ENHANCING THE MECHANICAL

AND METALLURGICAL
PROPERTIES OF DISSIMILAR
LASER WELD JOINT

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

SABARI VENKATESH.M
THILAGAN.T
UDHAYA RAJA SUNDARAM.R
VIGNESH.I

in partial fulfillment of the requirement

for the award of the degree
of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

K. RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

(An Autonomous Institution, affiliated to Anna University Chennai and Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)

SAMAYAPURAM – 621 112

APRIL 2021
 ii

K. RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

SAMAYAPURAM – 621 112

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report titled “ENHANCING THE

MECHANICAL AND METALLURGICAL PROPERTIES OF DISSIMILAR
LASER WELD JOINT” is the bonafide work of “SABARI VENKATESH M
(811717114084), THILAGAN T (811717114103), UDHAYA RAJA SUNDARAM R
(811717114105), VIGNESH I (811717114323)”, who carried out the project work
under my supervision. Certified further, that to the best of my knowledge the work
reported herein does not form part of any other project report or dissertation on the
basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion on this or any
other candidate.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Mr.G.NAVANEETHAKRISHNAN,M.E.,(Ph.D) Mr.T.RAJKUMAR, M.E.,(Ph.D)
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR
Associate Professor Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
K.Ramakrishnan College of Technology, K.Ramakrishnan College of Technology,
Samayapuram, Samayapuram,
Tiruchirappalli – 621 112. Tiruchirappalli – 621 112.

Submitted for the viva-voce examination held on ………………

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 iii

DECLARATION

We jointly declare that the project report on “ENHANCING THE

MECHANICAL AND METALLURGICAL PROPERTIES OF
DISSIMILAR LASER WELD JOINT” is the result of original work done by
us and best of our knowledge, similar work has not been submitted to “ANNA
UNIVERSITY CHENNAI” for the requirement of Degree of Bachelor
Engineering. This project report is submitted on the partial fulfilment of the
requirement of the award of Degree of Bachelor Engineering.

Signature

____________________
SABARI VENKATESH.M

____________________
THILAGAN.T

____________________
UDHAYA RAJA SUNDARAM.R

____________________
VIGNESH.I

Place: Samayapuram
Date : 13.04.2021
 iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is with great pride that we express our gratitude and in-debt to our
institution “K.Ramakrishnan College of Technology”, for providing us with
the opportunity to do this project.

We are glad to credit honorable chairman Dr. K. RAMAKRISHNAN,

B.E., for having provided for the facilities during the course of our study in
college.

We would like to express our sincere thanks to our beloved Executive

Director Dr. S. KUPPUSAMY, MBA, Ph.D., for forwarding to our project
and offering adequate duration in completing our project.

We would like to thank Dr.K.V.SHRIRAM, M.E., Ph.D., Dean, who

gave opportunity to frame the project the full satisfaction.

We whole heartily thanks to Mr.G.NAVANEETHA

KRISHNAN,M.E.,(Ph.D) Head of the department, Mechanical Engineering
for providing his encourage pursuing this project.

I express my deep and sincere gratitude to my project guide

Mr.T.RAJKUMAR,M.E.,(Ph.D), Assistant Professor, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, for his incalculable suggestions, creativity, assistance
and patience which motivated me to carry out this project.

I render my sincere thanks to Course Coordinator and other staff

members for providing valuable information during the course.

I wish to express my special thanks to the officials and Lab Technicians

of our departments who rendered their help during the period of the work
progress.
 v

ABSTRACT

The dissimilar butt welding of HSLA and AISI 316 was investigated
using CO2 laser welding machine. The effects of welding power (1500 - 1700
W), welding speed (1.5 – 2.5 m/min), and gas flow rate (15 - 25 lit/min) on the
welded joint were analyzed with Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The
Box-Behnken design was used for this experimental plan. Mathematical
equations were formed to find the tensile strength for dissimilar butt welding
process. Numerical optimization technique was used to identify the optimal
condition region of all this laser welding process. It helps to achieve better
process parameter combination for the controlled responses of this process.
Tensile strength is the most important output response to achieve the good
dissimilar joint. The laser power and welding speed are the two factors which
influencing more on the strength of dissimilar joint even though the other factor
is involving. An optimization results were confirmed by experiments to
validate values of the process parameters values found from RSM. In
microstructure studies the formation of very fine grains in weld region and
moderate precipitates are the main reason for higher tensile strength of the
dissimilar joint. The tensile test results the fracture in the base metal which
proves that the weld strength is good as expected.
 vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO

ABSTRACT v

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES x

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING 4
1.2.1 Arc Welding 5
1.2.2 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) 5
1.2.3 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) 5
1.2.4 Carbon Arc Welding 6
1.2.5 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) 6
1.2.6 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) 6
1.3 LASER WELDING 7
1.4 TYPES OF LASER WELDS 12
1.4.1 Conduction Weldi ng 12
1.4.2 Penetration Laser Welding 13
1.5 METALS USED IN LASER WELDING 13
1.6 PROCESS VARIATIONS 14
1.7 FACTORS AFFECTING WELD SHAPE 15
1.7.1 Power Density 15
1.7.2 Welding Speed 15
1.7.3 Laser Beam Divergence and Focal Plane 16
1.8 FLOW RATE AND TYPE OF SHIELDING GAS 16
1.9 ADVANTAGES OF LASER WELDING 18
1.10 LIMITATIONS OF LASER WELDING 19
 vii

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 20
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW 20
2.2 CONCLUSIONS FROM LITERATURE REVIEW 24

3 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION 25
3.1 PROBLEM FORMULATION 25
3.2 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY 25
3.3 SCOPE OF STUDY 25

4 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP 26
4.1 LASER WELDING 26
4.1.1 Processing Parameters 26
4.1.2 Base Materials 27
4.1.3 Laser Source 28
4.1.4 Shielding Gas 28
4.2 EXPERIMENTAL PARAMETERS 29
4.3 HARDNESS OBSERVATION 31
4.4 TENSILE TESTING 32
4.5 MICROSCOPIC IMAGING EQUIPMENT 33
4.6 SEM IMAGING EQUIPMENT 34
4.7 XRD TESTING EQUIPMENT 34

5 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 36

5.1 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 36
5.2 TENSILE TEST RESULTS 36
5.3 HARDNESS TEST RESULTS 39

6 RESPONSE SURFACE METHODOLOGY

& OPTIMIZATION 42
6.1 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA) 42
6.1.1 ANOVA of Tensile Strength 42
6.1.2 ANOVA of hardness 44
6.2 RESPONSE SURFACE MODELLING 46
 viii

6.2.1 RSM for Tensile Strength 46

6.2.2 RSM for hardness 49
6.3 REGRESSION EQUATION MODELLING 55
6.4 VALIDATION OF REGRESSION MODEL 56
6.5 PERTURBATION ANALYSIS 57
6.6 OPTIMIZATION USING DESIRABILITY 59

7 MICROSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 61
7.1 MICROSTRUCTURE AND EDAX 61

8 BUDGET 66

8 CONCLUSION 67

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 68

REFERENCES 69
 ix

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE

NO. NO.

4.1 Chemical Composition Of Stainless Steel ( Gr ade 316L) 28

4.2 Chemical Composition of HSLA 28

4.3 Process Parameters and Their Actual Values 30

4.4 Process Parameters 30

5.1 Tensile Results 38

5.2 Hardness Results 40

6.1 ANOVA Table for Tensile Strength 43

6.2 ANOVA Table for Har dness 45

8.1 Budget Information 66

 x

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

NO. NO.

