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The genus Avicennia, a pioneer group of dominant

mangrove plant species with potential medicinal
values: a review

Hrudayanath Thatoi, Dibyajyoti Samantaray & Swagat Kumar Das

To cite this article: Hrudayanath Thatoi, Dibyajyoti Samantaray & Swagat Kumar Das (2016) The
genus Avicennia, a pioneer group of dominant mangrove plant species with potential medicinal
values: a review, Frontiers in Life Science, 9:4, 267-291, DOI: 10.1080/21553769.2016.1235619

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FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE, 2016
VOL. 9, NO. 4, 267–291
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21553769.2016.1235619

The genus Avicennia, a pioneer group of dominant mangrove plant species with
potential medicinal values: a review
Hrudayanath Thatoia , Dibyajyoti Samantarayb and Swagat Kumar Dasb
a Department of Biotechnology, North Orissa University, Baripada, Odisha, India; b Department of Biotechnology, College of Engineering and
Technology, Biju Patnaik University of Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The genus Avicennia comprises eight species of mangrove trees that occur in intertidal zones of Received 27 June 2016
estuaries and seabeds found in tropical and temperate regions spanning throughout the world. Accepted 8 September 2016
The plants belonging to the genus have both ecological and economic benefits. Different parts KEYWORDS
of the plants have ethnomedicinal applications for treatment of various diseases such as cancer, Mangroves; Avicennia;
diabetes, malaria, rheumatism, asthma, small pox and ulcer. Pharmacological investigations have tropical; ethnomedicine;
revealed antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory activities and so on phytochemical;
in these plants. The genus possesses some unique metabolites of varied chemicals classes, which pharmacology
are responsible for their wide range of pharmacological activities. The presence of different bioac-
tive compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols, saponins, tannins, glycosides and terpenoids
has been detected. Hence, there is a great scope to discover new biological active phytochemicals
from different mangrove species of genus Avicennia. Although many research articles have been
published on various pharmacological aspects of different plants of the genus, no comprehensive
review is yet available pertaining to their ethnomedicinal uses, chemical constituents and pharmaco-
logical activities. The present article discusses the diversity as well as distribution of different species
of genus Avicennia along with an in-depth coverage of their ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemical
and pharmacological profiles.

Introduction
The mangroves are a taxonomically diverse group
of halophytic plant communities that are found in
the intertidal zones between land and sea of tropi-
cal and sub-tropical region of the world (Tomlinson
1986; Ravishankar et al. 2004). These plants are highly
specialized, flourishing under inhospitable environ-
ment conditions of extreme tides, high salinity, high
temperature, strong winds and anaerobic soil (Mazda
et al. 2005). Exhibition of well-developed morpholog-
ical and physiological features is the key to their sur-
vival in the adverse environmental conditions. Over
the years, local communities inhabiting the mangrove
forests exploit different mangrove plants for woods and
disease treatment (Kathiresan & Ramanathan 1997).
In medicinal literatures, only a handful of mangrove
plants such as Acanthus illicifolius, Excoecaria agal-
locha, Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata and Sonner-
atia caseolaris are listed as endowed with medicinal
properties (Bandaranayake 1998). However, in recent
pharmacological investigations, different extracts pre-
pared from other mangrove plants have proved their
medicinal effect against a wide array of human, animal
and plant diseases.
In total, there are about 84 mangrove plant species
belonging to 24 genera and 16 families distributed
throughout the world, out of which only 70 species are
reported as true mangroves and the rest 14 as man-
grove associates (Jun et al. 2008). Avicennia is the lone
mangrove genus that occurs throughout the world.
Along with Rizophora, they form the dominant plant
communities of mangrove forests (Duke 1991). The
wood of Avicennia plant is commonly used as fuel
and for construction, while the high tannin content
in the bark is used in dyeing and leather produc-
tion. Leaves can be fed to cattle as fodder as well as
used for the preparation of doors and mats. The fruits
are used as an insect repellent and pneumatophores
for the production of bottle stoppers and floats (Ban-
daranayake 1998, 2002; Kathiresan & Bingham 2001).

CONTACT Hrudayanath Thatoi hn_thatoi@rediffmail.com Department of Biotechnology, North Orissa University, Baripada 757003, Odisha, India

© 2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

268 H. THATOI ET AL.
There are also reports that document the importance
of various parts of Avicennia species as ethnomedic-
inal. It has been mentioned in the ancient literatures
that the tea prepared from the bark of some of its
species is believed to treat a variety of digestive dis-
orders like peptic ulcers, diarrhoea including haem-
orrhoids, rheumatic pain and so on (Bandaranayake
1998; Sumithra et al. 2011a; Thirunavukkarasu et al.
2011). Recent pharmacological investigations have
also reported diverse medicinal properties of the plants
belonging to the genus Avicennia against cancer, HIV,
hepatitis, diabetes, inflammation, diarrhoea, oxidative
stress-related diseases and so on (Rege et al. 2010;
Sharief & Umamaheswararao 2011; Shafie et al. 2013).
Besides, several metabolites, such as alkaloids, phe-
nols, flavonoids, tannins, iridoid glucosides and ter-
penoids, have been identified from these plants, which
could be attributed towards the medicinal properties
of these plants (Bandaranayake 2002). The present
review provides a comprehensive overview of distri-
bution and diversity of the genus Avicennia along with
updates on ethnomedicinal uses and bioactive profile
of these groups of plants showing immense poten-
tial for their pharmaceutical applications. Besides, the
present review will also provide a baseline of infor-
mation on the medicinal potentials of these plants by
bridging the gap between ethnomedicinal uses and
modern scientific studies of the genus, by critically
evaluating the available fragmented literatures on eth-
nomedicine, pharmacology and photochemistry.
Botanical description and distribution
The genus Avicennia (L.) is named after Avicenna or
Abdallah Ibn Sina (980-1037 AD), a Persian physi-
cian (Quattrocchi 2000). The genus Avicennia has
been placed in the division of Tracheophyta, sub-
division Spermatophytina, class Magnoliopsida and
order Lamiales. The assignment of family to the genus
Avcennia has long been contagious. Earlier authors
had reported that Avicennia belongs to family Ver-
benaceae (Fauvel et al. 1993; Green 1994). Over the
years, many botanists have tried to elucidate the tax-
onomical classification of the genus through their
classical investigations, accounting its propinquity to
family Avicenniaceae (Bandaranayake 1998; Jun et al.
2008; Sharief et al. 2014a; http://www.iucnredlist.org/
[cited 2016 Jan 12]). On the contrary, modern molec-
ular studies and phylogenetic relationships indicate
that the genus has closer proximity towards the
family Acanthaceae (Schwarzbach & McDade 2002;
http://www.theplantlist.org 2013 [cited 2016 Jan 12]).
The diversity along with the distribution of the genus
has evolved over the years. Earlier authors reported
that distribution and occurrence of Avicennia species
could broadly be classified into two geographical areas,
Indo-Western Pacific (Old world) and Atlantic east-
ern Pacific (New world). Bakhuizen van den Brink
(1921) first reported the occurrence of two Avicennia
species in these geographical locations. Later, botanical
investigations carried out by Watson (1928) reported
the occurrence of four species. Since then, the diver-
sity of the genus remained unchanged until Mold-
enke (1980) reported additional taxa along with some
new varieties. According to the botanical report, five
species of the genus are confined to the area of Indo-
western Pacific region (old world) and subsequently
three more species were also reported in the region
(Duke 1991). Later, Tomlinson (1986) presented a
detailed report on the diversity of genus Avicennia
accounting eight species along with their putative ones
and varieties. In a recent breakthrough, the phyloge-
netic analysis (www.theplantliest.org 2013) revealed
that though genus Avicennia contains eight species, yet
some of them that were reported earlier are either vari-
ety or have evolved differently with respect to their
morphological adaptations pertaining to leaf and roots
in different geographical locations. Based on the con-
currence of phylogenetic evolution, the latest compre-
hensive and updated checklist database prepared by
joint collaboration between the Royal Botanic Gar-
dens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden and oth-
ers states that the genus Avicennia consists of eight
species, namely Avicennia balanophora Stapf & Mold-
enke., Avicennia bicolor Standl., Avicennia germinans
(L.) L., Avicennia integra N.C. Duke., Avicennia marina
(Forssk.) Vierh., Avicennia officinalis L., Avicennia
schaueriana Stapf & Leechm. ex Moldenke and Avicen-
nia tonduzii Moldenke (http://www.the plantlist.org/).
The species variance has been reported in species A.
germinans, A. marina and A. schaueriana (www.the
plantlist.org 2013). Based on this this evidence, sys-
tematic details of species and species variance of the
genus are prepared and presented in Table 1.
Avicennia plants have worldwide occurrence. They
are densely distributed mangrove species found in
both coastal river and seabeds of tropical as well as
temperate regions (Tomlinson 1986). Five species of

