gain by producers in energy/biomass per unit area per unit time.
→ depends on amount of sunlight, availability of factors needed for growth, ability of producers to use energy to create organic
molecules
→ highest growth occurs in optimal conditions (warm, high nutrients, water etc eg. tropical rainforests)
Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) → mass of glucose created by photosynthesis per area per time.
Net Primary Productivity (NPP) → gain by producers in energy/biomass after accounting for loss of energy through respiration.
Represents potential energy available for next level of consumers. NPP = GPP - R.
Secondary Productivity (SP) → the biomass gained by heterotrophs through feeding and absorption, measured in unit mass/energy
per unit area per unit time.
→ depends on amount of food present and efficiency of energy conversion to new biomass
Gross Secondary Productivity (GSP) → total biomass assimilated by consumers. GSP = FOOD EATEN - FAECAL LOSS.
Net Secondary Productivity (NSP) → gain by consumers in energy/biomass after allowing for respiration. Represents amount of
potential energy available for next trophic level. Aka. assimilation. NSP = GSP – R
2.3.A3 Discuss human impacts on energy flows, and on the carbon and nitrogen cycles.
- Humans clearly disrupt many, if not all biogeochemical cycles and in the process threaten many ecosystems.
- In recent years human activities have directly or indirectly affected biogeochemical cycles that determine climatic
conditions of earth.
- Biogeochemical cycles always involve equilibrium states: a balance in the cycling of the element between spheres.
- Overall balance may involve elements distributed on a global scale & that’s why disruption 1 one cycle causes disruption in
other cycles.

Maximum Sustainable Yields

Rate of increase in natural capital that can be exploited without depleting original stock.
→ equivalent to NP (whether NPP or NSP) of a system - net productivity is amount of energy stored as new biomass;
removal of biomass above max sustainable yield reduces natural capital and is unsustainable.

Nutrient Cycles
→ Energy flows; matter cycles between abiotic and biotic environments in an ecosystem.
Factors Affecting Nutrient Cycles → soil erosion, runoff, amount of rainfall, decomposition, plant density etc.
→ Nutrients can be stored in organic (plants and animals) or inorganic (rocks etc.) matter.
→ Macronutrients are needed in large quantities, eg. carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen
Carbon Cycle →
Carbon - essential in ecosystems, forms a key component of all biological molecules (proteins, fats etc)
→ can be stored in trees, fossil fuels, limestone for long periods of time as well as organic matter
Storages:
organic → organisms (plants + animals
Inorganic → atmosphere, soil, oceans, fossil fuels
Flows: transfers → herbivores x producers, carnivores x herbivores, decomposers x dead organic matter
→ CO2 in atmosphere dissolves into oceans
transformations → photosynthesis (carbon dioxide turned into glucose + oxygen)
→ respiration (organic matter turned into carbon dioxide
→ combustion (biomass is turned into carbon dioxide)
→ fossilisation (dead organic matter turned into fossil fuels via pressure and decay)

Nitrogen Cycle →
Nitrogen - building block for amino acids and DNA
→ most abundant gas in atmosphere (80%) but largely inaccessible due to its stability and can only be converted by certain
organisms
Storages: organic → organisms
Inorganic → soil, fossil fuels, bodies of water, atmosphere
Flows: transfers → herbivores x producers, carnivores x herbivores, decomposers x dead organic matter
→ plants absorbing nitrates through roots, metabolic waste products from organism (excretion)
transformations → fixation of nitrogen from atmosphere by lighting and nitrifying bacteria
→ nitrifying bacteria transforms ammonium ions into nitrite → nitrate
→ denitrifying bacteria transforms nitrates back to nitrogen
→ decomposers break organic nitrogen (proteins) into ammonia
→ nitrogen from nitrates used by plants to make amino acids and protein (assimilation)

Impact of Human Activities on Energy Flows and Matter Cycles

→ combustion of fossil fuels, urbanisation, agriculture, deforestation impact both energy and matter flows
Energy Flows
→ industrial revolution increased use of fossil fuels, allowing humans access to energy trapped in oil, coal etc.
→ amount of energy available to humans increased, increasing agricultural output
→ however, changes in ‘energy budget’ lead to climate change, reduction of natural capital etc
→ combustion of fossil fuels alters the way light energy interacts w/ surface of planet and atmosphere
→ increased CO2 → increasing temp → reduction in ice → less reflected sun energy → more GHG
→ pollution → increased trapping of solar radiation → more heat