1.1 Types of Welding Joints 3

1.2 Classification Of Welding 4

1.3 Types of Laser welds 12

1.4 Laser Keyhole Weld Diagram 13

1.5 Arc Augmented Laser Welding Diagram 14

4.1 The Graphical Representation Austenitic Stainless Steel 27

4.2 Laser Beam Welding Experimental setup 29

4.3 Micro Vickers Hardness Tester Setup 31

4.4 Tensile Test Specimen 32

4.5 Tensile Testing Machine with Sample 32

4.6 De-wintor Inverted Trinocular Metallurgical Microscope 33

4.7 Scanning Electron Microscope Test Set Up 34

4.8 Rigaku miniflex 600 X-ray Diffraction Test Set Up 35

5.1 Standard Tensile Specimen with Dimensions 37

5.2 Actual Tensile Specimens 37

5.3 Tensile Testing of Sam ple 37

5.4 Main Effect Plot for Tensile Strength (MPa) 39

5.5 Main Effect Plot for Microhardness 41

6.1 Response Surfaces Developed for Tensile St rength of Weld

Joint with Reference to Welding Speed, Laser Power Vs.
Tensile Strength 47

6.2 Response Surfaces Developed for Tensile St rength of Weld

Joint with Reference to Gas Flow Rate, Laser Power Vs.
Tensile Strength 47
 xi

6.3 Response Surfaces Developed for Tensile St rength of Weld

Joint with Reference t o Gas Flow Rate, Welding Speed Vs.
Tensile Strength 48

6.4 Response Surfaces Developed for Hardness of Weld Joint

with Reference to Welding Speed, Laser Power Vs.
Hardness 49

6.5 Response Surfaces Developed for Hardness of Weld Joint

with Reference to Gas Flow Rate, Laser Power vs. Hardness 50

6.6 Response Surfaces Developed for Hardness of Weld Joint

with Reference to Gas Flow Rate, Weldi ng Speed Vs.
Hardness 50

6.7 Interaction Plot for Tensile Strength 51

6.8 Interaction Plot for Hardness Strength 51

6.9 Contour Plot for Tensi le Strength vs Gas Flow Rate, Laser
Power 52

6.10 Contour Plot for Tensi le Strength vs Welding Speed, Laser

Power 52

6.11 Contour Plot for Tensi le Strength vs Welding Speed, Gas

Flow Rate 53

6.12 Contour Plot for Micro Hardness vs Gas Flow Rate, Laser
Power 53

6.13 Contour Plot for Micro Hardness vs Welding Speed, Laser

Power 54

6.14 Contour Plot for Micro Hardness vs Welding Speed, Gas

Flow Rate 54

6.15 Validation of Regressi on Model for Tensile Strength 56

6.16 Validation of Regressi on Model for Hardness 57

6.17 Perturbation Analysis for Hardne ss 58

6.18 Perturbation Analysis for Tensile Strength 58

6.19 Optimized Result for Weld Joint (desirability) 59

7.1 Scanning Electron Microscope Testing Machi ne (SEM) 61

7.2 Micro Structure of Welded Zone 62

7.3 Presentation of Energy Dispersive X -ray Spectroscopy line

analyses 63
 xii

7.4 Microstructure of HAZ 63

7.5 Microstructure of Wel d Zone 64

7.6 Microstructure of Haz On Stainless Steel 64

 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Welding is a fabrication process used to join materials, usually metals by

causing coalescence. During welding, the pieces to be joined the work pieces are melted at
the joining interface and usually a filler material is added to form a pool of molten material
the weld pool that solidifies to become a strong joint. In contrast, Soldering and Brazing do
not involve melting the work piece but rather a lower-melting-point material is melted
between the work pieces to bond them together. Welding is an art of joining metals by
heating and then pressing together. The process of joining may also take place by other
means of riveting or by fastening nut and bolts. If a joint can be dissembled then joining
method is called temporary joining method. If the formed cannot be dissembled without
breaking it then the joint is called permanent joint.

Welding is a manufacturing process of creating a permanent joint obtained by the

fusion of the surface of the parts to be joined together, with or without the application of
pressure and a filler material. The materials to be joined may be similar or dissimilar to each
other. The heat required for the fusion of the material may be obtained by burning of gas or
by an electric arc. The latter method is more extensively used because of greater welding
speed. Welding is extensively used in fabrication as an alternative method for casting or
forging and as a replacement for bolted and riveted joints. It is also used as a repair medium
e.g. to reunite a metal at a crack or to build up a small part that has broken off such as a gear
tooth or to repair a worn surface such as a bearing surface. Welding, a metal joining process
can be traced back in history to the ancient times. In the Bronze Age, nearly 2000 years ago,
circular boxes made of gold were welded in lap joint arrangement by applying pressure.
Later on in the Iron Age, Egyptians started welding pieces of iron together. But welding as
we know nowadays came into existence only in the 19th century. Sir Humphrey Davy
produced an electric arc using two carbon electrodes powered by a battery. This principle
was subsequently applied to weld metals. Resistance welding finally developed in the year
1885 by Elihu Thomson. Acetylene gas was discovered in 1836 by Edmund Davy, but it
could not be used in welding application due to lack of a proper welding torch. When they
require welding, torch was invented in 1900, oxy-acetylene welding became one of the most
 2

popular type of welding mainly due to its relatively lower cost. However, in the 20th century
it lost its place to arc welding in most of the industrial applications. Advance welding
techniques like Plasma Arc Welding, Laser Beam Welding, Electron Beam Welding,
Electro-Magnetic Pulse Welding, Ultrasonic Welding, etc. are now being extensively used
in electronic and high precision industrial applications. Weld Processes The welding
processes may be broadly classified into the following two groups:

1. Welding processes that use heat alone i.e. Fusion Welding.

2. Welding processes that use a combination of heat and pressure i.e. Forge
Welding.

Welding in case of fusion welding the parts to be joined is held in position while
the molten metal is supplied to the joint. The molten metal may come from the parts
themselves i.e. parent metal or filler metal which normally has the same or nearly similar
composition as that of the parent metal. Thus, when the molten metal solidifies or fuses, the
joint is formed. The fusion welding, according to the method of heat generated, may be
classified as: 1. Thermit Welding 2. Gas Welding 3. Electric Arc Welding. In forge welding,
the parts to be joined are first heated to a proper temperature in a furnace and then hammered.
Electric Resistance Welding is an example of forge welding. The principle of applying heat
and pressure, either sequentially or simultaneously is widely used in the processes known as
Spot, Seam, Projection, Upset and Flash Welding. The welding joint geometry can be
classified primarily into five types. This is based on the orientation between the material
surfaces to be joined. The various joints are shown in the figure 1. The main considerations
involved in the selection of a particular welded joint are given below: 1. The shape of the
welded component required, 2. The thickness of the plates to be welded, and 3. The direction
of the forces to which the finished object will be subjected to in the actual working
conditions. Joint Metal is heated over the range of temperature up to fusion and followed by
cooling ambient temperature. Due to differential heating, the material away from the weld
bead will be hot but as the weld bead is approached progressively higher temperatures are
obtained, resulting in a complex micro structure.
 3

Figure 1.1 Types of Welding Joints

The subsequent heating and cooling results in setting up internal stresses and plastic
strain in the weld. Depending upon the slope of temperature gradient three distinct zones can
be identified in welded joint which are: 1. Base metal 2. Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) 3. Weld
metal. A joint produced without a filler metal is called autogenous and its weld zone is
composed of re-solidified base metal. A joint made with a filler metal is called weld metal.
Since central portion of the weld bead will be cooled slowly, long columnar grains will be
developed and in the out-ward direction grains will become finer and finer with distance. So
the ductility and toughness decreases away from the weld bead. However strength increases
with the distance from the weld bead. The original structure in steels consisting of ferrite
and pearlite is changed to alpha iron. The weld metal in the molten state has a good tendency
to dissolve gases which come into contact with it like oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen. So
during solidification, a portion of these gases get trapped into the bead called porosity.
Porosity is responsible for decrease in the strength of the weld joint. Cooling rates can be
controlled by preheating of the base metal welding interface before welding. The heat
affected zone is within the base metal itself. It has a microstructure different from that of the
base metal after welding, because it is subjected to elevated temperature for a substantial
period of time during welding. In the heat affected zone, the heat applied during welding
 4

recrystallizes the elongated grains of the base metal, grains that are away from the weld
metal will recrystallizes into fine equiaxed grains.

Joining of dissimilar metals has found its use extensively in power generation,
electronic, nuclear reactors, petrochemical and chemical industries mainly to get tailor-made
properties in a component and reduction in weight. However efficient welding of dissimilar
metals has posed a major challenge due to difference in thermo mechanical and chemical
properties of the materials to be joined under a common welding condition. This causes a
steep gradient of the thermo-mechanical properties along the weld. A variety of problems
come up in dissimilar welding like cracking, large weld residual stresses, migration of atoms
during welding causing stress concentration on one side of the weld, compressive and tensile
thermal stresses, stress corrosion cracking, etc. Now before discussing these problems
coming up during dissimilar welding, the passages coming below throw some light on some
of the causes of these problems. In dissimilar welds, weldability is determined by crystal
structure, atomic diameter and compositional solubility of the parent metals in the solid and
liquid states. Diffusion in the weld pool often results in the formation of intermetallic phases,
the majority of which are hard and brittle and are thus detrimental to the mechanical strength
and ductility of the joint. The thermal expansion coefficient and thermal conductivity of the
materials being joined are different, which causes large misfit strains and consequently the
residual stresses results in cracking during solidification.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING

Figure 1.2 Classification of Welding

 5

1.2.1 Arc Welding

In the arc welding the heat is produced through an electrode or arc welding rods. The
electric arc produced between consumable electrode and fillet deposited on work piece. Thus
the arc welding process is carried out. The electrode which is passing the current is made with
flux coated, these types of electrode is called bar electrode. The coating flux are melt at the time
of welding and deposited upper level of filler metal as a slag, which is removed by chipping or
grinding process after normal cooling. In such welding processes the power supply could be AC
or DC, the electrode could be consumable or non-consumable and a filler material may or may
not be added.