Table 1. . Avicennia species variance and distribution.
Species
Avicennia balanophora
Stapf and Moldenke
Avicennia bicolor Standl.
Avicennia germinans L. L.
Avicennia integra N. C. Duke
Avicennia marina Forssk.
Vierh.
FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE 269
Variance of species Distribution References
- Along the coast of Australia http://www.eol.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
http://www.plants.jstor.org [cited 2016 Jan. 12]
http://www.theplantlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
– Widely distributed along the http://www.eol.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
coastline of Colombia, Costa Rica, http://www.plants.jstor.org [cited 2016 Jan. 12]
El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, http://www.theplantlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama http://www.iucnredlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
A africana P.Beauv Species is found along the coastline http://www.eol.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
of North and South America
including coastline of Angola
A elliptica Thunb Angola, Jamaica, Liberia, http://www.plants.jstor.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
A elliptica var. martii Moldenke Mauritania, Mexico, Antigua and http://www.theplantlist.org [cited 2016 Jan. 12]
A floridana Gand. Barbuda. Besides the species http://www.iucnredlist.org- [cited 2016 Jan 12]
A. floridana Raf. is widely distributed in African
A. germinans f. brasiliensis Moldenke coastline including Congo, Ghana,
A. germinans var. cumanensis (Kunth) Nigeria.
Moldenke
A. germinans var. germinans,
A. germinans var. guayaquilensis (Kunth)
Moldenke
A. germinans f. venezuelensis Moldenke
A. lamarckiana C. Presl
A. meyeri Miq
A. nitida Sessé & Moc
A. nitida Jacq
A. nitida var. trinitensis Moldenke
A. oblongifolia Nutt. ex Chapm.,
A. officinalis var. lanceolata Kuntze
A. officinalis var. nitida Kuntze
A. tomentosa Jacq
A. tomentosa var. campechensis Jacq
A. tomentosa var. cUmamaheswarraonensis
(Kunth)
A. tomentosa var. guayaquilensis (Kunth)
Bontia germinans L.,
Hilairanthus nitidus Jacq. Tiegh
Hilairanthus tomentosus Jacq. Tiegh
– The species is restricted to the http://www.eol.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
coastline of Australia http://www.plants.jstor.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
http://www.theplantlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
http://www.iucnredlist.org- [cited 2016 Jan 12]
A. alba Blume Distribution include Australia, South http://www.eol.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
and South-east Asia including
A. alba var. latifolia Moldenke Singapore, Vietnam, Middle east, http://www.plants.jstor.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
A. eucalyptifolia Valeton Zipp. ex Moldenke Coastline of Africa including Egypt, http://www.theplantlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
A. intermedia Griff Madagascar, Mozambique, South http://www.iucnredlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
A. lanata Ridl Africa, Tanzania,
A. marina var. alba Blume Bakh
A. marina f. angustata Moldenke,
A. marina var. anomala Moldenke,
A. marina var. australasica Walp. Moldenke
A. marina var. eucalyptifolia Valeton N.
C. Duke A. marina var. intermedia Griff.
Bakh
A. marina f. intermedia Griff. Moldenke
A. marina subsp. marina
A. marina var. marina
A. marina var. resinifera G. Forst. Bakh
A. mindanaensis Elmer
A. officinalis var. alba Blume C. B. Clarke
A. officinalis var. eucalyptifolia Valeton,
A. resinifera G. Forst
A. rumphiana Hallier f
A. sphaerocarpa Stapf ex Ridl
A. spicata Kuntze
A. tomentosa var. arabica Walp
Sceura marina Forssk
(continued).
270 H. THATOI ET AL.
Table 1. Continued.
Species Variance of species
Avicennia officinalis L. A. obovata Griff
A. oepata Buch.-Ham
A. officinalis var. acuminata Domin
A. officinalis f. flaviflora Kuntze
Avicennia schaueriana A. schaueriana f. candicans Moldenke
Stapf & Leechm. ex A. schaueriana f. glabrescens Moldenke
Moldenke A. tomentosa Schauer
Avicennia tonduzii – Pacific coast mainly in Costa Rica
Moldenke
the genus viz A. bicolor, A. germinans, A. marina,
A. officinalis and A. schaueriana are reported to
have varied distribution in tropical and subtropical
regions of both North and South America includ-
ing Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico; Panama, Brazil,
Chile; coast of Africa; Middle East; South and South
east Asia which includes Coast of India, Bangladesh,
Malaysia, Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia; and coast
of TransAsia countries Australia and New Zealand
(www.icunlist.org 2016). However, A. balanophora
and A. integra, both have restricted distribution to
coastline of Australia, whereas A. tonduzii is found
only in pacific coast of Costa Rica. In these regions,
the Avicennia species grow in pure and dense stands on
mud flats along the coast, in brackish coastal swamps,
and on riverbanks (Tomlinson 1986).
The different species of Avicennia have evolved
differently and therefore have varied taxonomical
descriptions. Among different species of the genus,
A. germinans and A. integra are the largest and the
smallest trees, respectively (Duke 1991). A. germinans,
which may grow up to 30–50 m tall, has a thick bark
which is dark brown or blackish colour with rough
irregular flattened scales. The plant possesses special
and modified pencil-like pneumatophores that reach
4–9 ft deep in oxygen-deficient (anaerobic) mud for
sufficient aeration. Leaves are 3–15 cm long, elliptical,
opposite, thick/ leathery with glands on the upper side
and are dark green above and greyish beneath. Flow-
ers form auxiliary clusters, 1–2 cm in diameter and are
white in colour. Fruits are 2–3 cm in diameter, flat, dark
green and with velvety pericarp beneath (Tomlinson
1986; Duke 1991). On the other hand, A. inetgra can
grow either as a 2-m shrub or as a 7-m tall tree. Its
bark is brown to reddish in colour, smooth in texture
in small plants, whereas the same is pustular in larger
Distribution References
Sparsely found in coasts of South http://www.eol.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
and South east Asia and restricted http://www.plants.jstor.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
to Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, http://www.theplantlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
India, Indonesia, Malaysia, http://www.iucnredlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
Myanmar, Papua New Guinea,
Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Viet Nam
Coastline of North and South America http://www.eol.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
including Anguilla, Antigua and http://www.plants.jstor.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
Barbuda, Brazil, Dominica, Trinidad http://www.theplantlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
and Tobago, Venezuela http://www.iucnredlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
http://www.plants.jstor.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
http://www.theplantlist.org [cited 2016 Jan 12]
ones. Roots produce 20–30 cm short, pencil-like pneu-
matophores. Leaves are 5–14 cm long, simple, oppo-
site, ovate–elliptic in shape, shiny green upper, and
pale and fine lower surface. Its flowers are zygomor-
phic, golden yellow or orange, 11–13 mm long with
4–5 calyx lobes, mostly 4 petals and 4–5 stamens. The
fruits are pale green, furry, compressed ovoid pods,
21–23 mm long and 12–15 mm wide with a persisting
calyx (Tomlinson 1986).
A. marina is a medium-length (3–11 m tall) Avicen-
nia plant. The bark of the plant is mottled greenish yel-
low in colour, with smooth, flaky and peeling patches.
The roots have short 10–15 cm pneumatophores that
are slender with pointed tips. Leaves are shiny, leathery,
yellowish green above and dull pale below. The flow-
ers of A. marina are 4 mm in diameter and form tight
bunches at the ends of a cross-like inflorescence with
yellow petals. The fruits are 20–25 mm in diameter,
pale grey green, compressed, oval-shaped and two-
valved capsule (Tomlinson 1986; Sharief et al. 2014a,
2014b). These are botanical features commonly found
in different A. marina species or varieties. However,
complexity arose during taxonomical classification of
one of its varieties, A alba. Over the years, many
researchers have placed the variety as one of the species
of genus Avicennia (Bandaranayake 2002; Jun et al.
2008; Sharief & Umamaheswararao 2011). New find-
ings and phylogenetic analysis have revealed that A.
alba has close resemblance to A. marina and taxo-
nomically has been placed as one of latter’s variety
(www.theplantlist.org 2013).
A. officinalis is a 12-m tall tree with smooth lenticels,
light coloured but do not have fissured barks. It has
8–20 cm long, pencil-like pneumatophores, aerial stilt
roots. The leaves are 8–10 cm long, spoon-shaped,
upper side glossy green, underside finely hairy, with

salt crystals found in the surface, especially in dry
weather. The flower of A. officinalis is 1 cm in diameter,
being the largest among all the species of its genus. The
flower is orange–yellow, globular in shape with rancid
or fetid smell. The fruits of the plant are 2–3 cm long,
oval slightly beaked, smooth velvety, contains a sin-
gle seed which completely fills the capsule (Tomlinson
1986; Sharief et al. 2014a, 2014b).
A. bicolor is 8–20 m tall tree and can be recog-
nized by its dense and dark green crown. Its flowers
are distinctly zygomorphic and like those of A. germi-
nans have petals which are hairy inside, but are much
smaller, scarcely 5–6 mm in diameter, and expanded.
The white corolla sometimes has yellow throat, hence
the name bicolour. A distinctive feature is the inequal-
ity of the stamens, formed inside at the same level as in
the flower. The filaments of outer pair are at least 1 mm
long compared with the inner pair, which is 0.5 mm
long (Tomlinson 1986).
A. schauerina has flowers larger than of A. bicolor,
the corolla being 10–12 mm long and almost as wide,
and resemble those of A. germinans in size, but the
inner face of the corolla is glabrous or at most slightly
hairy. The lobes are narrow and are not reflexed and so
enclose the equal stamens with filaments 1.5 to 2 mm
long. The ovary is uniformly hairy but not beaked. The
fruit is pale sap green, seldom with purple tinge, and
is flatter and more pointed than that of A. germinans
(Tomlinson 1986).
In comparison to other previously reported species,
not much detailed morphological analysis has been
carried out on remaining two species, A. tonduzii and
A. balanosphora. Earlier reports had taxonomically
addressed A. tonduzii as a variant of A. biolor. How-
ever, A. tonduzii was later considered and placed as a
separate Avicennia species for its narrow leaves, and
the paniculate assemblages of floral axes with the indi-
vidual flower pairs, which remain distant from each
other. A. balanosphora is distinguished from other
species of its genus by its characteristic fruit. It is recog-
nizable by its oblong, acorn (fruit) and the corolla limb
growing to 6 mm wide during anthesis (Tomlinson
1986).
Ethnomedicinal uses
The available literatures have reported that most of
the Avicennia species have been traditionally used as
a medicine for a wide array of diseases worldwide by
FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE 271
the local communities inhabiting the mangrove forests
(Bandaranayake 2002, Das et al. 2016). From many of
the ethnomedicinal uses of the genus, the widest appli-
cations have been in the treatment of rheumatism,
pregnancy, ulcer and smallpox (Bandaranayake 2002).
Different parts of the plant such as leaf, bark/stem,
seeds, roots and fruits have been exploited over the
years for the treatment of various diseases (Shilpi et al.
2012; Simlai & Roy 2013). Plants like Avicennia alba
Blume (a variant to A. marina), A. marina, A. nitida
and A. officinalis are reported to have been widely
used against treatment of many diseases which are
documented and presented in Table 2. A number of
reports are available for ethnomedicinal uses of dif-
ferent species of Avicennia plants for the treatment
of different diseases (Rollet 1981; Fauvel et al. 1993,
1995; Bandaranayake 1998, 2002; Ito et al. 2000; Sum-
ithra et al. 2011a; Thirunavukkarasu et al. 2011; Kar
et al. 2014b). In addition, inhabitants of Soutt east Asia
use the flowers of Avicennia rumphiana Hallier f to
produce some of the best honey in the world, which
is enriched with antibacterial as well as antioxidant
properties (Field 1995).
Phytochemistry
In search of novel and natural drugs from natural
resources, recent focus has been made on marine
plants, especially mangrove as an alternative source
of therapeutically important chemicals (Harvey 2000).
Many reports have documented that the genus Avi-
cennia possesses some unique metabolites of varied
chemical classes, which may be responsible for their
wide range of pharmacological activities (Ganesh &
Jannet 2011; Shanmugapriya et al. 2012; Poom-
pozhil & Kumarasamy (2014). Phytochemical screen-
ing of various solvent extracts from the genus such
as methanol, ethanol, ethyl ether, acetone, hexane,
chloroform, benzene, aqueous, and ethyl acetate has
indicated the presence of diverse and novel phyto-
chemicals like alkaloids, terpenoids, steroids, pheno-
lics, saponins, flavonoids, tannins, steroid and gly-
cosides. The detailed list of isolated phytochemcials
from different solvent extracts has been complied and
presented in Table 3.
The first investigation on the chemistry of genus
Avicennia can be traced back to 1913, when Bournot
characterized lapachol from the wood of the Indian
and West African A. tomentosa (Bournot 1913). As
272 H. THATOI ET AL.