Matter Cycles
→ timber harvesting interferes w/ nutrient cycling through decomposition
→ removal of trees = canopy cannot intercept rainfall and rich floor litter is washed away
→ trees often cleared to grow oil palm (for food, domestic products and biofuel), thus increasing need for fertiliser in nutrient poor
rainforest soil to produce yields
→ fertilisers contain nitrates, leading to contamination of nearby bodies of water (eutrophication)
→ harvested crops are transported, along w/ sequestered nitrogen, altering storages
→ burning fossil fuels reduces storages of non-renewable energy and increases storage of carbon in atmosphere
2.4 Biomes, zonation and succession
Biomes
Biome → collections of ecosystems that share distinctive abiotic factors, species and climatic conditions.
→ influenced by rainfall, insolation and temperature
→ water and insolation needed for photosynthesis, which determines productivity
→ water needed for transpiration and cell turgidity
→ temperature affects rate at which photosynthesis progresses (chemical reaction)
→ 5 classes: terrestrial (forest, desert, grassland, tundra), marine and freshwater (aquatic)
→ each biome has unique limiting factors, biodiversity and limiting factors

Tricellular Model of Atmospheric Circulation → explains differences in temp + precipitation and how they influence the structure
and productivity of different biomes.
→ latitude and atmospheric circulation are the primary factors affecting insolation, temp, and precip.
→ the higher the latitude, the colder the temperatures
→ areas around equator receive the most insolation / unit area of earth
→ polar areas have more atmosphere to pass through, = more loss of energy and cooler temps

Different Biomes
→ distribution, structure, biodiversity, productivity (climate = temperature, precipitation, insolation only) DTPIPBS

Tropical Rainforest
→ distribution: band around equator, within tropics of cancer and capricorn
→ temperature: high and consistent yearly (~26°C)
→ precipitation: high (2500mm yr-1 +)
→ insolation: high, little to no seasonal variation. Provides year round growing season.
→ productivity: comprises 40% of NPP 4 terrestrial ecosystems. High photosynthesis & NPP caused by low latitude & direct
sunlight.
→ biodiversity: high, up to 480 species / hectare, estimated half of world’s species in rainforest canopy. High diversity due to high
climate factors year round.
→ structure: stratified tree canopy, many niches. Only ~1% of light on canopy reaches forest floor, canopy has highest NPP.
→ soil low in nutrients, majority stored in trees. High rates of decay maintain rates of growth.
→ heavy rains can result in nutrients being washed away, which limits PP.
→ canopy usually protects soils from rainfall, but logging causes soils to be eroded rapidly
***→ high light intensity → high temps → high NPP → high resources → high complexity of habitats → high biodiversity ***

Temperate Forest
→ distribution: between 40° - 60°N of equator
→ temperature: cold winters, warm summers
→ precipitation: between 500-1500mm yr-1, determines whether temperate forests or grasslands develop
→ insolation: varies according to tilt of Earth, limits growing season
→ productivity: lower compared to rainforests due to power temps and rainfall. Second highest NPP in all biomes.
→ biodiversity: lower than rainforests, forests usually dominated by one species (90% of forests may consist of only 6 species)
→ structure: less stratification and layering, less dense canopy, reduces species diversity and complexity of niches
→ two types of trees (evergreen, deciduous - deciduous lose their leaves in winter)
→ forest floor leaf layer increases insulation and nutrients when it decays in warm temperatures
Deserts
→ distribution: 30° N and S
→ temperature: high during day (45-49°C), low at night (10-0°C)
→ precipitation: low - 250mm yr-1, often very uneven
→ insolation: high (air is dry after leaving tropics)
→ productivity: lack of water limits photosynthesis and NPP, results in sparse vegetation
→ biodiversity: xerophytic species (adapted to fluctuations in temp and scarcity of water), reptiles most common vertebrates due to
cold-blooded metabolism, cacti reduce surface area for transpiration via spines
→ structure: soil can be rich in nutrients as there is no leaching, decomposition is low due to lack of water

