SOJOURN Vol. 10, No. 2 (1995), pp.

147-71

In Search of the Postcolonial

in Indonesian Literature

Keith FOULCHER

Conceived inhistoricalterms,the postcolonialparadigmidentifies three

distincttypes of historicalspace, movingfromthe initial awareness of
inauthenticityto a finalrepudiationof nationalism'sSelf-Otherbinaryin
a fullypoliticizedrecognitionof unstable culturallocation.The absence
of recognizablypostcolonial characteristicsin Indonesian literature is
relatedto the unbrokennexus between literature and nationalismin in-
dependent Indonesia. Itselfproduced in a new "colonizing"language
withsubmerged connections to the formercolonial language, Indone-
sian literaturehas specific characteristics that set it apart fromthe
postcolonialparadigm.Inthisrespect, the workof PramoedyaAnanta
Toer is problematic,however.

In September 1947,at theheightoftheIndonesianrevolution

against
thereimpositionofDutchcolonialauthority
in theformer
Netherlands
EastIndies,a youngIndonesianmedicaldoctorwrote,in Dutch,in a
letter
to a Dutchfriend:
I do notwantto see mychildrensufferin thesamewaytheirparents
have done. The feelingof a double consciousness,to see yourself
through theeyesofa whiteperson,withall theinnerconflicts bound
up withthatexperience.Two souls,twowaysofthinking, in theone
person...
The writerofthesewordswasSoebandrio, at thetimeHead oftheIn-
donesianRepublic'sDepartment ofInformation,latertobe itsambas-
sadorin Londonand thenMoscow,and finally Minister of Foreign
Affairsintheradicalnationalist
government headedbySoekarnointhe
late 1950sand early1960s.Accusedofcomplicity in the1965 coup
attempt attheright-wing
directed Armyleadership,hewasarrestedand
condemned to deathin 1966 bythenewIndonesian leadershipunder

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148 Keith FOULCHER

the(then)GeneralSoeharto. Today,nearly thirty theevents,

yearsafter
he livesouthisdaysin a Jakarta prison,hisdeathsentence commuted
to lifeimprisonment in the1980s(Dolk 1993,p. vii).1
Soebandrio'swords,written in friendshipacrosstheravages ofwar,
ofracism, andcolonialism, havea specialpoignancy aboutthem.Taken
together withhissubsequent lifestory, theygiveus pauseto reflect on
theironies andcrueltiesofpost-colonial theshattered
histories, dreams
andcollapsedidealswhichthroughout whatusedtobe calledtheThird
Worldhavemarkedthetransition fromthemomentofnationalinde-
pendenceto theconstruction ofnewstatesforever shadowedbytheir
colonialpasts.In addition,however, theyspeak to us ofwhat
directly
we nowrecognize as an initiatingmomentofthepostcolonialist con-
sciousness,what Homi Bhabha in a 1991 interviewreferredto as the
condition of"inauthenticity". "The colonialsubjectwas actually very
awareofhisor herinauthenticity", Bhabharemarked,
whichwas clearlyseento be culturally,
a formof inauthenticity po-
and
litically, sociallyconstructed,and whichthenturnsto a kindof
inwardexperience, throughwhichmostof politicaland sociallifeis
negotiated.("The PostcolonialCritic",1991, p. 57)
The ambitofBhabha'sclaimis something we mightwantto ques-
tion.Clearly,notallcolonialsubjectssufferedthisawareness ofcultural
Formany,there
inauthenticity. wasprobably a relatively
unproblematic
identification or
with, rejection of,the colonizer'sculture. The history
ofcolonialIndonesia,likethatofothercolonies,is replete withexam-
ples ofboth these of
types response. But the point is that
the phenom-
enonofthepostcolonial, as itisstudiedand theorized by culturalcrit-
ics beginswiththatmoment, at thatpoint,locatedin thearticulated
experience ofthosewhofoundwithinthemselves theconsciousness of
theirowninauthenticity,thesenseofan identity "irrevocably affected
by the colonial
experience"(Firdous 1993, p. 12).
ForthestudentofIndonesian thereis,however,
literature, a prob-
lemraisedbySoebandrio's1947 cryof culturalinauthenticity. The
Indonesian nationalist
strugglein thenameofan independent nation-
stateand thesubsequent history of the nation itselfhave indeed been
accompanied tradition
bya substantial ofmodernliterature, historically

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In Search of the Postcolonial in Indonesian Literature 149

constituted as an Indonesian literature ofpostcolonialism. Yetthecen-

tralideological issuesthatcoalescearoundtheproblem ofpostcolonialist
consciousness, broached here through the notion ofcultural inauthenti-
city,andidentifiable intheliteratures ofmanyotherpost-colonial states,
haveremained curiously muted in the Indonesian case. There is to my
knowledge no statement likethat of Soebandrio attributable to a mod-
ernIndonesianwriter. The construction of a postcolonialist identity
upon and through the dislocations wrought bycolonialism has never
beena centralmotif in Indonesiancreative expression,nor has itbeen
a majorconcern ofliterary critical
debate.Conflicting visionsofmoder-
nity, the rival claims ofnation and region and the socialresponsibility
ofthewriter haveallbeencontinuing andvigorously contested themes
in thestruggles thatmarktheparameters ofcreative practice criti-
and
cal debate.Yetthequestionofnationalidentity hasnotbeenseencen-
trallyto involve questions of colonial their
legacies, subversion, andtheir
transformation. The senseofthepast,in theformofthecolonialex-
is
perience, largely absent,as writers pursuetheirconcerns elsewhere.
Thereis indeeda simpleanswerto theproblemofwhythisshould
be so. The postcolonial phenomenon is generallyunderstood to have
beeninitiated in thewriting and thestudyofthewriting in thecolo-
niallanguage,primarily in
writing English and French in Africaand
Englishin IndiaandtheCaribbean.Rushdie'saphorism, "TheEmpire
writesback to thecentre",whichbecamefamouswithits use by
Ashcroft, Griffiths, andTiffen(1989) as thetitleofone ofthekeyand
founding texts of postcolonialist criticism, formulated thenotionthat
in thepost-colonial literatures thecolonyand post-colony tookthe
coloniallanguage, robbedofitsimperial purity andsupposedsuperior-
ity,and hurled it back to the centre,with itsown newaccents, initsown
hybridized voice, as a statement of itsown,"postcolonialist", condition.
Indonesia,whichas BenedictAndersonobserveswas theonlymajor
exception in theoverallimposition ofthecoloniallanguageas thelan-
guage of state in the colonial empires(1991,pp. 132-34),neverhada
nativemodernliterature in Dutch.(Indonesians ofmixedracedidin-
deedcontribute tothesubstantial tradition of"DutchIndies"literature,
butthisrepresented a branchoftheliterature oftheDutchmétropole,