Table 2. Ethnomedicinal uses of Avicennia sp.

Species Parts Ethnomedicinal Uses References
A. africana Bark/stem Antitumor, antiulcer, cure for thrush, gangrenous wounds, lice, mange, Ito et al. (2000)
ring worms and skin parasites
A. alba Bark/stem Contraceptive, anti-fertility, paralysis, scabies, rheumatism, aphrodisiac, Bandaranayake (1998), Kar et al. (2014b)
asthma, skin disease, sexual disorders, snake-bites, analgesic and
antiulcer, boils
Leaf
Fruit
A. germinans Bark/stem Astringent, antihaemorrhagic, malaria, antidiarrhetic, anti-tumours, Bandaranayake (2002), Rollet (1981), Fauvel
treatment for haemorrhage, haemorrhoids, rheumatism, swellings, et al. (1995)
throat ailments
Leaf
A. marina Bark/Stem Antiulcer, treatment for rheumatism, small pox, skin diseases Fauvel et al. 1993, Bandaranayake (2002)
Leaf
Fruits
Seeds
A. nitida Bark/Stem Cure for thrush, antitumor, antiulcer Bandaranayake (2002)
Leaf
Seeds
A. officinalis Bark/Stem Contraceptive, astringent, diuretic, antiulcer, treatment for snake bites, Sumithra et al. (2011a), Thirunavukkarasu et al.
rheumatism, small pox, skin diseases, hepatitis, leprosy, antitumor, (2011)
Bronchial asthma, antibacterial, gastroprotective, aphrodisiac, boils
and abscesses
Fruits
Leaf
Roots
Seeds
A. tomentosa Leaf Treatment for rheumatism Bandaranayake (2002)
Bark

listed in Table 4, a total of 14 flavonoids including
flavones, 19 naphthalene derivatives, 5 terpenoids, 7
steroids, 23 tannins 6 fatty acids, 31 glucosides from
wide variety of secondary metabolite classes have been
listed to date in genus Avicennia (Majumdar et al.
1981; Sharaf et al. 2000; Jia et al. 2004; Feng et al.
2007). Phytochemical studies have revealed that most
chemically investigated Avicennia species till now are
rich in phytochemicals, namely terpenoids, glucosides
and naphthalene derivatives (Konig & Rimpler 1985;
Sutton et al. 1985; Shaker et al. 2001; Han et al. 2007).
These naturally occurring compounds are found to
be concentrated in the plant’s leaf, stem/bark and
aerial roots. A number of pharmacologically impor-
tant phyto-constituents belonging to different classes
of phytochemicals which have been isolated include
flavonoids (3); naphthalene derivatives (20, 22 23,
24, 30, 31); tannins (35, 36, 37, 38); steroids (41);
terpenoids (49, 55, 56, 67); and fatty acids (69, 70,
71, 73, 74) (Konig et al. 1994; Gonzales et al. 2000;
Ramirez & Roa 2003; Han et al. 2007, 2008; Mani-
lal et al. 2009, Sumithra et al. 2011b; Hossain et al.
2012; Mahera et al. 2013; Jain et al. 2014; Raman-
janeyulu et al. 2015). A detailed report on their occur-
rence, chemical structure and bioactivity has been
presented in Table 5. In the context of phytochem-
istry, though occurrence of many phytochemicals
and biologically active phytoconstituents has been
reported in the genus, it can only be conclusive when
the same has been evaluated in all remaining sol-
vent extracts along with other phytochemically unex-
plored species of the genus as well. In view of this, an
extensive phytochemical investigation is necessary for
isolating chemical compounds/constituents from each
solvent extract and for understanding their biologi-
cal/pharmacological action for pharmacological use.
Pharmacological activities
In recent times, a number of pharmacological stud-
ies have reported medicinal uses of Avicennia plants,
through validation and exploring bioactivity of each
plant through in vitro and in vivo studies. Among eight
species along with their synonyms or variants, A. alba,
A. marina and A. officinalis are the plants with max-
imum pharmacological reports. However, bioactive
principle(s) responsible for exhibiting such pharma-
cological effects need(s) to be reported and studied in
detail. Undertaking detailed pharmacological studies
involving elucidation of active chemical constituents
will contribute immensely to medicinal science for
the treatment of different diseases. The pharmacolog-
ical activity and mode of action of extracts prepared
 FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE 273

Table 3. List of various classes of phytochemicals present in Avicennia sp.

Extract(s)of the parts
that contain
Phyto-chemicals Parts of the plant used phytochemical References

Alkaloids A. alba M, E, A,H,C,B, W, Satyaveni et al. (2013)

stem/bark
A. marina M, E,EE,EA,W, Mouafi et al. (2014), Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Khattab et al. (2012), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012), Bandaranayake
leaf (1994)
Seed EA Khattab et al. (2012)
A. officinalis M,E, Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012), Hossain et al. (2012), Ganesh and Jannet (2011),
leaf Bandaranayake (1994)
Flavonoids A. alba M,E,A,H,C,EA,W Satyaveni et al. (2013)
stem
A. marina M,EE,E,EA,W Mouafi et al. (2014), Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012), Khattab et al. (2012)
leaf
Stem/bark E,C, Tukiran (2013), Khafagi et al. (2003)
Seed EA Khattab et al. (2012)
A. officinalis M,E Mouafi et al. (2014), Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Ganesh and Jannet (2011), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
leaf
Fruit M,E,A,EA, Sharief et al. (2014a)
Glycosides A. marina M,EA,EE,E,W Mouafi et al. (2014), Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
leaf
Stem/bark E Khafagi et al. (2003)
Seed EA Khattab et al. (2012)
A. officinalis M Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Ganesh and Jannet (2011), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
leaf
Phenols A. marina; M,EA,E,W, EE Mouafi et al. (2014), Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012), Khattab et al. (2012)
leaf
Seed EA, Khattab et al. (2012)
A. officinalis M Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Ganesh and Jannet (2011), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
leaf
Fruit EA,E,A, Sharief et al. (2014a)
Saponins A. alba M,A,E,W Satyaveni et al. (2013)
stem/bark
A. marina; M,EA Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012), Khattab et al. (2012), Bandaranayake (1994)
leaf
Seeds EA Khattab et al. (2012)
A. officinalis M, Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Ganesh and Jannet (2011), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
leaf
Bark E Bandaranayake (1994)
A. resinifera M Bandaranayake (1994)
leaf
Steroids A. alba M, Bandaranayake (1994)
leaf
Stem/bark M,A,H,W Satyaveni et al. (2013), Bandaranayake (1994)
A. marina M,E,W,EA,EE Mouafi et al. (2014), Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012), Khattab et al. (2012), Bandaranayake
leaf (1994)
Bark/stem E, Mouafi et al. (2014)
Seeds EA Khattab et al. (2012)
A. nitida; M Bandaranayake (1994)
bark
A. officinalis M Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Ganesh and Jannet (2011), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
leaf
Stem/bark M Bandaranayake (1994)
A. resinifera M Bandaranayake (1994)
leaf
A. tomentosa M Bandaranayake (1994)
leaf
Bark M Bandaranayake (1994)
Tannins A. alba M,W,EA,EE,E Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Mouafi et al. (2014), Khattab et al. (2012), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
leaf
Stem/bark E Bandaranayake (1994)
A. marina M,A,EA,EE,E Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Mouafi et al. (2014), Khattab et al. (2012), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
leaf
Bark E, Khafagi et al. (2003), Bandaranayake (1994)
A. nitida; M,E Bandaranayake (1994)
bark
A. officinalis M Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Ganesh and Jannet (2011), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
leaf
Stem/bark E Bandaranayake (1994)
A. resinifera M Bandaranayake (1994)
leaf
Bark E Bandaranayake (1994)
A. tomentosa M Bandaranayake (1994)
leaf
Bark E Bandaranayake (1994)
Terpenoids A. alba M,A,H Satyaveni et al. (2013)
stem
A. marina; M,E,W,EA,EE Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
leaf
Seeds EA Khattab et al. (2012)
A. officinalis M Poompozhil and Kumarasamy (2014), Ganesh and Jannet (2011), Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
leaf
Note: A: acetone, C: chloroform, EA: ethyl acetate, E: ethanol, EE: ethyl ether, H: hexane, M: methanol, W: water.
274 H. THATOI ET AL.