Tundra
→ distribution: high altitudes, the north polar region
→ temperature: low for majority of year, -50°C, warmer during 6 week period.
→ precipitation: low, water mainly stored in ice
→ insolation: short days, limited sunlight; almost 24h of sunlight during summer. Life increases during summer.
→ productivity: very low due to variable light intensity, rainfall and temperatures affecting race of photosynthesis
→ biodiversity: low, very few species adapted to cold conditions - large animals to reduce heat loss
→ structure: low temperatures lead to low cycling of minerals → peat bogs form in carbon sinks

Effect of Climate Change On Biome Distribution

→ increases in CO2 and other GHG increases mean global temperature, affecting rainfall patterns
→ climate change alters biome distribution

- Sea ice and glaciers are melting all over the globe due to warmer temperatures. Over 60% of the world's fresh
water is stored in the ice sheets covering Antarctica. The Ross ice shelf in Antarctica is as large as France.
- Average temperature on Antarctic Peninsula has risen since 1947. All major floating ice shelves are shrinking -
melting more during summer than is being refrozen during winter - 8,000 sq. km have been lost since the 1950s.
- If the West Antarctic ice sheet to melt due to climate warming, it could raise sea levels by 6 meters.
- Sea levels are already rising by 2mm a year - faster than during the past 5,000 years Krill - small shrimp-like sea
creatures that are a major food source for seals, whales and penguins - feed on algae found on sea ice.

Spatial and Temporal Changes in Communities

→ spatial changes occur along environmental gradients due to changes in altitude, latitude, distance from sea
→ temporal changes occur as a community develops from early to later stages

Zonation
→ the arrangement or pattern of communities in bands in response to a change in environmental factors over distance (eg. altitude,
latitude, distance from shore

Case Study: Rocky Shores

→ organisms high on shore exposed to air for long periods of time, have adapted to withstand changes in salt concentration and
temperature
→ organisms low on shore are covered by seawater, experience less variation in temperature and salt concentration, with greater
wave stress

Succession
→ change over time in an ecosystem involving pioneer / intermediate / climax communities
→ each distinct community in the succession is a seral stage
→ succession explains how ecosystems develop from a bare substrate over time

pioneer community: first stage of ecological succession - species able to withstand difficult conditions
climax community: final stage of succession, more stable than earlier stages, in equilibrium
primary succession: occurs on previously uncolonised substrate (eg. rock)
secondary succession: occurs in places where a previous community has been destroyed. Faster than primary succession due to soil
and seed bank.
→ one species changes the habitat they colonise and make it more suitable for new species
→ lichens, moss etc. are good pioneer species as they photosynthesise and are effective at absorbing water; they need no soil to
survive. When they decompose they form simple soil for other intermediate species.
→ newer species more able to trap light for photosynthesis and outcompete previous species

→ final stage is climax community, species of larger biomass increase, decomposers break down soil for other species etc.
1. Bare, inorganic surface
2. Colonisation by lichens, dead organic material results
3. Further weathering, beginnings of soil formation
4. Growth of small herbaceous plants, competition between pioneer species
5. Larger plants grow in more nutrient rich soil
6. Climax community dominated by shrubs and trees

Case Study: Primary Succession on Shingle Ridge

→ lichens and mosses pioneer species that photosynthesise and trap water on nutrient-poor shingle
→ pioneer species trap particles blowing by and weather the rock
→ decomposition of pioneers results in a thin layer of soil
→ red fescue colonise area, roots trap soil and prevent erosion, pioneers begin to be outcompeted
→ xerophytic plants eg. sea kale prevent water loss, nitrogen-fixing plants eg. rest harrow increase soil nutrients
→ decomposition continues and allows growth of larger plants eg. shrub community of bramble
→ climax community of temperate forest (oak/sycamore) develops, shrubs are replaced by shade-adapted species like ferns