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150 Keith FOULCHER

whichcameto an end in Indonesiaitself withthetransition to inde-

pendence.)
In thecaseofmodernIndonesian then,we aredealingnot
literature,
witha literature in thecoloniallanguage,butone writtenin a new,
"national" language, a modernized formofthetypeofMalaythathad
alwaysservedas a languageofinter-ethnic communication in theIndo-
nesianarchipelago and a bridgebetween theDutchand theircolonial
subjects.DubbedBahasaIndonesia(thelanguage ofIndonesia)byna-
ofthe1920sand 1930s,thisenvisaged
tionalists newlanguageofstate
wasalsothevoicefora newliterature, oneembodying an identity that
wasseentobe independent ofthecolonialpast.The breakwiththepast
seemsdecisive- it is as thoughIndonesiahas slippedthroughthe
postcolonialistnet,jettisoning thecolonialresiduein itsabandonment
(oravoidance)ofthecoloniallanguage. NoticethatSoebandrio's cryof
inauthenticitywasmade,significantly, inDutch.Indonesian literature,
we maysay,standsto oneside,confidently pursuing a new identity in
a new,non-colonial, not"postcoloniaP' language.
Thisis nota wronganswertothequestionofwhythenowfamiliar
postcolonial concerns do notfigure prominently inmodernIndonesian
The languageissueiscentral,
literature. andmustalwayslieattheheart
ofanyattempt topursuequestions ofpostcolonialityandliterature. And
yetbyitself, it seems to me to be an inadequate, because onlypartial,
resolutiontotheproblem. A moredetailed consideration oftheinsights
andquestions raisedbystudiesofpostcoloniality canstillservetohigh-
lightaspectsofthespecificity oftheIndonesian example,and to help
accountforthesilencesandabsencesinthisparticular configuration of
language, literature andthenation.Myconcernin thisessayis to find
a wayofdefining a paradigm ofpostcoloniality, against whichI canset
thetradition ofmodernIndonesian literatureingeneral. It is thepoints
wherethetwomeet,andthendiverge, that canthrow most lighton the
questionsI wishto pursue.
To suggest, as I havedone,thatthepostcolonial momentbeginsin
theawareness ofcultural inauthenticityinthecolonialsubjectistopro-
posean historicist approach tothedefinition ofa postcolonial paradigm,
onethatdiverges somewhat from the notion ofthepostcolonial as dis-

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In Search of the Postcolonial in Indonesian Literature 151

cursiveformations thatareideologically, nottemporally, constituted.

Viewedinthisway,as an ideological construct, thepostcolonial defines
thosesubaltern discourses thatshadowcolonialparadigms atallhistori-
calstagesofthecolonialexperience andlayclaimtothediscursive prop-
erty of the colonial state through succeeding typesofhistorical space.2
The identification ofIndonesian subaltern discourses and theirex-
cavationfortracesofa postcolonialism ofresistance a
is projectas yet
initsinfancy, andisnottheundertaking I amproposing here.The para-
digmrequired hereis one thatmustaccommodate theproblemofna-
tionalism, for the discursive field which is modern Indonesianlitera-
tureisbotha productanda constituent ofa nationalist movement and
a nation-state, rather thanitssubaltern shadow.It is a bodyofwriting
thatpositions itselfin relation to thenationand itsclaimto speakfor
thenationinvolves a consideration ofthelinkbetween postcolonialism
andthequestionofnationalidentity. Henceitmakessense,inthispar-
ticular case,toseeka theoretical modelinthosestudies ofpostcoloniality
thatlinkthenotionofa post-colonial consciousness totheevolution of
post-colonial nation-states. Withinthisframework, thepostcolonial
emerges as an historically grounded process, one that moves through a
numberofdifferent historical stages, eacha response to thesocialand
political conditions of itstime. It begins in the colonial periodin the
recognition ofcultural dislocation, Soebandrio's senseofinauthenticity,
or whatAshcroft, Griffiths, and Tiffen describe as a locationin the
"psychological abyssbetweencultures" (1989, p. 63). It is fromthis
abyss that the postcolonialcondition, conceived in historical terms,
its
growsthrough subsequent stages of resistance and affirmation. But
it is in theknowledge oftheabyssthattheprocessmustbegin.
Significantly, itis heretoothatthemodernIndonesian novelfinds
someofitsearlyroots.The twogreatnovelsoflatecolonialIndonesia
- AbdulMuis'sSalahAsuhan[Wrong upbringing] of1928andArmijn
Pane'sBelenggu of
[Shackles] 9401 - and for particular reasons I would
groupwiththemAchdiatK Mihardja's Atheis [Anatheist] of 1949,are
all "about"this"psychological abyss between cultures".3 All of them
centrearoundtheproblemofcultural definition in a colonialsociety.
SalahAsuhan, the first novel in the series,offers the onlyextended ex-

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152 KeithFOULCHER

ploration inIndonesian literatureofa character whoseWestern-oriented

upbringing hasalienated himfrom thetraditions ofhispastandledhim
toan ultimately fatalattempt toseekidentity andacceptance withinthe
colonialorderitself.Twelveyearslater,Belenggu takesup thethemeof
theshadowofthepast,thelegaciesthatmustsomehowbe accommo-
datedintheself-definition ofcharacters whostruggle totakeon thepos-
oflifeina newsocialandcultural
sibilities order.It isa struggle togive
formto lifeamidtheradicaland permanent transformations brought
aboutbytheextension of thecolonizer'scultureintotheworldofa
Western-educated indigenous élite.Then,on theeveofindependence
comesAtheis, constructed aroundtheinability to resistthepromised
freedoms ofa transformed beliefsystem,yetat thesametimetheterri-
fying insecuritiesthat resultfrom the attempted surrender ofthecul-
turalcertainties ofthepre-colonial order.Allthreenovelscentre on the
problem ofthevoid,the"psychological abyss"wherethereare foot-
no
holdsfortheanchoring ofculturalidentity in socialspace.In Salah
Asuhan andAtbeis, thechasmclaimsitsvictims; themaincharacters are
destroyed, literally,
by and within the the
void, unbridgeable abyss.Only
ArmijnPane,withhislife-long commitment to thepursuit andlegiti-
mationofhybridity, allowedhischaracters in Belenggu thepossibility
ofescape.Theirfuture is uncertain and yetto be made,butalthough
theycarry with them the "shackles" ofthepast,theburdentheybear
doesnotimpedetheirfreedom ofmovement as theybroachtheun-
knownandmoveintotheunchartered territory ofa post-colonial cul-
turalidentity.
Thereareautobiographical elementsin all threeof thesenovels.
Theirauthorseachoccupiedpositions withininstitutions thatsought
an "Indonesian" future on thebasisof thecolonialinheritance. They
pursued public careers that by theirverynature triedtodefine a cultural
identity thatincorporated thecoloniallegacywhiletransforming it in
thenameofan emergent Indonesiannationalism. AbdulMuis was a
prominent journalistanda well-known moderate nationalistpolitician
ofhisday.He wasa keyfigure in theconservative wing of the earliest
mass-based nationalistorganization, theSarekat Islam,andplayeda role
intheultimately unsuccessful attempts of the conservativeelements in

