CARDIOVASCULAR

- between the chest’s pleural cavities in

the mediastinum, deep to the
sternum (breastbone)
; HEART AND -
-
Tilted
⅔ rest left of the midsagittal plane

VESSELS
- Tall (upright)
- barrel-chested (=more tilted)

arter/o, arteri/o: atri/o: atrium

fatty substance
brady/: slow

cardi/o, coron/o: pericardi/o:

heart pericardium

rhythm/o: rhythm sphygm/o: pulse

Pericardium
- membrane enclosing the heart
tachy: rapid vas/o: vessel 1. outer fibrous layer
vascul/o: vessel 2. inner double layer of serous
membrane.
ven/o/i: vein ventricul/o:
ventricle Heart Wall
- Muscular tissue
1. Epicardium - outside
Major Organs
2. Myocardium
Heart 3. Endocardium - inside
Aorta
Superior and Inferior Venae cavae

Accessory Structures
Arteries
Veins
Capillaries

Heart
- Hollow organ
- Transportation
- Temperature regulation Chambers
- a pump to circulate blood through a 2 atria (receive blood)
system of vessels. 2 ventricles (pump blood out)
Size Upper chambers= left and right atria
- adult fist Lower chambers= the left and right
- approximately 300g/ 10oz ventricles.
Located
Septum
 - wall of muscle
- separates the left and right atria and
the left and right ventricles.

Left ventricle
- largest and strongest chamber in
your heart.
- chamber walls are only about a
half-inch thick
- have enough force to push blood
through the aortic valve and into your
body. Cardiac Muscle Tissue
- Striated
Valves - Branching
- prevent blood from flowing in the - one nucleus per cell
wrong direction - intercalated disks
- leaflets or cusps (set of flaps) - Adapted to stay aerobic
- Annulus (shape)
2 AV valves
- between the atria and the ventricles Blood Flow through the Heart
1. mitral valve
- lets oxygen-rich blood from
your lungs pass from the left
atrium into the left ventricle.
2. tricuspid valve
- regulates blood flow between
the right atrium and right
ventricle.
2 semilunar valves
- between the ventricles and the
arteries taking blood away from the
heart.
1. pulmonary valve
- controls blood flow from the
right ventricle into the
pulmonary arteries, which
carry blood to your lungs to
pick up oxygen.
2. aortic valve
- opens the way for
oxygen-rich blood to pass
Superior/ inferior vena cava → right atrium
from the left ventricle into the
(tricuspid valve) → right ventricle (pulmonary
aorta.
valve) → pulmonary trunk → pulmonary
artery (to the left lungs)
pulmonary veins (Oxygen depleted blood) → 2. Systemic vessel
left atrium (bicuspid valve) → left ventricle - transport blood from the left
(aortic valve) → aorta artery → To the rest of ventricle → all parts of the
the body body → right atrium

Cardiac Conduction System - Carry blood

- Cardiac muscle is autorhythmic. - Exchange nutrients, waste products,
- Electrical impulse gases within tissues
- Transport substances
Cardiac Cycle - Regulate blood pressure
- to complete contraction and - Direct blood flow to tissues
relaxation of the heart.
- includes atrial systole, atrial diastole, Blood Vessel Walls
ventricular systole, ventricular Tunica intima
diastole, and a rest. - innermost
1. Systole is contraction - simple squamous
2. Diastole is relaxation. Tunica media
- middle
SA node - smooth muscle with elastic and
- sets the cardiac rhythm (heartbeat) collagen
Tunica adventitia
Electrocardiogram - outermost
- Electrical activity of the heart - connective tissue
(process in the laboratory)
- P, Q, R, S, and T waves.

Cardiac Output
- amount of blood ejected by each
ventricle of the heart each minute.
- dependent on heart rate and stroke
volume (dependent on preload,
contractility, and afterload)
CO = HR × SV
Parts of the Aorta
Heart Regulation
- autonomic nervous system through 1. Ascending
the cardiac accelerator and inhibitory - passes superiorly from left ventricle
centers in the medulla oblongata, 2. Aortic arch
which get information from - 3 major arteries which carry blood to
proprioceptors, baroreceptors, and the head and upper limbs
chemoreceptors. 3. Descending
- regulated by chemicals. - extends through thorax and abdomen
to pelvis
Blood vessels 4. Thoracic
1. Pulmonary vessels - part of descending aorta that extends
- Transport blood from the through thorax to diaphragm
right ventricle → lungs → left 5. Abdominal
atrium
 - descending aorta that extends from
diaphragm where it divides at the
common iliac arteries Vessel Anatomy