Case Study: Secondary Succession in Yellowstone, 1988

Fires in Yellowstone National Park wiped out many aspects of the park’s forest - some fires burned soil and ground biomass, some
burned the canopy. Fires burned for several months.
→ recovery began almost immediately with herbaceous fireweed as a pioneer species
→ lodgepole pines, though a climax species, are serotinous, allowing fast regeneration in burned areas
→ comprising 80% of park’s forests, they only release seeds when high temperatures eg. fires create favourable open canopies for
seedling establishment
→ aspen, wildflowers had an increase in productivity as nutrients were released from forest litter during burning
→ soil depth only charred to 14mm, leaving diverse root systems unharmed
→ minimal overall loss of wildlife from fires, only browsers eg. moose populations declining
→ other k-strategists eg. deer rebounded due to rapid plant growth, birds able to find ants and worms easily in newly uncovered soil
→ as pine, larkspur, aspen and other climax species increased, other animals began migrating to the area
Changes Through Succession → productivity, mineral cycles, diversity etc. all change during succession.
GPP → pioneer communities have low GPP because of the low density in producers. Climax communities have high GPP as there
is an increased consumer community.
NPP → high in pioneer communities as community respiration is low (low # organisms). High NPP means biomass is continuing to
accumulate. Approaches zero in climax community as GPP is balanced by increased respiration
Production/Respiration Ratio: when production = respiration, P/R = 1
when P/R is greater than 1, biomass increases when P/R is less than 1, biomass depletes
Pioneer communities have low GPP and high NPP due to lowered rates of respiration, P/R is greater than 1.
Climax communities have high GPP but increased respiration, therefore low NPP, P/R approaches 1.
Diversity → pioneer communities have low biomass, low species diversity and few niches. Climax community have complex
niches and more biomass; the increase in niches leads to habitat and species diversity. Complex interactions result in a steady-state
equilibrium
Mineral Cycling → pioneer communities have open systems, carbon/nitrogen cycles easily. Climax communities have closed
systems as the role of decomposition in cycling nutrients from soil to biomass increases.

Climax Communities → a community of organisms that is in steady-state equilibrium with natural environmental conditions. It is
the endpoint of ecological succession.
→ greater biomass, high species, habitat and genetic diversity
 → favourable soil conditions and structure (deeper, greater water retention/aeration)
→ more k-strategist organisms (taller plants etc)
→ greater community complexity, resilience and stability
→ climax communities are more stable as greater energy pathway and biodiversity means species can turn to alternate food sources
in the event of a shock; nutrient cycles are self-sustaining.

r and K-strategist Species → species can be determined by how rapidly they produce, the degree of parental care, and the type of
environments they are most suited to. *species that lie in between are C-strategists.
r-strategists K-strategists

→ opportunistic, fast rates (r) of increase, inhabit rapidly → slow growing organisms limited by carrying capacity (K). inhabit
changing + unpredictable environments (ie. pioneer stable environments/later seral stages (ie. climax communities).
communities), produce many small offspring that mature Offspring mature slowly and species is vulnerable to high death rates.
quickly. Little to no parental care.

● Colonisers ● Dominant species

● Highly adaptable ● Specialist, susceptible to change
● Rapid growth/development ● Slow growth/development
● Short lifespans ● Long lifespans
● Small size, many offspring ● Large size, few offspring
● Early, high reproduction ● Delayed reproduction
● Type III survivorship ● Type I or II survivorship
● Suited to pioneer communities ● Suited to climax communities
● Continuous J-curve population ● S-population curve
r- and K- Selection Theory →
1. In disturbed habitats, natural selection favours individuals with high reproductive rates over those with slower reproductive rates,
but better competitive ability, as they can respond quickly.
2. In predictable environments, species that maximise natural resources and produce few young are more favoured.
Survivorship Curves → show changes in survivorship of a species’s lifespan
→ r-strategists produce large numbers of offspring to colonise new habitats quickly and make
use of limited resources
→ most individuals die very young, those that survive live long

→ K-strategists produce small numbers of offspring to increase their survival rate and live in
climax communities.
→ almost all individuals survive for potential lifespan and die roughly simultaneously

Impact of Human Activities On Succession → interrupted succession = plagioclimax. Human disturbance can halt the process of
succession and divert it so a different stable state other than a climax community is reached.
→ activity modifies the ecosystem (eg. use of fire, grazing, agriculture, deforestation, overfishing); depending on the resilience of
an ecosystem changes may be more or less permanent.