1.2.2 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Shielded metal arc welding is a manual process of welding and is a common and
versatile method used for joining shapes that cannot be easily set up for automatic welding
methods. In this method a solid electrode with an extruded backed-on-coating material is used.
The arc is struck by short circuiting the electrode with the work piece. Welding current is chosen
according to the electrode diameter, type of electrode, and the kind of welding job. The arc
voltage is determined as function of the arc length. In Manual metal arc it will be very difficult
to keep a uniform arc length. When welding with basic electrodes, where metal transfer causes
short circuit, the dynamic short circuit current has to be limited to avoid evaporation and blowing
a part of the drop. The weight of the weld metal deposited per unit time is proportional to the
current intensity. The electrodes are thoroughly dried or baked after production, because
moisture will cause an unstable arc, heavy spatter and porosity in the weld metal.

1.2.3. Submerged arc welding (SAW)

Submerged arc welding is a method in which the heat required to fuse the metal is
generated by an electric current passing through between the welding wire and the work
piece. The tip of the welding wire, the arc and the weld area are covered by a layer of granular
flux. A hopper and a feeding mechanism are used to provide a flow of flux over the joint
being welded. A conveyor tube is provided to control the flow of the flux and is always kept
ahead of the weld zone to ensure adequate supply of flux ahead of the arc. SAW has the
advantage of high weld metal quality and smooth and uniform weld finish. Deposit rate,
deposition efficiency and weld speed are high. Smoke and arc flash are absent in SAW. The
 6

operator's skill is minimum in SAW and it is extensively used in heavy steel plate
fabrications.

1.2.4 Carbon Arc Welding

The carbon arc welding is the another type of arc welding. Where carbon or graphite
are used as a electrode. There are two methods used for produced as a arcs, the single carbon
process and another one is the twin arc welding carried electrically independent torch. The
carbon arc welding is invariably carried out with direct current. The heat is produced carbon
electrode and work piece, base metal melts with this heat and additional filler metal can be
added where extra metal needed. The essential point of this carbon arc welding is that the
filler rod. Because it can not connected with current source.

1.2.5 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

A non-consumable tungsten rod is used as the electrode with inert gases shielding
both the molten metallic pool and the red hot filler wire tip. Argon or helium gas is used for
shielding purposes. Argon is preferred for a wide range of materials, and as no flux is used,
corrosion due to flux inclusions cannot occur. Almost all metals can be welded using TIG
process. Dissimilar metals can also be welded by TIG choosing the appropriate
combinations. These non-consumable tungsten electrodes are alloyed with zirconium or
thorium (around 1%). Zr alloyed tungsten is used in alternating current applications and it
has high resistance to contamination and has got good arc starting characteristics. TIG
welding can be done in almost all positions. Metal thickness ranging 1 to 6 mm is generally
joined by TIG process. TIG is often used for root pass in pressure components and other
critical applications, as it gives a clean and accurate weldment.

1.2.6 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Gas metal arc welding is a gas shielded process that can be effectively used in all
positions. The shielding gas can be both inert gas like argon and active gases like argon-
oxygen mixture and argon-carbon-di-oxide which are chemically reactive. It can be used on
nearly all metals including carbon steel, stainless steel, alloy steel and aluminium. MIG
welding is a well established semi-automatic process. Continuous welding with coiled wire
helps high metal depositions rate and high welding speed. MIG gives less distortion and
there is no slag removal and its associated difficulties like interference with accurate jigging.
 7

Because of the good heat input control, MIG can be used for non-ferrous welding with good
results. However, since the torch has to be very near to the job, there is a constraint where
accessibility is limited. Spatter is high and so deposition efficiency is less. It can be used to
join long stretches of metal without stopping.