Arteries
- carry blood away from the heart.
1. Elastic arteries
- largest in diameter
- thickest walls
Example - aorta and pulmonary trunk
2. Muscular arteries
- medium to small size
- thick in diameter
- contain smooth muscle cells
- can control blood flow to body
regions

Arteries of the Head and Neck

Branches of aortic arch

● brachiocephalic artery
● left common carotid artery
● left subclavian
Brachiocephalic artery
- first branch off aortic arch
- supplies blood to right side of head
Abdominal Aorta Branches and neck
Left common carotid artery
Celiac trunk Superior
- 2nd branch off aortic arch
arteries mesenteric arteries
- supplies blood to the left side of head
(to stomach, (to small intestines
and neck
pancreas, spleen, and upper portion
Left subclavian artery
liver, upper of colon)
- 3rd branch off aortic arch
duodenum)
- supplies blood to left upper limbs
Right common carotid artery
Inferior mesenteric Renal arteries
- branches off brachiocephalic artery
arteries (to kidneys)
- supplies blood to right side of head
(to colon)
and neck
Hepatic arteries Testicular arteries Right subclavian artery
(to liver) (to testes) - branches off brachiocephalic artery
- supplies blood to right upper limbs
Ovarian arteries Inferior phrenic
(to ovaries) arteries Arteries of Pelvis
(to diaphragm)
Common iliac arteries
Lumbar arteries - branches from abdominal aorta
(to lumbar vertebra and back muscles) - divides into internal iliac arteries
External iliac arteries
- division of common iliac artery
 - supply blood to lower limbs
Internal iliac arteries Superior vena cava
- division of common iliac - returns blood from head, neck,
- supply blood to pelvic area thorax, and right upper limbs
- empties into right atrium of heart
Arteries of the Upper Limbs Inferior vena cava
- returns blood from abdomen, pelvis,
Axillary arteries lower limbs
- continuation of subclavian supply - empties into right atrium of heart
blood deep in clavicle
Brachial arteries Veins of the Head and Neck
- continuation of axillary External jugular vein
- where blood pressure measurements - drain blood from head and neck
are taken - empties into subclavian veins
Ulnar arteries Internal jugular vein
- branch of brachial artery near elbow - drain blood from brain, face, neck
Radial arteries - empty into subclavian veins
- branch of brachial artery Subclavian veins
- to forearm and hand pulse were taken - forms brachiocephalic veins
here Brachiocephalic veins
- join to form superior vena cava
Arteries of the Lower Limbs
Veins of the Upper Limbs
Brachial veins
Femoral arteries Popliteal arteries
- empty into axillary vein
(to thigh) (to knee)
Cephalic veins
Anterior and Fibular arteries - empty into axillary vein and basilic
posterior arteries (lateral leg and foot) vein
(leg and foot) Median cubital veins
- connects to cephalic vein
- near elbow

Capillaries Veins of the Thorax

- are the site of the exchange of Right and left brachiocephalic veins
materials between the blood and - drain blood from thorax into superior
tissues. vena cava
Azygos veins
- drain blood from thorax into superior
Veins vena cava
- return blood back to the heart. (pa Internal thoracic veins
valec) - empty into brachiocephalic veins
- Deoxygenated (contain carbon Posterior intercostal veins
dioxide) - drain blood from posterior thoracic
types wall
1. Medium-sized veins - drains into azygos vein on right side
- collect blood from small veins and Hemiazygos vein
deliver to large veins - receives blood from azygos vein of
2. Large veins left side
- contain valves
 Pulmonary Circulation Vessels
Pulmonary circulation
- blood vessels that carry blood from
right ventricle to lungs and back from
left atrium of heart
Pulmonary trunk
- blood pump from right ventricle
towards lung
Pulmonary veins
- exit lungs and carry O2 rich blood to
left atrium
Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis
Common iliac vein
- formed from external and internal
iliacs
- empty into inferior vena cava
External iliac vein
- drains blood from lower limbs
- empty into common iliac vein
Internal iliac vein
- drains blood from pelvic region
- empties into common iliac vein
Renal vein
- drains blood from kidneys
Veins of the Lower Limb
Femoral veins
- drain blood from thigh and empty
into external iliac vein
Great saphenous veins
- drain from foot and empty into
femoral vein
Popliteal veins
- drain blood from knee and empty into
femoral vein
Vessel Physiology
Circulatory Routes
- supplies blood to the heart.
Typical systemic route = one capillary bed.
Alternative routes = vary in the number of
capillary beds or involve the merging of
vessels.
Venous Return
- Blood is returned to the heart
through veins by five mechanisms:
1. Pressure gradient
2. Gravity
3. Thoracic pump
4. Cardiac suction
5. Skeletal muscle pump
Blood flow
- amount of blood flowing to an area in
a given amount of time.
Blood pressure
- is the force of blood against the
vessel walls.
- 120/80 : average
- dependent on cardiac output, blood
volume, and resistance.
- measured as systolic
pressure/diastolic pressure.
Blood pressure and flow can be regulated
locally, hormonally, and neurally.
Pulse pressure
= systolic pressure – diastolic pressure.
- pulse pressure points can be felt near
large arteries
MAP = diastolic pressure + 1/3 pulse
pressure.
Regulation of Blood Pressure and Flow
Systolic- first Atherosclerosis
Diastolic- last - type of arteriosclerosis from deposit
of materials in artery walls (plaque)
- lack of exercise, smoking, obesity,
diet high in
- cholesterol and trans fats, some
genetics