Table 4. Phytoconstituents isolated from Avicennia sp.

Phytoconstituents Plant Part References
Flavonoids
Luteolin 7-O-methylether 1 A. marina L Sharaf et al. (2000)
7 -o-methylether 2 A. marina L Sharaf et al. (2000)
Luteolin 7-O-methylether 3’-O-β-D-glucoside 3 A. marina L Sharaf et al. (2000)
Chrysoeriol 7-Oglucoside 4 A. marina L Sharaf et al. (2000)
Isorhamnetin 3-O-rutinoside 5 A. marina L Sharaf et al. (2000)
5-hydroxy-4; 7-dimethoxyflavone 6 A. marina L Jia et al. (2004)
Quercetin 7 A. marina L Jia et al. (2004)
Kaempferol 8 A. marina L Jia et al. (2004)
4’5-dihydroxy-3’-5,7-diimethoxyflavone 9 A. marina L Feng et al. (2007)
4’,5-dihydroxy-3’,7-trimethoxyflavone 10 A. marina L Feng et al. (2007)
4’,5,7-trihydroxyflavone 11 A. marina L Feng et al. (2007)
3’,4’,5-trihydroxy-7-methoxyflavone 12 A. marina L Feng et al. (2007)
2-[3’-3’-hydroxymethyloxiran-2’-yl-2’ methoxy-4’- A. marina B Kar et al. (2014b)
methoxymethylphenyl]-4H chromen-4-one 13
Velutin 14 A. officinalis L Majumdar et al. (1981)
Naphthalene Derivatives
naphtha[1,2-b]furan-4,5-dione 15 A. marina S Sutton et al. (1985)
3-hydroxy-naphtha[1,2-b]furan- 4,5-dione 16 A. marina S Sutton et al. (1985)
2-[2’-2’-hydroxypropyl]-naphtha[1,2-b]furan-4,5-dione 17 A. marina S Sutton et al. (1985)
Avicennone A-G 18-24 A. marina B Han et al. (2007)
Avicenol A-C 25-27 A. alba; B Ito et al. (2000)
A. marina; B Han et al. (2007)
Avicenol C 27 A. officinalis A Anjaneyulu et al. (2003)
Avicequinone A-C 28-30 A .alba; B Ito et al. (2000)
A. marina B Han et al. (2007)
Stenocarpoquinone B 31 A. marina B Han et al. (2007)
7’S, 8’R-4,4’,9’-trihydroxy-3,3’,5,5’- tetramethoxy-7,8-dehydro-9-al- A. marina B Han et al. (2007)
2,7’-Cycloligan 32
Lyoniresinol 33 A. marina B Han et al. (2007)
Tannins
Lapachol 34 A. marina; B Bournot (1913)
A. tomemtosa
Catechin 35 A. officinalis L, B Sura et al. (2011)
Chlorogenic acid 36 A. officinalis L, B Sura et al. (2011)
Gallic acids 37 A. officinalis L, B Sura et al. (2011)
Elagic acids 38 A. officinalis L, B Sura et al. (2011)
Steroids
ß-sitosterol 39 A. marina L Jia et al. (2004)
A. officinalis Ghosh et al. (1985)
Ergost-6,22-diene-5,8-epidioxy-3ß-ol 40 A. marina L Jia et al. (2004)
Stigmasterol-3-O-β-D galactopyranoside 41 A. marina A Mahera et al. (2011)
Stigmasterol 42 A. marina; A Mahera et al. (2011) Ghosh et al. (1985)
A. officinalis L
Cholesterol 43 A. officinalis L Ghosh et al. (1985)
Campesterol 44 A. officinalis L Ghosh et al. (1985)
Stigmast-7-en-3β-ol 45 A. officinalis L Ghosh et al. (1985)
Terpenoids
Lupeol 46 A. marina L, A Jia et al. (2004), Mahera et al. (2011), Khanh et al. (2013)
A. lanata L
Taraxerol 47 A. alba L, B Mahera et al. (2011), Majumdar and Patra (1979)
A. marina A
A. officinalis; L, B, A
A. tomentosa
Taraxerone 48 A. marina A Bell and Duewell (1961), Majumdar and Patra (1979)
A. officinalis; L, B,
A. tomentosa A
Betulinic acid 49 A. alba L, B Mahera et al. (2011), Ramanjaneyulu et al. (2015),
Majumdar and Patra (1979)
A. marina A
A. officinalis; L, B, A
A. tomentosa
Betulin 50 A. alba L, B Jia et al. (2004), Khanh et al. (2013), Ramanjaneyulu
et al. (2015), Majumdar and Patra (1979)
A. marina; L
A. lanata L, B, A
A. officinalis;
A. tomentosa

(continued).
 FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE 275

Table 4. Continued.
Phytoconstituents Plant Part References
Betulin aldehyde 51 A. officinalis A Ramanjaneyulu et al. 2015
Ursolic acid 52 A. marina A Mahera et al. (2013), Khanh et al. (2013)
A. lanata L
α-amyrin 53 A. marina L, A Mahera et al. (2013)
β-amyrin 54 A. alba L, B Majumdar and Patra (1979)
A. officinalis; L, B, A
A. tomentosa
6Hα-11,12,16-trihydroxy-6,7-secoabieta-8,11,13-triene-6,7-dial A. marina B Han et al. (2008)
11,6-hemiacetal 55
6Hß-11,12,16-trihydroxy-6,7- secoabieta-8,11,13-triene-6,7-dial A. marina B Han et al. (2008)
11,6-hemiacetal 56
6,11,12,16-tetrahydroxy-5,8,11,13- abitetetraen-7-one 57 A. marina B Han et al. (2008)
Rhizophorin-A 58 A. officinalis A Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
Rhizophorin-B 59 A. officinalis A Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
Ent-13S-2,3-seco-14-labden-2,8-olide-3-oic acid 60 A. officinalis A Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
Ribenone 61 A. officinalis A Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
Ent-16-hydroxy-3-oxo-13-epi-manoyl oxide 62 A. officinalis A Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
Ent-15- hydroxy-labda-8 63 A. officinalis A Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
13E-dien-3-one 64 A. officinalis A Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
ent-3a,15-dihydroxylabda-8 65 A. officinalis A Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
13E-diene 66 A. officinalis A Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
Excoecarin A 67 A. officinalis A Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
Ent-beyerane, rhizophorin-B 68 A. officinalis A Subrahmanyam et al. (2006)
Fatty Acids
Oleic acid 69 A. marina F,L Chinnappan et al. (2013), Manilal et al. (2009)
Linolenic acid 70 A. marina L Manilal et al. (2009)
Palmetic acid 71 A. marina L Manilal et al. (2009)
Stearic acid 72 A. marina L Manilal et al. (2009)
Lauric acid 73 A. marina L Manilal et al. (2009)
Myristic acid 74 A. marina L Manilal et al. (2009)
Glucosides
7-O-trans cinnamoyl-4-epilogenin 75 A. officinalis L Ghani et al. (1998)
geniposidic acid 76 A. marina; L Konig and Rimpler (1985)
A. officinalis Konig et al. (1987)
2’-cinnamoyl-mussaenosidic acid 77 A. marina; L Konig and Rimpler (1985)
A. officinalis; Konig et al. (1987)
a. germinans
Mussaenoside 78 A. marina L Konig and Rimpler (1985)
2’-cinnamoyl-mussaenoside 79 A. marina L Konig and Rimpler (1985)
10-O-5-phenyl-2,4-pentadienoyl-geniposide 80 A. marina; L Konig and Rimpler (1985)
A. officinalis Pandey and Garg (1996)
7-O-5-phenyl-2,4-pentadienoyl-8-epiloganin 81 A. marina L Konig and Rimpler (1985)
10-O-[E-cinnamoyl]-geniposidic acid 82 A. marina L Shaker et al. (2001)
10- O-[E-p-coUmamaheswarraoroyl]-geniposidic acid 83 A. marina L Feng et al. (2006)
10-O-[E- caffeoyl]-geniposidic acid 84 A. marina L Feng et al. (2006)
2’-O-[E-cinnamoyl]mussaenosidic acid 85 A. marina L Feng et al. (2006)
2’-O-[2E,4E-5-phenylpenta-2,4-dienoyl]mussaenosidic acid 86 A. marina L Feng et al. (2006)
and 2’-O-4 mehtoxycinnamoylmussaenosidic acid 87 A. marina L Feng et al. (2006)
2’-O-coUmamaheswarraoroylmussaenosidic acid 88 A. marina L Feng et al. (2006)
Marinoids A - E 89-93 A. marina L Sun et al. (2008)
Verbascoside 94 A. marina L Fauvel et al. (1993)
Isoverbascoside 95 A. marina L Fauvel et al. (1993)
Derhamnosylverbascosid 96 A. marina L Fauvel et al. (1993)
11-hydroxy- 8,11,13-abietatriene 12-O- β -xylopyranoside 97 A. marina B Han et al. (2008)
Lyoniresinol 9’-O- β –D glucopyranoside 98 A. marina B Han et al. (2008)
7-O-cinnamoyl-8-epiloganic acid sodium salt 99 A. officinalis B Konig et al. (1987)
8-O-cinnamoylmussaenosidic acid 100 A. officinalis L Pandey and Garg (1996)
Officinosidic acid 101 A. officinalis L Pandey and Garg (1996)
Loganin 102 A. officinalis L Pandey and Garg (1996)
2’-Caffeoyl-mussaenosidic acid 103 A. germinans L Fauvel et al. (1995)
2’-CoUmamaheswarraoroyl-mussaenosidic acid 104 A. germinans L Fauvel et al. (1997)
C irdoid glucoside 105 A. officinalis L Ghani et al. (1998)
Others
p-methoxy cinnamic acid 106 A. marina L Jia et al. (2004)
R-hydroxy-5-phenyl-4E-pentanoic acid 107 A. marina L Sun et al. (2008)
Syringaresinol 108 A. marina L Sun et al. (2008)
Indolyl-3-arboxylic acid 109 A. marina L Fauvel et al. (1993)
Note:A: aerial root, B: bark/stem, F: flower, S: seed, L: leaf.
Table 5. Important phytoconstituents of Avicennia sp. with pharmacological properties.
Chemical constituents Pharmacological properties Structure References