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In Search of the Postcolonial in Indonesian Literature 153

theorganization's leadership toestablish a pointofcontactbetween its

politicalprogramme andtheexigencies ofthecolonialpower(Shiraishi
1990,pp. 57-58, 113-15). Armijn Pane beganhispubliccareeras a
teacherin theindependent TamanSiswaeducationmovement, an at-
tempt to found mass-based schooling on a non-colonialist but "mod-
ern"basis,one thatpaiddue heedbothto Westernknowledge and to
indigenous aesthetics (McVey1967). He came to as
prominence key the
figurein the of
founding Poedjangga Baroe, an independent culturaland
literaryperiodical thattriedconsciously tofoster an Indonesian national
cultureon Western-oriented lines.A laterparticipant in thistradition,
AchdiatK. Mihardjaworkedthrough therevolution againstDutchco-
lonialism in Dutch-occupied Jakarta,taking part in the transformation
ofthecolonialgovernment's institution ofliteracy andliterary produc-
tion- BalaiPoestaka - intoan institution ofIndonesian nationhood.
Allthreeauthors perhapsgavevoicein theirnovelsto theunderside of
theirpubliccareers, in
articulating creatively mediated form the inse-
ofcultural
curities transitioninthebuilding ofthepost-colonial state.It is
perhaps not too to
extravagantsay that in these works the postcolonial
moment was"announced" in Indonesian literature,in a newlanguage of
nationhood. Andyet,ifitbeganlifewithin a recognizably postcolonialist
framework, thetradition ofmodernIndonesian literature subsequently
led away- forquitespecific reasons- fromthepostcolonialist tra-
jectoryas itevolvedelsewhere. The unbroken nexusbetween literature
andthenationinpost-colonial Indonesiameantthatcertain keyproc-
essestraversed by the postcolonialist consciousness elsewhere never
emerged as creative in
determinants theworkof modernIndonesian
writers.

In a wide-ranging
andsuggestive ofpostcolonial
exploration categories
in relationto Africanartand literature,
thephilosopher and writer
Anthony Appiahpointstothedependence oftheAfricanintellectual
on
theuniversityandtheEuropeanpublisher intheearlyphaseofnational
independence (Appiah1991). As such,Appiahsuggests, notionsof
cultureand politicsderivedfromBritish and Frenchuniversities
and
publishinghouses remained dominant in thefirst
generationof mod-

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154 KeithFOULCHER

ernAfricannovels.Ironically, thisdid notmeanthattheAfri-

though,
can novelofthe 1950sand 1960swas an imitation
oftheEuropean
novelofthattime,
forpartofwhatwas heldto be obviousbothbythesewriters and by
thehighcultureofEuropeofthedaywas thatnewliteratures in new
nationsshouldbe anticolonialand nationalist.(Ibid., pp. 348-49)

Thus,hischaracterization ofnovelswritten in thefirststageofthein-

dependence periodwere"realist legitimations ofnationalism; theyau-
thorize a 'return to traditions' whileat thesametimerecognizing the
demandsofa Weberianrationalized modernity" (ibid.,p. 349).
It is thusthattheeraofdecolonization and nationalindependence
in Africaand elsewhere was accompanied bytherealist, anti-colonial
novel,welcomedinternationally as thelegitimate voiceof theThird
World,theworkofthelegitimate postcolonialwriter. Authorizing a
"return to traditions" as thebasisofa modernnationalidentity, an
important aspectof thisliterature was thethemeofnativism, theat-
tempt to turn from the colonial inheritance in search of indigenous
culturalroots,an indigenousidentityand an indigenousmode of
thought. In Africa, as in muchoftheThirdWorldofthetime,itwas
nativism in a variety ofguiseswhichbecamethehallmark ofthesub-
sequentstage in the evolution ofthe postcolonialistparadigm. (Indeed,
itwasthrough a versionofthenativist assertion thattheso-calledset-
tlercoloniesthemselves entered thepostcolonialist orbit,in theirnow
familiar claimto culturalrootsseparate fromthoseinherited fromthe
imperial centre.) Nativism in all itsforms involved a specific
repudia-
tionofthenotionofuniversalism. In hisseminalessayon "Colonialist
Criticism", basedon a paperfirst readto theAssociation forCommon-
wealthLiterature and LanguageStudiesat MakerereUniversity in
UgandainJanuary 1974,theNigerian writer ChinuaAchebewrote:
I shouldliketo see theword"universal"
bannedaltogetherfromdis-
cussionsofAfricanliteratureuntilsuch timeas peoplecease to use
itas a synonym forthenarrow,self-serving
parochialismofEurope.
(Achebe1975, p. 9)
as a
in 1965,he had spokenofnativism
Earlier,at LeedsUniversity

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In Search of the Postcolonial in Indonesian Literature 155

stageinhealingthewoundsoftheAfrican
necessary soul."Youhaveall
heardoftheAfrican ofAfrican
Personality; democracy,oftheAfrican
and so on",he reminded
ofnégritude,
wayto socialism, hisaudience:
Theyareall propswe havefashionedat different timesto helpus get
on our feetagain. Once we are up we shan't need any of them
anymore. Butforthemomentitis in thenatureofthingsthatwe may
needto counterracismwithwhatJean-PaulSartrehas calledan anti-
racistracism,to announcenotjustthatwe areas goodas thenextman
but thatwe are muchbetter.(Achebe1975, pp. 44-45)

Claimingforthe novelista particularrolein thischallengeof re-

educationand regeneration, Achebeasserted African literature's
sepa-
ratenessfromthecanonsof Europeantasteand judgement thathad
colonizedevenAfricans' senseoftheirownphysical and geographical
certainties(ibid.,p. 44).4
Another stream inthenativist current, ultimatelyhostiletoAchebe's
championing ofthenovelist's rolein theprocessofregeneration, had
itssourcein FrantzFanon,and hissocialistcritiqueof thefailureof
decolonization in Africa.Cruciallyimportant herewas thecritiqueof
nationalism, itscharacterization as theideology ofa post-colonial indig-
enousélite.In 1961 Fanonbecameone ofthefirstin a longlineof
politicaland culturaltheorists to questionnationalism's claimto rep-
resent"theall-embracing crystallizationoftheinnermost hopesofthe
wholepeople"(Fanon1967,p. 148)- quotedbyLazarus(1990,p. 8).
In searchofanexplanation forthefailure ofnational "liberation"toflow
fromnational"independence" in Africa, Fanondescribed nationalism
as theideologyoftheAfrican middleclasses,therepository ofthein-
terests
ofthecolonialpowersin post-independence African states.He
arguedthatthepurveyors ofnationalist politics
possessed no organicor
self-determined ideological rationale,thattheirpoliticallessonshadbeen
learnedfromtheWesternbourgeoisie ofthelatecolonialeraand that
they were condemned to the roleof the functionary,consolidating rather
thanoverturning thestructure ofthecolonialeconomy.5 Withinthis
framework thenativistassertions ofpost-independence nationalbour-
cometobe seenas a political
geoisies tool,"a rationalizationoftheirurge
to keepthenationalbourgeoisies of othernations,particularly the

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156 KeithFOULCHER

powerful industrialized nations,out oftheirway"(Appiah1991,pp.