hypertensive (Hypersensitivity)
- increase in vascular resistance
decreased stroke volume
- less elastic vessels

Lessen the effects: prevent smoking

Sphygmomanometer

Diagnostic Tests
1. Echocardiography
2. Electrocardiography
3. heart CT scan
4. nuclear heart scan
5. Holter monitor
6. stress test
7. cardiac catheterization
8. CT angiography
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gmic13 9. Ultrasound
mvsgo 10. venography
Cuff can also be used in vein puncture
Disorders of the Heart and Vessels
Capillary Exchange Valve Disorders
- Most exchange across capillary wall’s Murmur
- by diffusion - Abnormal heart sound.
- Blood pressure, capillary permeability Prolapsed valve
and osmosis affect movement of - valve in which the leaflet “billows” or
fluids across capillary walls. bends in a way that prevents it from
Net movement of fluid from blood into closing properly.
tissues
Fluid gained in tissues is removed by Vessel Disorders
lymphatic system Atherosclerosis
- is a condition that results in the
Effects of Exercise on Cardiac Output buildup of fatty deposits within
- increases cardiac output by raising arterial walls.
the heart rate and the stroke volume. Thrombophlebitis
- inflammation of a vein, caused by
Aging thrombosis.
- blood pressure remains normal Varicose veins
throughout life = minimal changes - are veins in which dysfunctional
- Arteriosclerosis: makes arteries less valves cause the backflow and pooling
elastic of blood.
- Getting older=distruction of veins
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0VW93t
gztaA

Myocardial Disorders
Myocardial infarction ()
- death = myocardial tissue due to
ischemia.
Angina pectoris
- heaviness or pain in the chest caused
by a temporary or reversible
myocardial ischemia.
Congestive heart failure
- is a condition in which one of the
ventricles is not working as efficiently
as the other.

Congenital Heart Defects

Atrial septal defect
- is a hole in the septum that separates
the right and left atria.
Ventricular septal defect
- is a hole in the septum that separates
the right and left ventricles.
Congenital valve defects
- include stenosis, atresia, and
regurgitation.
Tetralogy of Fallot
- is a combination of four congenital
heart defects: pulmonary valve
stenosis, VSD, overriding aorta, and
right ventricular hypertrophy

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LYMPHATIC
- attack cells infected by viruses
- destroy cancer cells

T lymphocytes (T cells)

SYSTEM
- redbone marrow → thymus gland
(matures here)