Eg. deforestation of tropical rainforest biome

→ increased demand for meat demands land for cattle ranching and agriculture, 90% of the reason why land is deforested in the
Amazon. Results in habitat destruction and loss of climax community.
→ replacement with agricultural system affects global biodiversity, weather, sedimentation patterns
→ CO2 released returns to atmosphere

2.5 Investigating ecosystems

Ecosystems can be better understood to the investigation and quantification of their components.
Standardized methods and studies allow ecosystems to be modelled, monitored, and evaluated over time.
Identifying Organisms in Ecosystems → can use a dichotomous key, a stepwise tool for identification of unfamiliar organisms.
Limitations: keys examine physical rather than behavioural characteristic
→often use technical terms only understood by experts
→ may not be a key for the type of organism available
→ some features of organisms are difficult to identify in wild

Measuring Abiotic Components of Ecosystem

MARINE → salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen, wave action, temperature
FRESH WATER → turbidity, dissolved oxygen, pH, flow velocity, temperature
TERRESTRIAL → light intensity, slope, wind speed, temperature, mineral content, drainage, soil moisture
Measurements must be repeated to increase reliability of data. Errors in sampling may result in inaccuracy rep of an environment.
**
Light → measured using a light meter, meter must be held at a fixed height and at the same angle.
Limitations: cloud cover/other changes in light means value must be taken at same time of day and same atmospheric conditions.
Temperature → measured using electronic thermometer with probes, soil / air / water. Data loggers allow long term fluctuations to
be considered.
Limitations: if thermometer depth is not consistent, problems arise
pH → using pH meter or data logger. Values change depending on fresh/salt water, probe must be cleaned between readings.
Turbidity → measured using secchi disc lowered into water - cloudy water = high turbidity, clear water = low turbidity. Indirectly
corresponds to rate of photosynthesis.
Limitations: Sun glare on water, subjective nature of eyesight.
Measuring Biotic Components of Ecosystem
Estimating Abundance of Organisms
motile → pitfall traps, nets, light interception traps, small mammal traps & non-motile → quadrats, point frames
Abundance → the relative representation of a species in an ecosystem. Can be done by directly counting # organisms (non-motile)
or indirectly estimating using Lincoln index (motile).
Lincoln Index → estimates total population size of a motile animal - ‘capture-mark-release-recapture’ technique. [indirect]
N1 = number in first sample
N2 = number in second sample
Nm = number caught in second sample that were marked
Limitations: animals may move in/out of sample area, seasonal variations may affect population size. Density of a species’
population may differ in different habitats.

Direct Methods For Estimating Motile Animal Abundance

→ actual counts+sampling to give a relative abundance of different animals in a sample.
Limitations: sample size and collection methods must be standardised, some animals may remain hidden / unsampled.
Eg. canopy fogging to knock insects into collection trays, number can be extrapolated
Quadrats [Non-motile] → limits the sampling area when measuring non-motile organisms. A square frame.
→ random sampling: if habitat is same throughout, quadrats should be located at random.
→ stratified random sampling: if two/more areas of habitat, results from both areas should be obtained.
→ systematic sampling: if area occurs along environmental gradient, quadrats should be placed at set distances along a
transect. Continuous sampling occurs across the whole length of the transect.
Limitations: often subjective - mistakes easy to make in identifying, difficult to measure plant colonies

Population density → (total number of a species in all quadrats)

(area of one quadrat) x (total number of quadrats)
Percentage cover → estimate of an area in a quadrat covered by the organism in question
Percentage frequency → number of actual occurrences
Number of possible occurrences
Abundance Scales → DAFOR - Dominant, Abundant, Frequent, Occasional, Rare

Estimating Biomass of Trophic Levels

Biomass → a measurement of dry mass (mass - water content), indicates the total energy within a living organism. The greater the
mass, the greater the amount of energy. Measured in g / m-2.
→ mass of one/the average of a few organisms x total number of organisms
Limitations: involves killing living organisms. Biomass of root systems difficult to measure.

Species Richness and Diversity

Richness → number of species in a community
Diversity → a species’ relative abundance in each area.
Evenness → Similar in the number of species in a community Simpson’s Diversity Index
D → diversity
N → total number of organisms of all species found
n → number of individuals of a species

→ The higher the value of D, the greater species diversity and the more stable the ecosystem/population. Only useful when
comparing similar habitats or ecosystems, as diversity is relative, not absolute.

Measuring Changes in Ecosystems

Changes Along Environmental Gradient
→ grid quadrat, point quadrats → line transect, belt transect (continuous or interrupted)
→ transects should be controlled for atmospheric conditions and repeated to ensure reliability.
Systematic sampling: Show zonation of species along some environmental
Evaluation of measuring secondary productivity