276
20 Avicennone C Antiproliferative antimicrobial Han et al. (2007)
22 Avicennone E
23 Avicennone F
31 Stenocarpoquinone B

H. THATOI ET AL.
24 Avicennone A Antimicrobial Han et al. (2007)

30 Avicequinone C Anti-androgenic Jain et al. (2014)

35 Catechin Cytoprotective antiulcerogenic Konig et al. (1994)

36 Chlorogenic acid Gonzales et al. (2000)
37 Gallic acid Ramirez and Roa (2003)
38 Elagic acid

(continued).
Table 5. Continued.
Chemical constituents Pharmacological properties Structure References
49 Betulinic acid Anticancer anti-inflammatory Sumithra et al. (2011)
Hossain et al. (2012)

41 Stigmasterol-3-O-β-D Antiglycation Mahera et al. (2013)

glucopyranoside

3 Luteolin 7-O-methylether 3β-O-β-D- Anticancer Zhu et al. (2009)

glucoside

FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE

Ramanjaneyulu (2015)

277
(continued).
Table 5. Continued.

278
Chemical constituents Pharmacological properties Structure References
69 Oleic acid Hypotensive Chinnappan et al. (2013)
Antimicrobial Manilal et al. (2009)

H. THATOI ET AL.
Antacids
Antinflamatory

55 6Hα-11,12,16-trihydroxy-6,7- Anticancer Han et al. (2008)

secoabieta-8,11,13-triene-6,7-dial
11,6-hemiacetal
56 6Hß-11,12,16-trihydroxy-6,7- Antimicrobial
secoabieta-8,11,13-triene-6,7-dial
11,6-hemiacetal
67 6,11,12,16-tetrahydroxy-5,8,11,13-
abitetetraen-7-one

70 Linolenic Acid Antimicrobial Manilal et al. (2009)

71 Palmitic Acid
72 Stearic Acid
73 Lauric Acid
74 Myristi Acid

Table 6. Pharmacological activity of Avicennia sp.
Species Extract Experimental model
Antimicrobial
A. alba A Agar well diffusion
Leaf
B Agar well diffusion
C Agar well diffusion
EA Agar well diffusion
Disc diffusion
H Agar well diffusion
Disc diffusion
M Agar well diffusion
Disc diffusion
Stem/bark A Agar well diffusion
B Agar well diffusion
C Agar well diffusion
E Agar well diffusion
EA Agar well diffusion
H Agar well diffusion
M Agar well diffusion
W Agar well diffusion
A. marina A Agar well diffusion
Leaf
C Agar well diffusion
DM Food poison technique
FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE 279
Biological effect References
Activity against Alcaligens faecalis, Nagababu and Umamaheswararao
Proteus mirabilis, Enterococcus (2012), Bakshi and Chaudhuri (2014)
faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa
and Rhodococcus rhodochrous,
Escherichia coli, Agrobacterium
tumefaciens, Streptococcus mutans,
Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus
flavus, Tricophyton rubrum
Activity against Arthrobacter Nagababu and Umamaheswararao
protophormiae, Salmonella enterica (2012)
and P. mirabilis
Activity against R. rhodochrous, Nagababu and Umamaheswararao
S. enterica, A. faecalis and (2012)
P. aeruginosa
Activity against against R. rhodochrous, Nagababu and Umama-
E. faecalis, A. faecalis, P. mirabilis, heswararao (2012)
P. vulgaris and P. aeruginosa, E coli, Bakshi and Chaudhuri (2014)
A. tumefaciens, S. mutans, S. aureus,
T. rubrum
Activity against A. protophormiae Nagababu and Umamaheswararao
A. faecalis and P. aeruginosa, (2012), Bakshi and Chaudhuri (2014)
Agrobacterium tumefaciens,
Tricophyton rubrum
Activity against R. rhodochrous A. fae- Nagababu and Umamaheswararao
calis, E. faecalis and P. aeruginosa, (2012), Bakshi and Chaudhuri (2014)
E coli, A. tumefaciens, S. mutans,
S. aureus
Activity against Micrococcus luteus, Nagababu and Umamaheswararao
R. rhodochrous, B. subtilis, S. aureus, (2012), Satyaveni et al. (2013)
A. faecalil, P. mirabilis, P. aeruginosa,
E. aerogenes
Activity against A. protophormiae, Nagababu and Umamaheswararao
B. subtilis, R. rhodochrous, P. vulgaris, (2012)
Streptococcus mutans, S. aureus
Activity against R. rhodochrous, Nagababu and Umamaheswararao
B. subtilis, S. aureus. A. faecalil, (2012)
P. mirabilis and P. aeruginosa,
E. aerogenes
Antimicrobial activity against Satyaveni et al. (2013)
E. aerogenes
Activity against R. rhodochrous, Nagababu and Umamaheswararao
B. subtilis, S. aureus, A. faecalil, (2012)
P. mirabilis and P. aeruginosa
Activity against R. rhodochrous Nagababu and Umamaheswararao
(2012)
Activity against A. protophormiae and Nagababu and Umamaheswararao
E. faecalis (2012), Satyaveni et al. (2013)
E. aerogenes & Bacillus subtilis
Antimicrobial activity against Satyaveni et al. (2013)
E. aerogenes
Activity against Bacillus cereus, Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2014)
Enterococcus Faecalis, S. aureus, Afzal et al. (2011)
S. mutans, A. tumefaciens, Aspergillus
flavus A. alternata A. flavus A. niger
Activity against S aureus Klebsiella Shanmugapriya et al.
pneumoniae, S. aureus, S. epider- (2012), Devi et al. (2012)
mides, E. coli, B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, Kumar et al. (2011)
K. pneumoniae A. niger, Rhizopus Afzal et al. (2011)
oriyzae, C. albicans, Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, A. alternata A. flavus
A. fumigatus A. niger C. herbarum
P. notatum
A. alternata A. flavus A. fumigatus A. Afzal et al. (2011)
niger C. herbarum P. notatum
(continued).
280 H. THATOI ET AL.

Table 6. Continued.
Species Extract Experimental model Biological effect References
E Agar well diffusion Activity against Enterobacter cloaca, Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2014)
B. cereus, E. Faecalis and Penicillium Behbahani et al. (2012)
Disc diffusion
digitatum, E. coli, B. subtilis, S. Mouafi et al. (2014)
aureus P. digitatum, F. oxysporum C. Shanmugapriya et al. (2012)
albicans, S. aureus, S. epidermides, Kumar et al. (2011)
E .coli, B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, Afzal et al. (2011)
K. pneumoniae A. niger, Rhizopus Behbahani et al. 2015
oriyzae, C. albicans, Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, A. alternata A. flavus
A. fumigatus A. niger C. herbarum
P. notatum, Alternaria citri and
Penicillium digitatum
EA Agar well diffusion Growth inhibition against S. aureus, Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2014)
Disc diffusion S. mutan, S, E. coli, A. tumefaciens, Bakshi and Chaudhuri (2014)
Aspergillus flavus, E. coli. Klebsiella Devi et al. (2012)
pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, C. Mouafi et al. (2014)
albicans
EE Agar well diffusion Microbial Inhibition against E. coli, Mouafi et al. (2014)
B. subtilis, S. aureus P. digitatum, F.
oxysporum C. albicans
H Disc diffusion Growth inhibition against Bacillus Bakshi and Chaudhuri (2014)
cereus and S. mutans, S. aureus
Devi et al. (2012)
WA Disc diffusion Noticeable anti candida effects seen in Panahai et al. (2014)
clinical vaginitis and standard strains
of Candida albicans
G Disc diffusion method; Activity against P. digitatum and E. coli Behbahani et al. (2012)
Amirkaveei and Behbahani (2011)
M Agar well diffusion Activity against Enterobacter cloaca, Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2014)
Proteus vulgaris, Bacillus cereus,
Enterococcus Faecalis and P.
Disc diffusion digitatum S. aureus, S. mutans, Behbahani et al. (2012)
A. tumefaciens, E. coli. Klebsiella Bakshi and Chaudhuri (2014)
pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, Devi et al. (2012)
S. epidermides, E .coli, B. subtilis, Kumar et al. (2011)
P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae A.
niger, Rhizopus oriyzae, C. albicans,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
PE Agar well diffusion Activity against S. aureus, S. epider- Kumar et al. (2011)
mides, E .coli, B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa,
K. pneumoniae
A. niger, Rhizopus oriyzae, C. albicans,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
W Poisoned food technique A. alternata A. flavus A. fumigatus Afzal et al. (2011)
A. niger C. herbarum P. notatum,
S. cerevisiae, Alternaria citri and
Penicillium digitatum
Behbahani et al. (2015)
Stem/bark B Disc diffusion Activity against B. subtilis, P. mirabilis Ruba et al. (2013)
E Disc diffusion Activity against with S. aureus, P. Ruba et al. (2013)
mirabilis and Serratia marcescens
EA Disc diffusion Activity against B. subtilis, S. aureus and Ruba et al. (2013)
P. mirabilis
M Disc diffusion Growth inhibition against with P. Ruba et al. (2013)
vulgaris
PE Disc diffusion Activity against B. subtilis, S. aureus, S. Ruba et al. (2013)
paratyphi, P. mirabilis, Escherrichia
coli, and S. marcescens
A Agar well diffusion Activity against E. coli, Enterobacter Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2011)
aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae P.
aeruginosa, B. subtilis, Lactobacillus
delbrueckii, S. aureus and S. pyogenes
A. officinalis A, EA, M Disc diffusion Activity against E. coli, Agrobacterium Bakshi and Chaudhuri (2014), Valentin
Leaf tumefaciens, S. mutans, S. aureus, K. et al. (2010), Shanmugapriya et al.
pneumonia, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis (2012)
(continued).
 FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE 281