1. T-helper cells
- nonspecific defense
immun/o: lymphaden/o: - But also in specific immunity
protection lymph node by recognizing foreign
pathogens and activating the
lymph/o: lymph splen/o: spleen cells to fight them.
HIV/ AIDS
thym/o: thymus gland Human immunodeficiency virus
- virus invades cd4 cells (a cluster of
differentiation)
Major Organs and Structures: - may result to a skin cancer called Kaposi
thymus gland sarcoma ( forms in the lining of blood and
Spleen lymph vessels )
2. T cytotoxic cells
tonsils
- directly kill cells infected by
viruses and cancer cells in
Accessory Structures:
specific immunity.
thoracic duct
Chickenpox
right lymphatic duct - varicella-zoster virus (VZV)
lymph nodes - (rarely) but an individual can be
lymph vessels infected again due to a low immune
MALT system
Peyer’s patches
3. T-memory cells
Functions: - specific immunity
- helps maintain the fluid balance in - remember pathogens that
the blood. have been introduced to the
- distributes lymph to wash over body so that repeat exposure
tissues to deliver nutrients and can be fought more swiftly.
remove wastes. 4. T-regulatory cells
- carries absorbed products of lipid - suppress immune response by
digestion. inhibiting the multiplication
- provides nonspecific defenses. - chemical secretions from
- Specific immunity against specific other T cells
pathogens. - are important in limiting and
preventing autoimmune
responses
Natural killer cells (NK cells).
- large lymphocytes
- nonspecific defense
- NK cells destroy bacteria
- fight against transplanted tissues
B lymphocytes (B cells)
- redbone marrow (matures here) to
lymphoid tissues
- antigen-presenting cells (APCs) by
constantly sampling material from
their environment, processing it, and
then displaying it for other cells to
see.
1. B plasma cells
- specific immunity
- produce antibodies (dissolved proteins
in plasma, destruction)
Lymphatic drainage
- process is an important part of a
healthy, functioning lymphatic
system.
- certain conditions may block
Elephantiasis i
- tropical disease
- roundworm that blocks
lymphatic drainage. The
roundworm gets into the
system through a mosquito
bite and infects a lymph node
(to be discussed shortly),
which blocks the flow of
lymph, causing edema in the
area before the blockage.
- Typical areas include the legs,
arms, breasts, or scrotum.
2. B memory
- remembers pathogens that have been
introduced to the body so that repeat
exposure can be fought more swiftly.
Macrophages.
- Monocytes
- produced in the red bone marrow →
tissues (macrophages)
- nonspecific defense of the body
- Phagocytize bacteria, debris, and
dead neutrophils. Like B cells,
macrophages are APCs.
Dendritic cells.
- immune system cells of the
epidermis that stand guard to alert
the body of pathogens entering
through the skin.
- function as APCs.
Lymphoid tissues and organs
Mucosa
- Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT)
- scattering of lymphocytes
- located throughout the mucous
membranes lining tracts to the
outside environment, such as the
tracts for the digestive, respiratory,
urinary, and reproductive systems.
- stand guard against and fight any
pathogens trying to enter the body.
Peyer’s Patches
- The distal end of the small intestine,
just before the opening to the large
intestine.
- an example of more densely packed
pockets of lymphocytes called
nodules.
- particular nodules fight any bacteria
moving into the small intestine from
the colon, where they naturally
reside.
Tonsils ring
- the pharynx to guard against
pathogens entering the body through
the nose or mouth.
Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids)
- Roof of the nasopharynx
- Palatine tonsils
- Laterally in the oropharynx
Often swell and become inflamed during a
throat infection and can be seen by looking in
the mouth

Lingual tonsils
- Root of the tongue

Lymph Nodes
- filters along lymph vessels
- remove anything that may be
Thymus gland
potentially harmful in lymph
- Where t cells mature
- Each lymph node has many nodules
- Largest in children- Smaller in Adults
packed with lymphocytes and
- Atrophies in adults
macrophages.
located in specific areas;
Cervical
Three Lines of Defense
Axillary
Thoracic
1. External barriers
Abdominal
- Inflammation
Pelvic
- antimicrobial proteins
Intestinal and mesenteric
- Fever
Popliteal
- other active attacks
Inguinal
Specific immunity
several lymph vessels → lymph node
- The first two lines are nonspecific
Macrophages phagocytize the debris
defenses, while the third is specific
while lymphocytes mount an attack on the
immunity.
pathogens. If an infection is present, germinal
centers (sites for cloning lymphocytes) in the
Nonspecific defenses
lymph nodes produce more B lymphocytes.
 - are widespread and function the same
way every time. Produced by virally infected cells so that
other
healthy cells will make antiviral proteins
2. External barriers
Complement system
Skin
- Keratin ( tough protein that bacteria 20 inactive proteins that, when activated, can
cannot easily breakthrough) destroy pathogens in several ways.
- dry, with few nutrients for bacteria
and other pathogens. Cytolysis
- acid mantle, which makes it
inhospitable for bacteria and other Opsonization
pathogens.
Fever
Mucous membranes - Defense is initiated by pyrogens from
- traps microbes macrophages that cause the
- Mucus, tears, and saliva hypothalamus to reset the body’s
- contain lysozymes to destroy temperature.
pathogens.
- Deep to the mucous membranes is Other attacks from leukocytes complete the
loose areolar connective tissue with list of nonspecific defenses.
fibers to hamper the progress of
pathogens. ● Neutrophils fight bacteria.
● Basophils release histamine to
promote inflammation.
● Eosinophils attack worm parasites.
● Monocytes become macrophages to
phagocytize bacteria.