349-50). Thusitwasthata disillusionment withthefruits ofindepend-
enceultimately occasioneda disillusionment withnationalism and its
nativist claimsamongAfrican writersandintellectuals. In hisdiscussion,
Appiah notes that from thelater 1960s the "celebratory novel"becomes
rare.Realismisdiscredited, becauseitisassociated witha failednation-
alism, a nationalism thatin the hands of the African nationalbourgeoi-
sies"turned outtobea kleptocracy" (ibid.,p. 349; Lazarus1990,p. 21).
The reference to the"glorious culture"oftradition cameto be seenas
a maskfora "sycophantic deference to theWest,andruthless determi-
nationto preserve and profitbycoloniallegaciesofstratification and
socialinequity".6
Fanon'soriginal assumption thata popularrevolutionary impulse
waspresent at themomentofnationalindependence butthwarted in
thesubsequent development ofthepost-colonial African statesledthe
Kenyan writer wa
Ngugi Thiong'o towards a more sharply politicized
brandofliterary nativism. Strongly influenced byFanon's The Wretched
oftheEarth(1967), Ngugicameto see callsfor a literature ofsocial
engagement bywriters suchas AchebeandWoleSoyinkain Nigeriaas
tingedwithclassarrogance. Achebe'snotionofthenovelist as teacher
wasforhim"presumptuous anduncritical" (ibid.,p. 206). Ngugicalled
fora literature not"on behalfof", but"intermsof" thepeople,a de-
mandwhichtookhisowncareerawayfromuniversity teaching andthe
writing ofnovelsin Englishto engagement withworkshop theatre in
hisregional African language and direct politicalactivism. Ultimately
itbrought himimprisonment and,in one oftheironiesthatbesetthe
postcolonial experience, politicalexilein theformer imperial centre it-
self(ibid.,p. 214).
Whether intheformofnationalist rhetoric thatserved tobolster the
claimsofa nationalbourgeoisie, Achebe's"props"thatwouldbe dis-
cardedwhennolonger needed,orNgugi'ssearchforcreative expression
"intermsofthepeople",thenativist assertion inAfrica ultimately came
to be associated witha falseessentialism thatcouldnotbe sustained in
thefaceof thecultural conditionofAfrican writersand intellectuals
themselves. WoleSoyinkaspokeofthepoeticsofa "neo-Tarzanism",

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In Search of the Postcolonial in Indonesian Literature 157

thatdemanded, forexample,thatAfrican writersmakeuseofthesym-

bolsofindigenousAfrican in
religion, a continentwhereatleast60 per
centofthepopulationwereeitherpractising Christiansor Muslims
(Soyinka1988,p. 323). The assimilation of non-indigenouscultures,
as a product
ofthecolonialexperience, cameto be seenas an aspectof
thereality
ofthepostcolonialcondition. EvenNgugi'sstance"interms
ofthepeople"couldbe shownto owe itsderivation, through Fanon,
to thelessonsofWesternMarxism(Killam1980, p. 11). Once this
pointwas reached,a retreatfromnativism was setin train,and the
postcolonial
paradigmstoodon thebrinkofitsthirdhistorically deter-
minedstageofdevelopment. The inauthenticity ofthecolonialcondi-
tion,succeededbythecalltonation-building andthesearchforindig-
enous rootswas now to move beyondnationalisminto the full
dimensionsofthepostcolonialcondition. To quoteAppiahoncemore,
thereis a clearsensein some postcolonialwritingthatthepostula-
tion of a unitaryAfricaover against a monolithicWest - the
binarismof Selfand Other- is thelast of theshibbolethsof the
modernizers thatwe mustlearnto do without.(Appiah1991,p. 354)
It has beenprecisely thecollapseof theSelf-Other binarism, the
repudiation of themodernist certaintiesand the abrogation ofthe na-
tionaliststance,thathasenabledthedefinition ofcultural identityto
moveoffintotheunchartered of the
territory "post" condition. To one
sideofthisterritoryliesthehomogenized terrain
ofglobalization, which
itself
renounces nationalism and thenational,foritsownpurposesof
control andthepursuit ofprofit (During1992).To theothersidelies
SamuelHuntington^ "ClashofCivilizations" anditsclaimto thedis-
covery ofprimordial, pre-national culturalallegiances as themotorof
cultural,political,and economictensionin our time(Huntington
1993).In contrasttoboth,thepostcolonial condition speaksofhybridi-
zation,marginality,andmigrancy. It assertsthattheshaping influences
ofthecolonialexperience arecarriedforward, evenas theyaretrans-
formed, justas the"postgraduate" does not renounce, butrather trans-
forms, theprevious condition ofthe"graduate". It is a condition vari-
ouslyinformed by both celebration and melancholy, and is not devoid
ofpoliticalengagement and activism. In somewaysofconceiving the

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158 Keith FOULCHER

phenomenon, theveryimpurity ofculture becomesa causeforcelebra-

tion.Duncanand Sharp,forexample, speakofRushdie'sTheSatanic
Verseszs a "celebration ofthemigrant condition (where)SelfandOther
aregleefully forcedtogether".7 Yetas Homi Bhabhaseemsconcerned
to keepbeforeoureyes,andno doubtwouldwishto do in counterto
the"celebratory" viewofRushdie'snovel,thepostcolonial, conceived
in termsofsyncretism and hybridity, is also a conditionof pain and
dispossession, a constant searchforstrategies ofsurvival (pp. 49-50).
Bhabhahimself introduces thenotionof "cultural difference" as a
wayoftheorizing thedistinction between hisownposition andconcepts
of "culturaldiversity" thatgiveriseto "liberalnotionsof multi-
culturalism, cultureofexchange orthecultureofhumanity" (1994,p.
34). Cultural "difference", as formulated in Bhabha's terms, drawsat-
tention tothepointatwhichculture becomesa "problem" in thecon-
testationof meaningbetweenclasses,genders,races,and nations.
Bhabhasuggests thatwhiledomination takesplacein thenameofcul-
turalsupremacy, and hence makes an appealto a tradition, or a stable
systemof reference, theveryact of domination(or resistance) itself
negatesa stable,pre-existing order in the "articulation of new cultural
demands,meanings, strategiesin thepoliticalpresent" (ibid.,p. 35).
Henceitiscultureas thenegotiation ofmeaning, existing on theedge,
at thepointofcontestation, thatis ofconcernto him.Rejectingthe
traditionalism ofboththerightand theleft,he drawshisown mean-
ing from Fanon's callto nativeintellectuals tojoin "thepeople"in the
"zoneofoccultinstability wherethepeopledwell".In theenigmatic
beauty he finds in this expression, Bhabhasecsa callto avoidthepo-
liticaldamagethatis donein a totalizing viewofcultures, "especially
thosethathaveknownlongandtyrannical histories ofdomination and
misrecognition" (ibid.).Appliedto thenotionofa postcolonial condi-
tion,Bhabha's"cultural difference" speaks not of a liberal celebration
ofplurality, butan identification ofthesitesofstruggle, wheremean-
ingsarecontested andnegotiated. It isa struggle thattakesplacebeyond
thecertainties ofnationandtradition, underpinned byan ethicaluni-
versalevenas itacknowledges thefullhistorical specificity ofitscondi-
tion.Conceivedin thisway,thepostcolonial a
representsfullypoliti-

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In Search of the Postcolonial in Indonesian Literature 159

cizedawareness
ofunstable
cultural
location.
The searchfornativeroots
hasgivenwaytostruggles
acrossborders,
undermining domination from
within.