Table 6. Continued.
Species Extract Experimental model Biological effect References
Stem/bark B, E, EA Agar well diffusion Activity against E. coli, Enterobacter Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2011)
aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae P.
aeruginosa, B. subtilis, Lactobacillus
delbrueckii, S. aureus and S. pyogenes
H Agar well diffusion Activity against K. pneumoniae, B. Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2011)
subtilis, L. delbrueckii and S. aureus
M Agar well diffusion Activity against E. coli, E. aerogenes, Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2011)
K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, B.
subtilis, L. delbrueckii, S. aureus and S.
pyogenes
Roots A, E, M Agar well diffusion Activity against E. coli, E. aerogenes, Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2011)
K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, B.
subtilis, L. delbrueckii, S. aureus and S.
pyogenes
Fruit A Agar well diffusion Antimicrobial activity against E. coli E. Sharief et al. (2014b, 2015)
aerogenes, B. cereus and E. Faecalis, E.
cloacae
E Agar well diffusion Antimicrobial activity against E coli E Sharief et al. (2014b, 2015)
aerogenes Klebsiella pneumoniae P.
aeruginosa B. subtilis L. delbrueckii
Staphylococcus aureus S. pyogenes,
B. cereus and E. Faecalis, E. cloacae, P.
vulgaris
EA Agar well diffusion Antimicrobial activity against L. Sharief et al. (2014b, 2015)
delbrueckii S. aureus, B. cereus and E.
Faecalis
M Agar well diffusion Antimicrobial activity against E coli E Sharief et al. (2014b, 2015)
aerogenes Klebsiella pneumoniae P.
aeruginosa B. subtilis L. delbrueckii
Staphylococcus aureus S. pyogenes,
B. cereus and E. Faecalis, E. cloacae, P.
vulgaris
A. schaueriana E Disc diffusion Antimicrobial activity against Fardin and Young (2015)
Leaf C. gloeosporioides and C.
sphaerospermum
M Disc diffusion Antimicrobial activity against Fardin and Young (2015)
gloeosporioides and C.
sphaerospermum
Stem/bark E Disc diffusion Antimicrobial activity against Fardin and Young (2015)
gloeosporioides and C.
sphaerospermum
M Disc diffusion Antimicrobial activity against Fardin and Young (2015)
gloeosporioides and C.
sphaerospermum
Antidiarrhoeal
A. alba M Castor oil induced Increases mean latent period and Rahman et al. (2011)
Leaf reduces frequency of defecation

Analgesic and antipyretic

A. alba M Radiant heat Modulates to relive pain gener- Kar et al. (2014b)
Leaf Tail immersion ated from sensory mediators,
Brewer’s yeast-induced fever Prostaglandin inhibition
Antiulcer
A. officinalis W NSAID-induced ulcer Stimulates prostaglandin E2, prevents Thirunavukkarasu et al. (2010)
gut secretions and protection from
toxins and other irritants
E Aspirin + Pyloric ligation- Prevents increased acid secretion Sura et al. (2011)
induced ulcer
E Indomethacine-induced Decrease in gastric ulcers with reduced Sura et al. (2011)
gastric ulcer glutathione in the gastric mucosa
M Ethanol- hydrochloric Prevents the direct toxic action of Aparna et al. (2014)
acid-induced ulcer ethanol, reduction of the secretion
of bicarbonate and depletion of
gastric wall mucus
Antinoceptive
A. alba M Acetic acid-induced writhings Significant writhing inhibition, Rahman et al. (2011)
Leaf Decrease in levels of PGE2 and
PGF2α in peritoneal fluid
(continued).
282 H. THATOI ET AL.

Table 6. Continued.
Species Extract Experimental model Biological effect References
A. officinalis E Acetic acid-induced writhings Dose dependent writhing inhibition, Shahid et al. (2007)
Leaf Decrease levels of PGE2 and PGF2α
in peritoneal fluid
Anti-inflammatory
A. marina WA Rat model of rheumatoid Reduces inflammatory markers and Shafie et al. (2013)
Leaf arthritis improvement in joint lesions

A. officinalis M Carrageenin, Formalin, Freunds Inhibition of prostaglandin, more Sumithra et al. (2011a)
Leaf Complete Adjuvant effective in chronic model than the
acute model
Diuretic
A. officinalis M Lipschitz dirutic model Increases the volume of urine with a Hossain et al. (2012)
Leaf significant Na+ /K+ excretion ratio
Neuropharmacological
A. officinalis M Pentobarbital-induced Reduces the onset of sleep, possess Hossain et al. (2012)
Leaf hypnosis, Open field, Hole central sedative properties
cross, Head dip
Antiviral/Anti-HIV
A. marina E Reverse transcriptase inhibitory Active against Encephalomyocarditis Beula et al. (2012)
Leaf assay, HBV DNA polymerase virus, reverse transcriptase HBs Ag Premanathan et al. (1999)
inhibition assay and, HBV DNA polymerase
E,W Ames test Salmonella mutation Antimutagenic activity Karami et al. (2012)
assay
C, E, H, M, W Plaque reduction assay, HIV Methanol extract had the highest Namazi et al. (2013)
replication assay potential for inhibiting both Herpes
simplex virus HSV and HIV
A. officinalis E, PE, W Reverse transcriptase Inhibition of HIV-RT, binding inhibition Rege et al. (2010)
Leaf inhibition, Gp120 binding of Gp120 and interaction inhibition
inhibition assay Gp120/CD4 of Gp120/CD4
Anticancer interaction assay
A. marina E MTT assay using HL60 cell lines Significant cytotoxic effect on HL-60 Karami et al. (2012)
Leaf cells. Induces apoptosis in HL-60 cell
line
M MTT assay MDA- MB 231 cancer Antiproliferative effect Momtazi-borojeni et al. (2013)
cells
M, W MTT assay Cytotoxicity against HL-60 and NCI-H23 Sukhramani and Patel (2013)
cell line
A. officinalis M Ehrlich ascitic carcinoma cell Tumour inhibitory activity, gain in body Sumithra et al. (2013)
Leaf lines weight, increase in life span and
normal haematological parameters
Antioxidant
A. alba A, M, W DPPH scavenging; NO W extracts had highest antioxidant Patra et al. (2014)
Leaf scavenging; Metal chelating activity followed by A extracts.
A. marina A ABTS Antioxidant activity of M extracts was Sharief and Umamaheswararao (2011)
superior.
Stem/bark E, EA,
M
E DPPH scavenging; Extracts of E showed efficient Selvasundhari et al. (2014)
antioxidant activity
W Reducing Power;
NO scavenging
A DPPH scavenging; All the extracts showed high degree of Patra et al. (2014)
antioxidant activity in one or more
antioxidant assays
E NO scavenging;
M Metal chelating
W
Fruits A ABTS, CrO5 assay; FRAP assay Antioxidant activity of E was highest in Sharief et al. (2014b)
E, EA, ABTS, whereas M was better in rest
M two assays
Roots E, EA, DPPH; EA showed strong DPPH and hydroxyl Packia-Lincy et al. (2013)
M Hydroxyl radical; radical scavenging activity, whereas
Superoxide; E and M were efficient in rest two
ABTS assays

(continued).
 FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE 283

Table 6. Continued.
Species Extract Experimental model Biological effect References
Flowers E Total Reducing Power; Chinnappan et al. (2013)
NO scavenging assay
Leaf M DPPH Antioxidant activity Thirunavukkarasu et al. (2013)
SOD
A DPPH scavenging Extract A had the highest overall Patra et al. (2014)
antioxidant activity
M NO scavenging
W Metal chelating
A. officinalis A ABTS; Antioxidant activity of E was highest in Sharief et al. (2014b)
Fruits E, EA, CrO5; ABTS, whereas M was better in rest
Leaf M DPPH; two assays
M FRAP
DPPH Antioxidant activity Thirunavukkarasu et al. (2013)
SOD
Antidiabetic
A. marina E Alloxan-induced diabetic Antihyperglycaemic activity Babuselvam et al. (2013)
Leaf model
Toxicity
A. marina M,W Cytotoxicity Assay Shows negligible toxicity against Sukhramani and Patel (2013)
Leaf normal cell line HEK-293T
W Sub toxicity assay No significant differences between Beula et al. (2012)
organs weight in control and extract
treated animals were found.
A. officinalis E Toxicity assay No changes in behavioural pattern in Sura et al. (2011)
Leaf most of the mice. Zero mortality rate
Note: A: acetone, B: benzene, C: Chloroform, DM: dimethyl sulfoxide, EA: ethyl acetate, E: ethanol, EE: ethyl ether, G: Glycerol, H: hexane, M: methanol, PE: petroleum
ether, W: water, WA: water alcoholic.