Other cells present internal self-antigens on

MHC proteins.

Humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity

- Involves B cells producing antibodies
Inflammation - T helper cells activate B cells by
- limit the spread of pathogens, to releasing interleukin-2.
remove debris and damaged tissue - Stimulated B cells differentiate into
- initiate tissue repair. plasma cells and memory B cells.
- release of vasodilators from damaged
tissue and basophils and the Primary immune response
margination, diapedesis, and - The first time you are exposed to the
chemotaxis of leukocytes that pathogen
phagocytize pathogens along the way. - The response is slow; 3 to 6 days for
activation and 10 more days for peak
May form pus antibody production.
Antimicrobial proteins
Interferon Secondary immune response
 - Subsequent times exposed to the Artificial passive immunity
same pathogen - Antiserum
- Fast response; 2 to 5 days for peak
response Importance of T Helper Cells in Nonspecific
- Due to the quick response, you Resistance and Specific Immunity
usually don’t get “Sick.”
- activate macrophages for the
Cellular immunity nonspecific defense such as
- T cytotoxic cells directly kill cells inflammation and fever.
with foreign antigens - recognize what is foreign and release
- Very effective against virally infected interleukin-2 to activate B cells in
cells humoral immunity.
- Both types of specific immunity
require T helper cells to recognize Effects of Aging
what is foreign. - The ability to move fluid between the
- Involves the release of interleukin-1 cardiovascular and lymphatic systems
does not decrease with age.
Physiology of the Lymphatic System - Still has a stable number of b cells
- thymus gland shrinks with age.
Forms of Acquired Immunity - new T cells decrease with age.
- The immune response may slow with
1. Passive Immunity age.
- acquired through someone or - Old viruses may reemerge
something else
Shingles
2. Active
- Body actively creates its own Diagnostic Tests for Lymphatic System
immunity Disorders

Natural Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy

- accomplished through naturally - is a procedure used to collect and
occurring mean examine bone marrow for the
presence of abnormal cells
Artificial
- not acquired naturally

Natural active immunity

- The usual response of being exposed
is forming immunity

Natural passive immunity

- Acquired by a newborn from the
mother
- Breast milk and antibodies crossing
the placenta

Artificial active immunity CT Scan

- Vaccinations
 - imaging technique used to visualize White Blood Differential Count
internal structures - evaluates the numbers of each white
blood cell type for diagnostic
purposes

Disorders
Lymphoma
- Cancer
- affects white blood cells
- develop in the organs of the
lymphatic system

Lumbar Puncture
- procedure used to obtain
cerebrospinal fluid for examination

Hodgkin lymphoma
- presence of abnormal B cells called
Reed-Sternberg cells

Lymph Node Biopsy
- procedure used to collect and
examine a part of a lymph node for
the presence of abnormal cells
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma
- abnormal B cells and T cells
Multiple Myeloma
- Cancer of the plasma cells in the bone
marrow forming tumors in bone

MRI
- visualize internal structures

White Blood Cell Count (WBC)

- blood test that evaluates the total
number of white blood cells for
diagnostic purposes
 - a chronic, progressive, and disabling
in any joint.
- symmetrical
- Inflammation, swelling, and pain in
and around the joints and can affect
other body organs

Splenomegaly
- Enlargement of the spleen
- caused by any number of
pathological conditions;
Anemia
Cancers
Certain infections.
- In fact it is normal physiological
2. Graves’ disease
response in human pregnancy.
- causes hyperthyroidism, or
overactive thyroid.
- immune system attacks the
thyroid and causes it to make
more thyroid hormone than
your body needs.

Allergies
- hypersensitivities to a pathogen that
may have immediate or delayed side
effects.
Yes, you can develop allergies later in life.