Thisbrief overview ofsomeofthemainthemes inthestudy ofpostcolonial

cultureproposesa paradigm thatmovesfrominauthenticity, through
thenativist to a
assertion, distrust ofthehomogenizing claimsofthe
nationand therecognition ofhybridity as thegroundwherecultural
meanings are contested. What emerges when sucha template isplaced
overthemapofmodernIndonesianliterature? Whatcharacterizes the
development of Indonesian literature
from the point where my three
novelsofthe"psychological abyss"leftit,on thebrink ofthepostcolonial
trajectory?
In spiteofa continuing distrustofthepoliticalmotivesbehindat-
tempts to foster Dutch-Indonesian culturalexchangein theperiodof
nationalrevolution (1945-49), Indonesian writers and culturalcritics
oftherevolution evolvedtheirownversion ofa liberal,"universalhu-
manist"culturaland literaryideologythatveryquicklyassumed
hegemonic statusin theliterature of thepost-independence period.8
Literary models and cultural orientations
were sought in the highcul-
tureofEuropeand theUnitedStates,eventhoughtheywereinfused
witha senseoflocationin themodernizing cultureofthenewunitary
nation-state. Thismeantthatthemodernizing novelswhichsucceeded
thenovelsoftheabysswerenotstrongly underpinned byan ideology
ofanti-colonialism, butrather a bourgeoisnationalism thatwas"inter-
nationalist"in itsoutlooks.The mostwell-known novelsoftherevo-
lutionary perioditself - considerPramoedya AnantaToer'sKeluarga
[A
Gerilya guerrilla family] and Mochtar Lubis' s JalanTakAdaUjung
[A road with no end] - are in factideologicallycloserto being
antinationalist thananticolonialist, becausetheyaredrivenbya com-
mitment tothenotionof"universal humanity" anda distrust ofthepo-
tentialexcesses ofthepopulistnationalism ofanticolonialist resistance.
Later,themorevirulent nationalism oftheindependence struggleas a
wholewastobecomecentral tothenotionofan Indonesian but
culture,
at thisinitialstageofthepost-independence period,themodernizing

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160 Keith FOULCHER

gesture thatin African and otherThirdWorldliteratures tookshape

through a combination ofrealism andanticolonialism foundexpression
inIndonesiarather the
through linking of realism with looselydefined
universalism andliberalhumanism.
Evenat thebeginning of thepost-independence period,however,
thishegemonic literature of"universal humanism" did notgo unchal-
lenged. When the radical nationalist and Marxist-oriented Lembaga
Kebudayaan Rakyat (Instituteof People's Culture) was formed in 1950,
in theyearfollowing therecognition by the Dutch of Indonesian na-
tionalsovereignty, theeradication ofthecolonialist residuein thecul-
tureof the new statefiguredprominently in its statedconcerns.
Anticolonialism wasclearly to be oneoftheideological underpinnings
oftheInstitute's ongoing cultural agenda.YetthenatureofthenewIn-
donesianstatemeantthatnativism, thesearchforindigenous cultural
rootsas a reaction to participation in theculturebequeathedbycolo-
nialism, wasa muchmoreproblematic undertaking foranticolonialist
cultural inIndonesiathanitwasinotherpost-colonial
politics contexts.
The absenceofa strong nativistassertion in thenewIndonesian lit-
erature maybe linkedto theabsenceofa definable native"past"that
stoodanychanceofacquiringlegitimate nationalist credentials as the
rootsoftheIndonesian"nation".Obviously, no singlenativepastex-
istedin otherpost-colonial stateseither, buttheresonances occasioned
byAchebe'sreference to the"African soul",forexample, had no ready
parallelin Indonesia. The stateitselfacknowledged as much, initscoin-
-
ingofthephrase"Unityin Diversity" expressed in thelanguageof
theoldJavanese courts- as themottoofthenewnation.The search
forunitywas,andinsomewaysremains, thedominant motifofIndo-
nesiannationalpolitics. As such,cultural identity in the newIndone-
siaalways lookedtowards theshaping ofsomething new,paralleling and
givingformto themodernizing projectof the nation While
itself. the
radicalculturalnationalists alwaysspokeinterms ofthepreservation and
rehabilitationofregional culturalexpression as individual partsofthe
heritage of the Indonesian people, their own location on the national
stagemeantthattheircentralconcernwashowto giveradicalformto
thecreation ofa new,unifying nationalcultural identity. Hencenati-

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In Search of the Postcolonial in Indonesian Literature 161

vism,in Indonesian literature oftheright ortheleft, neveracquiredthe

political edgethatdefined itsroleintheevolution ofa postcolonialcon-
sciousness elsewhere. In themainstream universalist literarycurrents,a
nativist phasethathighlighted regional cultural identities didsurfacein
theworkofthefirst non-Dutch educated of
generationpost-independence
Indonesianwriters, butconsistent withtheideological orientationsof
thistendency, thisbrandofnativism wasneverlinkedpolitically with
an anticolonialist stance.Meanwhile, inthecultural expression ofthose
whowereguidedideologically by anticolonialism, the searchfornative
rootswas necessarily subordinated to thefuture-oriented projectofa
unitary nationalculture. Indonesianliterature, in bothitsradicaland
conservative traditions, became linked to theaspirations ofthestate,on
thesideofbuilding thefuture, the
incorporating marginal, andsubdu-
ingthebreakaway. It neverlookedbackto askthequestionsthatpro-
ducepostcolonialist answers, suchas "Whathas becomeof us?"and
"Whathasmadeuswhatweare?"Rather, itlookedforward, andasked,
"Howcanthenational andnationalist project be furthered?" and"What
is to be incorporated?"
As a literaturewritten in thenewlanguageofstate,BahasaIndone-
sia,thetradition ofmodernIndonesianliterature sharedthecharacter
ofthenewlanguageas a constituent ofthestateitself. The "language
ofIndonesia"is a powerful toolin thestate'sprojectofincorporation,
the
subduing fragmenting tendencies ofregional loyalties,andembody-
ingtheideaofthenationin thelivedexperience ofitspeople.As I sug-
it
gestedabove, symbolically marks a break with thecolonialpast.And
yet,a closerlookatthecircumstances ofitsbirthas a languageofstate
suggests thatthe confident certainties that surround itsrolein themy-
thology ofthestatemayinfactconceala moreambiguous and
heritage
a moreconstraining function than is commonly held to be thecase.
The declaration ofMalayas BahasaIndonesia, thenationallanguage
of Indonesia,did indeedreflectthe visionaryand democratizing
orientations ofthepre-war generation ofIndonesian nationalists.
The
adoption ofwhat was the of a
language minority ethnic group,especially
to theextentthatthiswasupheldbythosenationalists ofthemajority
Javanese group, seems to have no in
parallel thelanguagepoliticsof