from different parts of Avicennia plants are presented
in Table 6.
Antimicrobial
Antibacterial activities of species like A. alba, A.
marina, A. officinalis and A. schaueriana have been
widely studied. Using agar well and disc diffusion
methods, the antibacterial activity of leaf and bark
extracts of A. alba in different solvents has been
studied against eight Gram-positive and six Gram-
negative bacteria. The acetone, benzene, chloroform,
ethyl acetate, hexane and methanol leaf and bark
extracts of the plant are reported to exhibit antibac-
terial activity selectively against S. entrica, A. prop-
tophormiae, A. tumefaciens, P. mirabilis, P. aerugi-
nosa, R. rhodochrous, B. subtilis, P. vulgaris, S. mutans,
S.aureus and A. faecalis, in comparison with standard
tested bacterial antibiotics (Nagababu & Umamah-
eswararao 2012; Satyaveni et al. 2013; Bakshi & Chaud-
huri 2014). The leaf extracts of A. marina (acetone,
chloroform, hexane, methanol, ethanol, ethyl acetate)
have been reported to exhibit antibacterial activity
selectively against bacteria such as A. tumefaciens,
Bacillus cereus, E. faecalis, E. coli, S. aureus, S. mutans,
K. pneumonia, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, Staphylococ-
cus sp., Proteus sp., Pseudomonas sp. and Shigella sp
(Kumar et al. 2011; Afzal et al. 2011, Devi et al. 2012;
Shanmugapriya et al. 2012; Bakshi & Chaudhuri 2014;
Sharief & Umamaheswararao 2014). However, later,
the charcoal-treated leaf extracts of A. marina were
seen to exhibit higher growth inhibition against the
same bacterial strains (reference). In another study,
various stem extracts (petroleum ether, benzene, ethyl
acetate and ethanol) of A. marina have been reported
for their antibacterial activity against P. mirabilis, S.
paratyphi, E. coli, S. aureus and B. subtilis (Ruba et al.
2013). Various solvent extracts of A. officinalis leaf
are also reported with a high percentage of antibacte-
rial activity. The acetone, ethyl acetate and methanol
leaf extracts of A. officnials plant showed antimicro-
bial activity with 21–25 mm zone of inhibition against
various human pathogenic strains such as A. tumefa-
ciens, S. mutans S. aureus, K. pneumonia, P. aerugi-
nosa, B. subtilis and E. coli (Valentin et al. 2010; Shan-
mugapriya et al. 2012; Bakshi & Chaudhuri 2014).
Methanol and ethanol extracts from its fruit also
exhibited higher antibacterial activity with MIC values
ranging between 1.25 and 5.0 mg/100 μl against bac-
terial species, namely E. coli, E. Aerogenes, K. pneumo-
nia, L. delbrueckii, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, S. aureus
and S. pyogenes (Sharief & Umamaheswararao 2014).
Similarly, stem extracts of A. officinalis in acetone,
methanol, ethanol, benzene, ethyl acetate were also
active against E coli, E. aerogenes, K. pneumoniae, P.
aeruginosa, B. subtilis, L. delbrueckii, S. aureus and
284 H. THATOI ET AL.
S. pyogenes with varying zone of inhibition ranging
from 11.33 to 18.00 mm (Sharief & Umamaheswararao
2011). The various fruit and root solvent extracts of
A. officinalis also showed strong antimicrobial activity
against various pathogenic bacteria as listed in Table 6
against E. coli, E. aerogenes, K. pneumoniae, P. aerug-
inosa, B. subtilis, L. delbrueckii, S. aureus and S. pyo-
genes, B. cereus and E. Faecalis, E. cloacae, P. vulgaris
and so on (Sharief & Umamaheswararao 2011; Sharief
et al. 2014b, 2015).
Fardin and Young (2015) evaluated a high growth
inhibition of A. schaueriana leaf extracts against plant
fungal Colletotrichum and Cladosporium sp.. Using
thin layer chromatography bioautography, petroleum
ether and chloroform fractions of ethanolic stem
extract of this plant showed antifungal activity against
C. sphaerospermum, C. cladosporioides and C. lagenar-
ium with many active bands in the range of Rf = 0·72
to Rf = 0·55. In another study using agar dilution
assay, the ethanolic, petroleum ether crude extract of
A. schauceriana stem and column chloroform frac-
tions showed growth inhibition against C. gloeop-
sporioides. Antifungal activity is also reported in A.
marina against Pencillium digitatum, one of the dev-
astating pathogens of citrus fruit. Using agar diffusion
method, the ethanol extract of this plants leaf showed
80% inhibition against the pathogen (Behbahani et al.
2012). There is a report that hydroalcholic extract of
A. marina’s showed inhibitory effect on human fun-
gal pathogen C. albicans. The results showed that the
MIC and MFC values for the fungus have noticeable
anticandida effects on different species of C. albicans
(Panahai et al. 2014). Similarly, other extracts such as
ethyl acetate and acetone extract of this plant have been
reported to exhibit antifungal activity as seen against
A. flavus with 6.5 mm zone of inhibition. Antifungal
action has also been reported in A. alba. The ethyl
acetate leaf extract of the plant was reported to be effec-
tive against fungus T. rubrum (Bakshi & Chaudhuri
2014).
Few studies have been undertaken to character-
ize and identify the bioactive principle responsible of
antimicrobial activity in Avicennia plants (Han et al.
2007, 2008; Manilal et al. 2009; Chinnappan et al.
2013). The antimicrobial effect can be corroborated
with the presence of naphthalene derivatives (20, 22,
23, 24), terpenoids (55, 56) in stem extracts and fatty
acids (69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74) in leaf and flower extracts
of A. marina. The presence of terpenoid (67) in A.
officinalis has also been reported to exhibit the antimi-
crobial activity.
Antidiarrhoeal
Amongst many species of Avicennia, antidiarrhoeal
study has been carried only in A. alba and A. offic-
inalis. The methanol extract of leafs of A. alba was
investigated for its possible antidiarrhoeal effect on
diarrhoeal animal models. The extract exhibited con-
siderable antidiarrhoeal activity on castor oil-induced
diarrhoea in mice, increasing the mean latent period
and reducing the frequency of defecation signifi-
cantly at the oral dosage of 500 mg/kg body weight
(p < .001) in comparison with the standard drug
Loperamide (50 mg/kg b.w) (Rahman et al. 2011).
Flavonoids present in the A. officinalis methanol leaf
extract are reported to inhibit release of autacoids and
prostaglandins, which in turn can inhibit motility and
secretion induced by castor oil in castor oil induced
diarrhoeal animal model (Ahmed et al. 2008). In addi-
tion, saponins steroids, alkaloids and glycosides can
also exhibit antidiarrhoeal effect (Roome et al. 2008).
The presence of these phytochemicals was reported
through phytochemical screening in methanolic leaf
extract of A. alba Table 3).
Analgesic and antipyretic
The analgesic and antipyretic properties of A. alba was
reported by Kar et al. (2014a). Its methanol leaf extract
at a dosage of 200 mg/kg b.w exhibited significant anal-
gesic activity in Albino (Wister) rat model. The radiant
heat and tail immersion study showed that the extract
modulated the action potential and signal transmis-
sion generated from the sensory mediators like delta
and C fibres sensory neurons to relive pain (Kar et al.
2014a). In another study, the same extract at an oral
dosage of 200 mg/kg b.w exhibited significant anti-
pyretic effect in yeast-induced rat model. The extract
could inhibit prostaglandin by blocking the activity
of cyclooxygenase enzyme that causes pyrexia (Shaik
et al. 2013). The presence of flavonoids in A. alba leaf
extracts could be responsible for its antipyretic activity
(Kar et al. 2014b).
Antiulcer
Peptic ulcer is one of the major gastro-intestinal dis-
orders which occur due to an imbalance between the