3. Myasthenia gravis
- antibodies destroy the
communication (signals)
between nerves and muscle
- weakness of the skeletal
muscles

Autoimmune disorders Mimicry

- result of the immune system - One molecule is so similar in
attacking self-antigens. structure to another molecule that it
is mistaken for the other molecule.
1. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)
Immunodeficiency Disorders
● Congenital – from birth
● Acquired
AIDS: Final stage of an HIV infection in which
the immune system fails to recognize foreign
antigens.
- Affects the ability to fight
opportunistic infections

https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional
/multimedia/video/v14003896
DIGESTIVE
system form the alimentary canal;
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
and large intestines, rectum and anus.

SYSTEM
Nutrients
- normal body function.
- Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
vitamins, minerals
- Derived from food

chol/e: gall, bile emet/o: vomit The food we eat is too big to be directly
passed into blood- that’s why we digest the
col/o: colon esophag/o: food we eat.
esophagus
Goals of digestive system:
cyst/o: bladder, sac gastr/o: stomach - Digest food into smaller molecules
- Absorb smaller molecules into the
duoden/o: gingiv/o: gums blood
duodenum - Mechanical Digestion
- Physical breakdown of food into
emet/o: vomit gloss/o: tongue smaller pieces
- Forms a greater surface area for
hepat/o: liver peps/o: digestion contact with digestive enzymes
- Chemical Digestion
rect/o: rectum sigmoid/o: sigmoid - Splitting of complex, nonabsorbable
colon food molecules into small, absorbable
nutrient molecules by
Major organs hydrolysis-Enzymes that speed up
Esophagus the reaction and enable digestion to
Stomach occur
small/latge intestine

Accessory structures
Teeth
Tongue
Salivary glands
Liver
Gallbladder
Bile ducts
Pancreas

Functions of the Digestive System

● Ingestion
● Digestion
● Absorption
● Defecation

Hollow tube structures of the digestive Anatomy in the Mouth

 Tooth structure
● Crown
- top part that is exposed and
visible above the gum
(gingiva)
● Enamel- outer covering
● Dentin
- beneath enamel and
cementum- has microscopic
canals
● Root
- descends below the gum line
anchoring the tooth in the
Oral Cavity
mouth.
● Hard palate – bony roof
● Pulp cavity
● Soft palate - soft tissue roof
- found in the hollow center
● Uvula
- Lined by stratified squamous
epithelial tissue

Deciduous teeth (also called as baby teeth)

are replaced by permanent teeth.

Alveolus
- Tiny air sacs at the end of the
bronchioles (tiny branches of air
tubes in the lungs).
- lungs and the blood exchange oxygen
and carbon dioxide during the
process of breathing in and breathing Tongue
out. - is to manipulate what is ingested and to
provide the sense of taste.

PRODUCE SALIVA;
Parotid glands
Submandibular glands
Sublingual glands

Periodontal ligaments
- a fibrous joint that anchors the root
of the tooth to the alveolar bone
socket.

Enzymes amylase and lingual lipase, along

with mucus, lysozymes, and antibodies
 Physiology of Digestion in the Mouth
- Mechanical and chemical digestion
- masseter and temporalis muscles
move the jaw for mastication.
- Amylase in saliva partially digests
carbohydrates.
- Mucus mixes with the food to make it
easier to swallow.

bolus
- The bite of food before it is
swallowed.

Anatomy from the Mouth to the Stomach

Physiology of Digestion from the Mouth
Pharynx to the Stomach
- composed of the;
Nasopharynx Deglutition (swallowing) involves four cranial
Oropharynx Nerves;
Laryngopharynx 1. trigeminal (CN V)
2. facial (CN VII)
Epiglottis 3. glossopharyngeal (CN IX)
- elastic cartilage that guards the 4. vagus (X)
opening of the larynx 5. hypoglossal (CN XII) nerves

Esophagus Epiglottis
- tube that goes through the - closes off the glottis so that the bolus
diaphragm to connect with the moves to the esophagus.
stomach.
Peristalsis
- moves the bolus through the
Esophagus.

Anatomy of the Stomach

The stomach has three layers of smooth

muscle in its walls, each oriented in a
different direction.
 - activates lingual lipase, which
partially digests lipids along with
gastric lipase.

Intrinsic factor
- binds to vitamin B12 so that it can be
absorbed later.