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162 Keith FOULCHER

postcolonial orindeed,oftheimperial
states, centresthemselves. Yetthe
choiceofan indigenous overthecoloniallanguagemustbe seenas oc-
casionedas muchbythevictory ofDutchorientalism in thedebateson
languageand educationthatcharacterized thewholehistory of the
Netherlands EastIndies,as bythedemandsofa progressive Indonesian
nationalism. Especiallytowardstheend ofthecolonialera,language
policy was a hard-fought issueintheNetherlands Indies,andgroupings
indebatesregularly crossed theraciallines(Groeneboer 1993,pp.301-
432). The Dutch orientalistview, that the natives
of the Indiesneeded
to be protected againstthedestabilizing effectsoftoo greata contact
withthecoloniallanguageand Europeanculturein general, was op-
posedby otherDutchviewswhichsaw Dutch bothas a counterto
nationalism andas therightful heritageofsubjectsoftheDutchqueen.
In theearlytwentieth century someIndonesian nationalistorganizations
pressedstrongly the of
for extension Dutch-language educationto the
indigenous population, eventhecultural TamanSiswamove-
nationalist
mentarguing thatfora transition periodDutchwouldneedto be the
language of Indonesian education, whileMalay,thelanguageofunity,
wastaughtas a secondlanguage(ibid.,p. 330). Butthecallsforan ex-
tension ofDutch-language education inthecolonywentunheeded, and
theuseofDutchremained confined to a small,Western-educated na-
tiveélite.Thuswhenthenationalist movement sought out the unify-
ingbridges that would extend itscause,both among those distinctethnic
groupsthatwouldmakeup thenationofIndonesia, as wellas between
theDutch-educated nationalist éliteand theirindigenous-educated
compatriots ("thefolkof the land,whomtheyalsocalledIndonesians",
asJohnSmailso perceptively remarked [Steinberg1987,p. 311] there
wasno logicalchoiceotherthantotakean indigenous linguafrancaand
turnitintoa nationalistically definednationallanguage.Dutchorien-
talistviewson theeducation ofthenativepopulation hadwontheday,
notonlyin termsofcolonialdebates,butalsoin determining thatthe
coloniallanguagecouldnotbe thelanguageofthepost-colonial state.
Dutchwas,however, thelanguagethrough whichIndonesianna-
tionalistidealswereshapedanddefined. Benedict Anderson hasshown
howtheimagining ofnewnationsin thecolonialstateswas nurtured

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In Search of the Postcolonial in Indonesian Literature 163

inthephysical andspiritual journeys thatbrought together youngmen

fromdisparate corners ofthecolonyandgavethema senseofcommon
and
purpose identity (Anderson 1991,pp. 118-24). In theNetherlands
Indies,itwas Dutch-language education thatwasthecommonthread
linking those journeys, and it was in Dutch thattheIndonesian nation-
alistsbothcommunicated witheachotherandarticulated theirnation-
alistideals.So thevisionary butalsopolitically pragmatic toBahasa
shift
Indonesiawasa slowand painful undertaking fortheearlynationalist
movement. The declaration ofMalayas BahasaIndonesia, whichtook
place ata conference ofcultural nationalist youthorganizations in 1928,
is nowseenas a confident assertion ofnationalist unity.The eventis
enshrined in Indonesiannationalist mythology as theSumpahPemuda
[Youthpledge],thethree-fold declaration ofunityin nationality, coun-
and
try, language under the banner of Indonesia thatthe conference
proclaimed. This is the point at which the cultural birth ofthe nation,
andthesymbolic breakwiththepast,is seento occur.A glanceat the
historical documents of theperiod,however, revealsa morenuanced
story. For the youthgroupsrepresented at the conference in October
1928all returned initially to their regional base and their useofDutch
as thelanguageofIndonesiannationalism. As an ¿Illustration,we may
notethatinitsNovember-December 1928edition, theDutch-language
journal Jong Batak[YoungBatak], thepublication ofnationalist-minded
BatakyouthfromNorthSumatra, the
published Malay-language con-
ference resolutions in themiddleofa reportin Dutchdescribing the
proceedings of the conference. It commended the conference as a step
towardstheultimateunification of thenationalist youthmovement,
without inanywaysuggesting thatthemomentoftransition hadbeen
reached.The goalofnationalunity, ofwhichBahasaIndonesiawas a
symbol, was in fact won tentatively, one stepat a time.The youth
and
groupsthathad participated in the 1928 declaration in factdid not
reacha symbolic "Indonesian" unity themselves until 1930,whenthey
formally dissolved theirregional identities in theunitary youthmove-
mentbearing an Indonesian-language name, Pemoeda Indonesia (Indo-
nesianYouth).
The new"Indonesian"languagethuscameintobeingslowlyand

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164 KeithFOULCHER

unsteadily,as theDutch-educated andDutch-speaking nationalist élite

madethetransition intotheirownversion ofa language thathadgrown
asa language ofstateunderDutchsupervision andforDutchpurposes.
As theydid so, boththeirownthinking and all theapparatus ofthe
colonialstatewerequiteliterally translated intoIndonesian, symboli-
callymarking the transition to the post-colonial era.Yet the "symbol"
ultimatelyconcealedas muchas it revealed, becausewhereasin other
post-colonial thesenseofthepastwascarried
states, forward inthecolo-
niallanguage, to be confronted atsomepointalongthepostcolonialist
inIndonesiathelinguistic
trajectory, linkwiththepastwassubmerged,
actuallyhiddenwithinthenewlanguagerather thandisplacedbyit.
BahasaIndonesiawasthusboththevehiclefora newnationalproject,
modernizing and incorporating in thesamewaythatthecoloniallan-
guagehadpreviously doneinAfrica, India,theAmericas, andelsewhere
inSoutheast Asia,atthesametimeas itcarried forward, through itsown
genealogy, thelegaciesofthecolonialpast.
YetthenewIndonesian language nevercametobe seenas theprod-
uctand a toolofa colonially formed nationalélite.Popularnational-
ismtookthelanguage as itsown,andneverquestioned itsgenealogy and
credentials,as would have been the case if the Indonesian élitehad,
through a differentsetofhistorical circumstances, madeDutchthelan-
guage of the post-colonial state. Rather, as Indonesia movedintoa
heightened phaseofradicalandpopularnationalism inthelateSoekarno
years(1959-65), Bahasa Indonesia and its literaturepreserved and
strengthened theirclaimedstatusas thevoiceoftheIndonesian nation.
Hence, while thenature of the Indonesian state meant thatthe condi-
tionsappropriate to theemergence ofa nativist phasein thenational
didnotobtain,
literature so too the overriding legitimacyofthenation-
alistprojectneveropenedup a spacefora linking ofnationalist ideol-
ogytotheinterests ofa post-colonial éliteora questioning of the Self-
Otherbinary onwhichnationalism depends. Andaslongas nationalism
remained, andremains, thedominant underpinning ofan Indonesian
nationalculture andliterature, thereis no placeforthedevelopment of
a postcolonial consciousness as it is conceivedin theparadigm I have
outlined above.