gastric acid secretion and gastric mucosal integrity
factors (Hoogerwerf & Pasricha 2006). The antiul-
cer potential has been reported only in A. officinalis
plant. The ethanol (Sura et al. 2011), hot and cold
aqueous (Thirunavukkarasu et al. 2011) and methanol
(Aparna et al. 2014) leaf extracts of this plant have been
reported for antiulcerogenic activities. The ethanol leaf
extract at 250 and 500 mg/kg b.w dosages decreased
the ulcerative lesion index of indomethacine-induced
ulcerative rat by 11.6% and 25.3%, respectively. The
antiulcer activity might be due to the antioxidant effect
of the plant extract that could reduce glutathione in
the gastric mucosa (Sura et al. 2011). Furthermore,
the ethanol leaf extracts also exhibited dose-dependent
antiulcer protection in aspirin-induced ulcer rat model
by preventing increased acid secretion in mucosa
(Sura et al. 2011). Similarly, the gastro protective
effect of both hot and cold aqueous leaf extracts at
125 mg/kg dosages was reported in nonsteroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAID)-induced albino Wister
rat ulcer model (Thirunavukkarasu et al. 2011). In
another study, the ulcer protective effect of methanol
leaf extract at 200 and 400 mg/kg b.w dosages has
been reported in Pylorus Ligated and Ethanol–HCl-
induced Wistar albino rats model (Aparna et al. 2014).
The presence of flavonoids and tannins in leaf extracts
was attributed to the antiulcerogenic and cytoprotec-
tive effects (Augwa & Nwako 1988; Maira et al. 2006).
In addition, the major polyphenols, polymeric tan-
nins and hydrosable tannins (35), (36), (37), (38) are
known for their cytoprotective and antiulcerogenic
properties in A. officinalis (Konig et al. 1994; Gonzales
et al. 2000; Ramirez & Roa 2003).
Antinoceptive
The antinoceptive property has been reported in A.
alba and A. officinalis. The methanol leaf extract of
A. alba at an oral dosage of 500 mg/kg b.w increased
the levels of PGE2 and PGF2α in the peritoneal
using acetic acid-induced writhing mice model (Der-
ardt et al. 1980). The extract produced significant
writhing inhibition, which was at par with standard
drug diclofenac sodium (Rahman et al. 2011). Simi-
larly, the ethanol leaf extract of A. officinalis at 250 and
500 mg/kg dosages produced significant writhing inhi-
bition (Shahid et al. 2007). The presence of polypheno-
lic compounds such as flavonoids and tannins, penta-
cyclic triterpenes, steroids, alkaloids and glycosides in
FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE 285
the leaf extracts could be responsible for their antinoci-
ceptive activity (Roome et al. 2008).
Anti-inflammatory
The anti-inflammatory activity was exhibited by A.
marina A. alba, A. officinalis A. and A. tomentosa
species. Shafie et al. (2013) reported anti-inflammatory
effect of hydro-alcoholic leaf extract of A. marina by
using rheumatoid arthritis in Wistar rat model. The
extract at 400 mg/kg dosage showed significant reduc-
tion in inflammatory markers and improvement in
joint lesions (Shafie et al. 2013). Polyphenolic com-
pounds present in mangroves can prevent harmful
effects of oxidative damage, which are reported to play
a critical role in rheumatoid arthritis (Araujo et al.
1998). The investigation on anti-inflammatory activ-
ity of crude methanol extract of A. officinalis leaf was
performed on acute (carrageenin), subacute (Forma-
lin) and chronic (Freunds Complete Adjuvant) rat paw
oedema models. The extract at 400 mg/kg dose was
found to be more effective and induced significant
inhibition in all the three anti-inflammatory models
(Sumithra, Anbu et al. 2011a). The structural analysis
of bioactive principles of the A. officinailis methanol
leaf extract displayed the presence of triterpene -
betulinic acid (49), which exhibits anti-inflammatory
activity in other medicinal plants (Sumithra, Anbu et
al. 2011a). Betulinic acid was also reported to exhibit
anti-inflammatory effect in A. alba A. marina and A.
tomentosa (Sumithra, Janjanam et al. 2011b; Hossain
et al. 2012).
Diuretic
Diuretic effect had been reported in A. officinalis.
The methanol leaf extract of this plant at 200 and
400 mg/kg dosages showed significant diuretic effect in
Swiss Albino using Lipschitz diuretic assay. The extract
was able to increase urine volume along with high
amount of Na+ and Cl− load, which was compara-
ble to that of standard drug furosemide. (Hossain et al.
2012). After treatment with the plant extract, there was
also noticeable decrease in the concentration ratio of
excreted sodium and potassium ions. This effect marks
that the extract has lesser hyperkalaemic side effect but
possess essential quality of being a good diuretic agent.
Diuretic action of the extract may be due to its effect on
the rate of glomerular filtration and inhibitory effect on
the reabsorption mechanism of salt.
286 H. THATOI ET AL.
Neuropharmacological
The neuropharmacological activity has been reported
in A. officinalis. The methanolic leaf extracts exhib-
ited the neuropharamacological effect by reducing the
onset of sleep and potentiating the sleeping time in
pentobarbital-induced mice (Ahmed et al. 2008). Fur-
thermore, the leaf extract showed central sedative
properties in Swiss-albino mice model by inducing a
reduction in behavioural exploration of mice as evi-
denced by open field, hole cross and head dip test
(Hossain et al. 2012). The extract reduced the onset of
sleep and potentiated the pentobarbital-induced sleep-
ing time in mice, suggesting its probable tranquilizing
action (Capasso et al. 1996). Later, Ahmed et al. (2008),
at an oral dosage of 500 mg/kg b.w methanolic leaf
extracts, tested exploratory behaviour in animals in the
open field, hole cross and head dip Swiss albino mice
models. The result confirmed that the extract has CNS
depressant action, as it exerted central sedative proper-
ties and reduced exploratory behaviours in mice (Perez
et al. 1998).
Antiviral/Anti-HIV
The antiviral activity has been reported in leaf extracts
of A. marina and A. officinalis. The leaf extracts of A.
marina were reported for their antiviral activity against
hepatitis B virus (Beula et al. 2012) and Encephalomy-
ocarditis virus (Premanathan et al. 1999). A. marina’s
leaf ethanol extracts have profound antiviral activity
against the hepatitis B virus. A. marina’s leaf ethanol
extracts displayed inhibitory potential against surface
antigen, DNA polymerase and reverse transcriptase
of Hepatitis B with IC50 values of 403.91, 489.39 and
372.09 ug/mL, respectively (Beula et al. 2012). The leaf
extracts of A. officinalis exhibited inhibitory potential
against HIV’s reverse transcriptase enzyme, binding of
gp120 and interaction of gp120/CD4 (Rege et al. 2010).
Anticancer
The anticancer potential has been reported in A.
marina and A. officinalis. The ethanol, methanol and
aqueous leaf extracts of A. marina were reported for
their cytotoxicity activities against HL60, MDA-MB
231, and NCI-H23 cell lines (Karami et al. 2012;
Sukhramani & Patel 2013; Momtazi-borojeni et al.
2013) using MTT assay. The cytotoxicity activity can
be attributed to the presence of flavonoids (3) having
anticancer activity that can kill human promyelocytic
leukaemia cells by apoptosis mechanism (Raman-
janeyulu 2015). In addition, the plant is also reported
to possess anticancer compounds such (20), (22), (23),
(31), (55) and (56) in its stem as well as (49) in its root
(Han et al. 2007; Sumithra et al. 2011b; Hossain et al.
2012). Sumithra et al. (2011a), in another anticancer
study, reported cytotoxicity activity of A. officinalis in
Ehrlich ascitic carcinoma cell lines. The methanol leaf
extract of this plant exhibited significant antitumour
activity. Increase in life span and normal haemato-
logical parameters were seen restored in the affected
animals (Sumithra et al. 2011a). The anticancerous
effect of the plant can be attributed to the presence of
tannins (35) (36) (37) (38) in leaf and bark and ter-
penoid (67) in the root (Konig et al. 1994; Gonzales
et al. 2000; Ramirez & Roa 2003; Han et al. 2008).
Antioxidant
The antioxidant activity has been reported in A.
marina and A. officinalis. Acetone, methanol, ethyl
acetate and ethanol extracts of A. marina fruit
and leaf were reported for their antioxidant poten-
tial, as these could scavenge the ABTS (2,2 -azino-
bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid)), CrO5
(Chromium peroxide) and FRAP (Ferric reducing
ability of plasma) molecules (Sharief et al. 2014a,
2014b). In another study, the ethyl acetate, ethanol,
methanol extracts of pneumatophores (Packia Lincy
et al. 2013) along with aqueous and ethanolic bark
extracts (Packia Lincy et al. 2013) of this plant
exhibited strong antioxidant activity by scaveng-
ing DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl), superox-
ide and ABTS radicals (Selvasundhari et al. 2014). Sim-
ilarly, the acetone, methanol and ethanol fruit extracts
of A. officinalis were reported for their capacity to scav-
enge ABTS, CrO5 , DPPH and FRAP (Sharief et al.
2014b). Besides, ethanolic leaf extract of the plant was
reported for its DPPH, hydroxyl and ABTS scavenging
activity (Thirunavukkarasu et al. 2011).
Antidiabetic
Out of the different Avicennia plants, the antidiabetic
potential is only reported in A. marina species. The
leaves (Babuselvam et al. 2013) and pneumatophores
(Mahera et al. 2011, 2013) were reported for their

antihyperglycaemic activities. Babuselvam et al. (2013)
reported antihyperglycaemic activity of the ethano-
lic leaf extracts of A. marina in alloxan-induced
diabetic rats. Significant decrease in the blood glu-
cose levels, urea and increase in total haemoglobin
(Hb), total protein and serum insulin were observed
in alloxanized diabetic rats upon administration of
250 and 500 mg/kg leaf extracts. Furthermore, the
other biochemical parameters like serum phospho-
rous, albumin and globulin were also reported to be
ameliorated. The antidiabetic properties of A. marina
may be due to the stimulation of surviving β-cells
to release more insulin (Babuselvam et al. 2013). In
another study, the methanolic pneumatophore extracts
were also reported for their AGE inhibition potential
that indicates the potential of this plant to control the
post diabetic complications (Mahera et al. 2011, 2013).
Toxicity studies
Toxicological evaluation has been reported in two Avi-
cennia species, namely A. marina and A. officinalis. A.
marina aqueous leaf extracts at of 500 and 1000 mg/kg
dosages showed no behavioural changes, zero mor-
tality rate and normal of biochemical indices (SGOT,
SGPT, ALP and urea) in experimental rats (Beula
et al. 2012). Furthermore, the methanol and aqueous
leaf extracts of this plant showed no toxicity effect
against normal cell line, HEK-293 T (Sukhramani &
Patel 2013). The ethanolic leaf extract of A. officinalis
also showed no toxicity in Wistar albino mice at 250
and 500 mg/kg dosages (Sura et al. 2011).
Conclusion
The genus Avicennia is a pioneer group of dominant
mangrove plant species having eight species including
their varieties and synonyms with potential medicinal
values. The plants belonging to the genus Avicennia
are ecologically and phytochemically diverse with eth-
nomedicinal uses. Most species or species synonyms
with genus Avicennia are valued for their traditional
medicinal applications. Out of eight reported species,
the ethnomedicinal investigation of A. balanophora, A.
bicolor and A. integra has not been reported so far.
Although most of the pharmacological studies have
been validated recently for Avicennia, there are still
many areas where our current knowledge could be
improved.
FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE 287
The different extracts and compounds isolated from
species like A. alba, A. officinalis and A. marina
exhibited various pharmacological activities. Some
of the active phyto-constituents responsible for such
bioactivity that are reported in these plants belong to
group of flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, fatty acids
and naphthoquinones. The species/species variants,
namely A. alba, A. officinalis and A. marina have been
investigated in detail for their phytochemical and ther-
apeutic studies for which Avicennia is considered as
a genus of medicinal importance. However, pharma-
cological studies of other species have not been car-
ried out so far. There is a need for a detailed analysis
of phytochemical and pharmacological properties of
these species. This will enable to establish their medic-
inal importance and therapeutic potential, if any. In
addition, the effectiveness of bioactive compounds or
active chemical constituents found in plants of genus
Avicennia needs to be explored further for future drug
development.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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