Chyme
- Once gastric secretions are mixed
The lining of the stomach has rugae for more
with the bolus
surface area to accommodate gastric pits
- pH of chyme falls, stomach pH
that
approaches 2
lead to gastric glands.
Negative feedback: moving food to small
Gastric pits and gastric glands are composed
intestine
of five types of cells:
Mucous cells alkaline mucus When endocrine cells stop producing acids
It causes pyloric sphincter
Endocrine cells gastrin - to open and chyme to leave the
stomach into the duodenum
Parietal cells hydrochloric acid
and intrinsic factor Anatomy of Digestive Accessory
Structures
Chief cells pepsinogen and
gastric lipase

Regenerative cells are stem cells to replace all Liver

other Cells.
Physiology of Digestion in the Stomach
During swallowing, the medulla oblongata
sends signals to the stomach, telling it to
relax.
cardiac sphincter
- opens to allow the bolus to enter.
- four lobes are arranged in hepatic
lobules.
- right lobe, the left lobe, the caudate
lobe, and the quadrate lobe.
Hepatocytes
- produce bile that contains bile acids
and lecithin, both of which aid in the
chemical digestion by emulsifying
lipids.

Stretching of the stomach walls starts Bile

peristaltic contractions.
pyloric sphincter
- remains closed until the pH of the
stomach contents reaches 2.
Hydrochloric acid
- changes pepsinogen to pepsin so that
proteins are partially digested.
- released into hepatic ductules leading
to the hepatic duct.
Biliary Passageways
common bile duct
- tube common to the hepatic duct, the
cystic duct, and the pancreatic duct.
hepatopancreatic sphincter
- controls the opening of the common
bile duct to the Duodenum.
Gallbladder
- collects the overflow of bile from the
common bile duct and concentrates
it.
Gallstones
- pancreas secretes bicarbonate ions
and enzymes for carbohydrate, lipid,
and protein Digestion.
Anatomy of the Small Intestine
- composed of the duodenum (secrete
secretin and cholecystokinin), the
jejunum, and the ileum.
All parts of the small intestine have smooth
muscle in their walls and are lined by villi.
Ileocecal valve
- controls the movement of materials
from the small intestine to the colon.
Physiology of Digestion in the Small
Intestine
Secretin
- is released from endocrine cells of
the duodenum in response to the
acidic chyme.
- tells the pancreas to release
bicarbonate ions to neutralize the
chyme in the Duodenum.
Cholecystokinin
- secreted by endocrine cells in the
duodenum in response to the
presence of lipids.
- targets the gallbladder (telling it to
release bile) and the hepatopancreatic
duct (telling it to relax).
The release of bicarbonate ions from the
pancreas carries the digestive enzymes
through the pancreatic duct to the
duodenum, where all further chemical
digestion is completed.
Segmentation
- ensures that all the contents of the
small intestine come in contact with
villi for absorption.
Peristalsis further moves the contents
through
the jejunum and ileum to the ileocecal valve.
Absorption of Nutrients in the Small
Intestine
Monosaccharides and amino acids are
absorbed through the epithelium of the villi
into capillaries by facilitated diffusion.
Fatty acids and glycerides are absorbed
across
the epithelial membranes of the villi by
diffusion, coated with proteins, and
exocytosed to
lacteals.
Anatomy of the Large Intestine
colon
- is composed of the
Cecum
 ascending colon Vitamin
transverse colon minerals
descending colon
sigmoid colon Circulation of Absorbed Nutrients
rectum. 1. hepatic portal vein drains
nutrient-rich blood from the
Anus capillaries in the villi
- contains two sphincter muscles: 2. carries it to the capillary beds in the
1. smooth muscle internal anal liver
sphincter 3. fatty acids and glycerides absorbed
- controlled by the into lacteals in the villi join the
autonomic nervous bloodstream at the subclavian veins
system 4. reach the liver through the hepatic
2. skeletal muscle external anal artery.
sphincter
- controlled by the Control of Digestion
somatic nervous
system. - autonomic nervous system
- Parasympathetic fibers of the vagus
Physiology of Digestion in the Large nerve stimulate digestion.
Intestine - Sympathetic neurons from the celiac
ganglion suppress digestion in part by
Large intestine diverting blood to skeletal muscles
- absorbs water, compacts materials to and the heart.
form feces, and then stores the feces
until they are removed through Effects of Aging on the Digestive
defecation. System
- Bacteria living in the large intestine
produce vitamin K and flatus. - Tooth enamel thins,
- gingiva recede
Stretching of the stomach and duodenum - lining of the stomach atrophies.
causes a mass movement of fecal material - liver may metabolize drugs
from the transverse colon to the rectum. differently.
- Movement of material through the
Stretch receptors in the rectal walls large intestine slows with age.
- initiate the defecation reflex.
Diagnostic Tests
Defecation
- happens voluntarily when the Barium swallow/upper GI series
external anal sphincter is relaxed. - is an X-ray test used to evaluate the
upper GI tract, which includes the
Reflex Arc for the Defecation Reflex esophagus, stomach, and small
intestine.
Types of Absorbed Nutrients
(small intestine)
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Lipids
 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
- Imaging technique to visualize soft
tissue internal structures.