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In Search of the Postcolonial in Indonesian Literature 165

As inallhomogenizing narratives, therearegapsandcounter-indicators

thatcanbe brought tobearon thepicture I havetriedtopresent. I want
toconcludethisdiscussion witha consideration ofjustoneofthesegaps,
a selectionof textsby Pramoedya AnantaToer,Indonesia'sgreatest
novelist,that indicate
that at a certain pointintheearlypost-independ-
enceperiod,thecultural condition oftheIndonesian statedidbeginto
be prisedopenin a waythatestablished interesting pointsofconnec-
tionwiththedevelopment ofotherpost-colonial literatures.The direc-
tiontakenbythesetexts wascappedbysubsequent politicalhistory, but
a
theyrepresentsignificant moment in own
Pramoedya's development
thathasbearingon certainpostcolonial tendencies in hismostrecent
andbest-known work.The textsthemselves belong hisleastknown
to
andleastcelebrated work,spanning theyearsfromtheendoftherevo-
lutiontohisperiodofliterary silencethatbeginsinthemid-1950sand
markshisbreakwiththe"universal humanist" tradition.
Pramoedya's work of this "middle" is
period generally seenbycrit-
icsas theleastimpressive ofhisfiction. In thefirst book-length study
ofanymodernIndonesianwriter, theDutchscholarAndriesTeeuw
refersto thestoriesand shortnovelsoftheperiodas "notthebestnor
themostimportant" of Pramoedya's output,"displaying all kindsof
weaknesses" (Teeuw 1993, p. 185). The ofthe
integrity writing is seen
to be compromised bya growing urgency in itspoliticalandsocialen-
as
gagement, Pramoedya moved away from theliberalism ofhisearly
periodtowardstheradicaland Marxist-oriented culturalnationalism
thathecametoidentify withinthelaterSoekarno years.Yetas Benedict
Anderson impliesinhisreferences tosomeofthestories ofthisperiod,9
theirsavagely ironicalportrayals oftheIndonesianpost-colonial élite
open up quitenewgroundin post-war Indonesianliterature. In the
shortnovelKorupsi [Corruption] (1954) and the short story collection
dart
Tjerita Djakarta [Storiesfrom Jakarta] (1957, although manyofthe
individualstoriesdatefrom several yearsearlier), a number of quitestrik-
ingpostcolonial emphases emergein Indonesian "
literature forthefirst
time.In thesemi-autobiographical reflection Sunjisenjap disianghidup"
[Silenceat life'snoon]of 1956,thefiction is contextualized in a pro-
founddisillusionment withthewriter's ownlocationinthecultural and

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166 KeithFOULCHER

politicalcontradictions ofthepost-colonial state.

One ofthemostconsistent motifsin thisfictionis themoralcor-
ruption of a new middle-class élite thatseekswealthandcomfort as the
rewards ofstatusrather thanproductivity. Accesstowealthcomesfrom
thestateitself, the of
through dispensations a swollenandparasitic civil
bureaucracy, whilecomfort is measuredin material consumption and
display. The sources of the mindset that directsthis fatalundermining
ofthestateareshowntoderive bothfromcolonialas wellas pre-colonial
legacies. Theearly story "Djongos+ Ba/?u"[Houseboy + maid],included
in TjeritadariDjakarta,isa brilliant satireon the"slavementality" that
generations of colonial servitude has inculcated in those who wait upon
thecolonialélite,specifically inthiscase,theEurasianservant class.With
no senseofauthenticity beyondtheirlinkstothemaster race(linksthat
theyowetothesexualsubordination ofnativewomento Dutchmen),
thestory'sbearers of thisslavementality striveto be admitted to the
ranksofthemaster, wheretheyinnocently believetheywillautomati-
callydiscard all theirsubordinate, indigenouscharacteristics. In the
moreominousstory, "Machluk "
darker, Dibelakang Rumah [Thecrea-
turesbehindthehouse],theinhumane senseofclasssuperiority thatis
bredin thosewhoparticipate, evento a limiteddegree,in theopera-
tionsofthepost-colonial state,is seento derivefromthemuch-prized
"Easternmorality". Indigenous culture- in thiscasethe"feudal" at-
titudesof thelower-level Javanese -
aristocracy servesto legitimize
and
subjugation exploitation at the handsofthosewhosesolegoalin
lifeis to be freeofthedemandsofproductive labour.Thesenew-style
"petty aristocrats of Jakarta" thus strive to perpetuate an "outdated
morality", dressedup, of course,"in accordancewithmodernity"
(Pramoedya 1957,p. 122). "Modernity" heremeansa fixation on con-
sumption, a lackofa senseofthepast,ofhistory, and ofresponsibil-
ity, as is againpointedly satirized in Njonja Dokterhewan Suharko
[Madamveterinary doctorSuharko] .
Pramoedya's mostextendeddenunciation ofthementality ofthe
petty officialand itsbetrayal of the nation comes in the short novel
Korupsi. Evenmoreso thantheshortstories oftheperiod,thisworknow
tendstobe overlooked, becausethelimited andpsychologically oriented

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In Search of the Postcolonial in Indonesian Literature 167

melodramathatshapes the narrativecomparesunfavourably withthe

scope and detailof the finelyobservedautobiographicalor historical
realistnarrativesthatcharacterizePramoedya'smajorwork.Yet Korupsi
is important, becausealthoughtheindictment ofcorruption is a familiar
themein the fictionof otherwritersof thisperiod,onlyPramoedya's
treatment of thethemebeginsto drawthe linksbetweenclass,coloni-
alism, and thenationalbourgeoisiein a waythatmovesin thedirection
of a postcolonialistcritique.
Basir,the protagonistof Pramoedya'sstory,is a pettygovernment
official who is drivento corruption,fearfullyand unsteadily,byhissense
ofhis legitimaterightto a respectablestandardof livingand thedesire
forthestatusand respectthatwas formerly accordedto civilservantsof
thecolonialstate.Hence, it is hisclaimto therightsand privilegesthat
havebeenlostbymenofhisrankin thetransition to nationalindepend-
encethatguideshis foraysintotheeasyrewardsofbureaucratic corrup-
tion.Earlyon in thenarrative, in hisinitialpursuitofthemeanstowards
thelifehe craves- a house"suchas is picturedinAmericanmagazines"
- he setsout
dreamilyon hisold bicycle,onlyto be involvedin a traffic
accidentwherehe collideswithand injuresa youngschoolboy.An an-
grycrowdgathers,blamingBasirfortheboy's injury.He is threatened
bya becakdriver,and is confronted by the bruteforceof a classwhose
standardof livinghe shares,eventhoughhe is separatedfromthemby
hispotentialforaccessto thespoilsof statewealth.The sceneis arrest-
ing,and marksPramoedya'sidentification of thebetrayalof thenation
as a betrayalof itsworkingpeople (Pramoedya1954, pp. 22-23). It is
thosesame people who by theirsacrificesin therevolutioncreatedthe
conditionswherebythosewho made no contribution to thewinningof
nationalindependencenow pursuewealthby themisuseof theirclass
positionin thepost-colonialstate(ibid., p. 58).
Basir'sdescentinto the depravitythatis bred of corruptiontakes
place in Pramoedya'snarrative withthe same forceof moralcondem-
nationthatotherwritersbringto bearon theindictment ofcorruption.
Yet Basir'sfinalacknowledgement ofguiltand self-recrimination is not
castin termsof individualrepentance,but a condemnationofhis class
as a whole. In theclosingsceneof the narrative, as Basirin police cus-

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168 Keith FOULCHER

todyisvisited byhisyoung, upright, andidealistically mindedassistant,

thefuture in hisownmindis consignedto thosewhodo notseekto
exploit their privileged positionin theprocessofdecolonization. Basir
seeshimself and hisownclassas a generation whohaveoutlivedtheir
rolein history and mustnowdisappear.Untiltheydo, theyhaveno
otherrolethanto "prolong thelifeofcolonialism" (ibid.,p. 155).
What takes in
place Pramoedya's fiction of this periodis an identi-
fication ofthesourceofthefailure ofindependence inthecolonialresi-
due bequeathedto thenewIndonesian middle class.The despair,the
senseofpowerlessness and ineffectiveness thatpervades his Sujisenjap
disianghidup(Pramoedya 1956) and announcesa periodofsilenceas
a creative writeris thesamedisillusionment withthefruits ofindepend-
encethatinothercontexts ledto thequestioning ofnationalism as the
voiceofnational liberation. In Indonesia, as I havesuggested above,this
development did notoccur,andneither is itthecasewithPramoedya.
Whatthisperioddiddo inPramoedya's development, however, wasto
clearthegroundforan alternative definition ofthenation, onethatwent
backtohistory, thatlookedattheevolution ofthenationin a waythat
stoodclearofthenationalist mythology ofthepost-colonial state.This
was
project interrupted by fourteen years'politicalimprisonment, but
itwas notdisbanded, anditprovidedtheoutlinesand thetextures of
Pramoedya's well-known historical fiction of the the
1980s, tetralogy
knownas theKaryaBurnin Indonesianand theAwakenings seriesin
English. And when it did surface, Pramoedya's new definition ofthe
nationturnedoutto be onethatstressed hybridity andthenegotiation
the
of marginal condition, even as it remained loyalto thenationand
thestruggles ofitspeople.A distinctive typeofpostcolonial literature
is stilla possibility in Indonesian literature, ifthe work of its greatest
writer is anyguide.

The poignancy in thewordsoftheyoungDr Soebandrioin 1947 re-

mains.The longingforwholeness, therecovery ofan undividedcon-
forever
sciousness, scarsthepostcolonial
landscape andshapesthework-
ingsofthepostcolonial endeavour. spaceis to
To livein post-colonial
and
livewitha senseofdispossession, to engage in thestructuringof

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In Search of the Postcolonial in Indonesian Literature 169

meanings uponthedislocationsthatcolonialism
bequeathes. The search
forstablemeaninghasled variously to thepast,the"nativeroots"of
and
tradition, to the the
nation, imagined wholeness anditsnarrative
of incorporation.Beyondthenation,however,thepostcolonialhas
cometo finditsgroundin whatBhabhacallsthe"thecutting edgeof
translation
andnegotiation,
thein-between space' (Bhabha1994,p. 38)
where"hybridity" and theconditionof "occult
displaces"diversity"
instability"
opensup the ofa
possibility radical,transformatory politics
ofmeaning. To surrenderthehopeofintegration is profoundly
unset-
but
tling, in thelossofwholenessthereis bothpainandpromise.

NOTES

1. I am indebtedto LiesbethDolk, whoseresearch intoDutch-Indonesian intellec-

tualandcultural exchange in the latecolonial and immediate post-colonial peri-
odsfirstdrewmyattention to theproblems discussedin thisarticle.Whileitwas
abouttogo topress,newswasreceived ofDr Soebandrio's impending releasefrom
the of
prison,following granting clemency by PresidentSoeharto. I am grateful
to Dr NaimahTalib,one oftheeditorsoí SOJOURN,whofirst informed meof
thisnews.
2. See theinsightfulapplicationofthisnotioninMishra(1993). SeealsoMishraand
Hodge(1991,pp. 399-413). HarryAveling takesaspectsoftheMishraandHodge
critiqueof The EmpireWrites Back and appliesitto theworkofa Malaywriter in
latecolonialBritish in
Malaya Aveling(1993).
3. Atheisis usuallycategorized as a novelof therevolution, or post-independence
period.Set in theDutch period and the JapaneseOccupation,however, it deals
withtheproblemofcoloniallyinducedculturaldislocation, and displaysall the
hallmarks ofthewriter's knowledge ofDutchliterature and hisaccommodation
ofitsinfluence.
4. Achebehererelatesthestoryofhowhiswife,an Englishteacher in a boys'school
had"askeda pupilwhyhewroteaboutwinter whenhe meanttheharmattan. He
said theotherboyswouldcall hima bushmanifhe did sucha thing!".Achebe
comments drily,"Now,youwouldn'thavethought, wouldyou,thattherewas
something shameful in your weather? But we
apparently do."
5. Lazarus(1990,pp.9-10). The cultural critiqueofnationalismwaslaterto become
an important themeoftheIndiansubaltern studiesschool.SeeChatteriee (1986).
6. Lazarus(1990,p. 21) in relationto thenovelsofAyiKweiArmah.
7. Duncanand Sharp(1993, p. 479). It is precisely the"celebratory"aspectofthis

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170 KeithFOULCHER

formofpostcolonialist thatis rejectedbyMishraandHodge (1991,pp.

criticism
406-7, 41 1), in theirsuggestion
thattheuncritical adulationofpluralism andthe
descriptionof anyformofcriticism claimingindigeneity as flawedbyessential-
ism"might itselfbe anotherversion ofAchebe's'colonialist Theirread-
criticism'".
ingof TheSatanicVerses foregrounds theprivilegedpositionofthenativereader,
and theculture-specific knowledges thatinform thetext.
8. 1 havediscussedthisdevelopment in Foulcher(1993).
9. See Anderson(1990, pp. 221-27). See alsoAnderson's comments in thetransla-
tor'sintroduction to Pramoedya (1982, pp. 65-67).

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KeithFoulcher is Senior Lecturerin Asian Studies at The FlindersUniversity

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