Proctoscopy
- Lighted endoscope is used to visualize
the rectum.

Sigmoidoscopy
- Lighted endoscope is used to
visualize the lower colon and rectum.

Stool culture
Colonoscopy - Collecting a stool sample and
- is a procedure in which a lighted performing various tests to detect the
- colonoscope is used to visualize the presence of disease-causing
colon. pathogens.

Computerized tomography
- imaging technique to
internal structures.
Fecal occult blood test
- Noninvasive procedure that detects
blood in stool
Ultrasound
- imaging technique in which sound
waves are used to visualize internal
structures
visualize - helps diagnose the causes of pain,
swelling, and infection
- examining an unborn child (fetus) in
pregnant women.

Hepatic screening
- collection of several tests used to
determine whether the liver is
functioning properly.

Laparoscopy
- Lighted laparoscope
- visualize, collect biopsies from or Digestive System Disorders
perform surgical procedures in the
abdomen or pelvic region. Leukoplakia
 - White patches that occur on the
surface of the tongue, inside the
mouth, or on the inside surfaces of
the cheek
- Usually from contact with rough
surfaces like dentures, tobacco
products, or teeth with rough
Surfaces

Abdominal Hernias
- Protrusions of the contents in the
abdomen through a weak portion in
the abdominal wall
Gastroenteritis ● Inguinal hernias
- Inflammation of the gastrointestinal - protrusions into the groin
tract ● Umbilical hernias
- caused by a bacterial, viral, or - through the umbilicus where the
parasitic Infection. umbilical cord was once attached
● Incisional hernias
- protrusions through an incision from
past abdominal surgery

Diverticular Disease
- Small pouches (diverticula) in the
lining of the large intestine as it ages
- A person with multiple diverticula
(diverticulosis) Irritable Bowel Syndrome
- Abdominal pain and discomfort
- a change in the frequency of bowel
movement
- change in the consistency of stool
Crohn’s Disease - will eventually block blood flow to
- Autoimmune inflammatory bowel parts of the liver and interfere with
disease that causes chronic the liver’s ability to function properly.
inflammation along the
gastrointestinal tract causes of cirrhosis
1. Excessive alcohol consumption
2. chronic hepatitis Infection

Hepatitis
- Inflammation of the Liver
Usually associated with the intestines
Hepatitis A virus causes acute liver
● Peptic Ulcers disease
- Erosions of the Lining of the
Digestive Tract Hepatitis B cirrhosis (hardening or
● Esophageal ulcers scarring), liver cancer and
- may happen in the lower even death; Direct contact
esophagus if there is reflux of
gastric juices through the Hepatitis C chronic infection; spreads by
cardiac sphincter contact with infected blood
● Gastric ulcers and by sharing contaminated
- in the stomach, usually from needles
bacteria
● Duodenal ulcers Hepatitis D rare in U.S., very serious
- the most common; caused
Hepatitis E Outbreaks; contaminated
when the chyme entering the
water supplies
duodenum is not sufficiently
neutralized

Intussusception
- When a portion of the intestines folds
back into itselF
- resulting in obstruction of the
intestines and possible Ischemia
Vomiting
- can result from irritation anywhere
along the digestive tract
- controlled in the medulla oblongata’s
emetic center.

Cirrhosis Food Poisoning

- Formation of scar tissue in the liver - bacteria or by toxins produced by
bacteria.
 1. Staphylococcus
- usually contracted from a food
handler
- skin and soft tissue infections
2. Salmonellosis
- bacteria in contaminated food
3. Botulism
- toxins made by a common bacterium
found in the soil

Parasites

1. Digestive parasites
- such as pinworms, tapeworms,
roundworms, and giardia
- live off the food passing by or eat the
host.

2. Malabsorption
- Inability to absorb the appropriate
nutrients needed by the body