1.3 LASER WELDING

It is a welding technique used to join multiple pieces of metal through the use of a
laser. The beam provides a concentrated heat source, allowing for narrow, deep welds and
high welding rates. The process is frequently used in high volume applications, such as in
the automotive industry. Like electron beam welding (EBW), laser beam welding has high
power density resulting in small heat- affected zones and high heating and cooling rates. The
depth of penetration is proportional to the amount of power supplied, but is also dependent
on the location of the focal point: penetration is maximized when the focal point is slightly
below the surface of the work piece. Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation) welding is one of the most technically advanced forms of welding. Its
applications span across a diverse array of industries from aerospace to fine jewelry making.
We will delve into that after briefly going over the inception of the technology. It was
Einstein who predicted stimulated emission, which is the basic principle of laser. However,
it was only in 1967 that we first used laser for its welding and cutting capabilities. The laser
used in the 1967 experiments used oxygen assisted gas with a concentrated CO2 laser beam.

Laser beam welding (LBW) is a welding process that produces coalescence of

materials with the heat obtained from the application of a concentrate coherent light beam
impinging upon the surfaces to be joined. The focused laser beam has the highest energy
concentration of any known source of energy. The laser beam is a source of electromagnetic
energy or light that can be pro jetted without diverging and can be concentrated to a precise
spot. The beam is coherent and of a single frequency.

Gases can emit coherent radiation when contained in an optical resonant cavity. Gas
lasers can be operated continuously but originally only at low levels of power. Later
developments allowed the gases in the laser to be cooled so that it could be operated
continuously at higher power outputs. The gas lasers are pumped by high radio frequency
generators which raise the gas atoms to sufficiently high energy level to cause lasing.
Currently, 2000-watt carbon dioxide laser systems are in use. Higher powered systems are
also being used for experimental and developmental work.
 8

A 6-kw laser is being used for automotive welding applications and a 10-kw laser
has been built for research purposes. There are other types of lasers; however, the continuous
carbon dioxide laser now available with 100 watts to 10 kw of power seems the most
promising for metalworking applications. The coherent light emitted by the laser can be
focused and reflected in the same way as a light beam. The focused spot size is controlled
by a choice of lenses and the distance from it to the base metal. The spot can be made as
small as 0.003 in. (0.076 mm) to large areas 10 times as big. A sharply focused spot is used
for welding and for cutting. The large spot is used for heat-treating.

The laser offers a source of concentrated energy for welding; however, there are
only a few lasers in actual production use today. The high-powered laser is extremely
expensive. Laser welding technology is still in its infancy so there will be improvements and
the cost of equipment will be reduced. Recent use of fiber optic techniques to carry the laser
beam to the point of welding may greatly expand the use of lasers in metal-working.

Laser welding uses a highly concentrated beam of light on a very tiny spot so that
the area under the laser beam absorbs the light and becomes highly energetic. As powerful
laser beams are used, the electrons in the area get excited to a point where the material melts
as the result of the atoms breaking the bonds with each other. Laser welding can also be used
to join plastics. This melting of the two materials at their seams fuse them into a joint. It is
surprising how light can be powerful enough to metal metals within milliseconds. To achieve
such powerful laser beams, the laser welding machine uses several parts that direct and
amplify the laser. Gas lasers, solid-state lasers, and fiber lasers are the three most common
lasers used in a laser welding machine.

Normally, the laser beam is supplied to the laser welding machine by the use of
optical fibers. There are single fiber welding machines and there are multiple fiber welding
machines. The multiple fiber welding machines have a laser connected to each fiber, with
each fiber, the strength of the laser increases. To concentrate the beam to a point before it
leaves the machine, a collimator lens in conjunction with a focusing lens is often used. our
main weld joints are capable with laser welds:

1. Butt Weld
2. Filler Lap Weld
 9

3. Overlap Weld
4. Edge Flange Weld

If you have been looking into laser welding, you might have noticed the constant
companion to the laser nozzle which is another nozzle that supplies a gas which is called
Process Gas or Cutting Gas. Basically, it is the flow of gas, which is most commonly CO2,
that is also directed towards the weld location with an aim to prevent the contact of the weld
surface with the atmosphere. Without the use of cutting gas, there are only two options for
weld atmosphere – Either normal atmosphere or vacuum. Laser welding in a vacuum is
certainly possible, but not plausible because of its high cost and the requirement for a
specialty setup.

In a normal atmosphere, laser welding without processing gas can yield unfavorable
effects. Since nitrogen in the air is in very high concentration, it can mix with the molten
metal and cause the formation of voids or holes within the weld. Such occurrences can lead
to weld failures. Factors like humidity in the air can cause the production of hydrogen when
welding. The diffusion of hydrogen into the metal also leads to weak weld joints. Hence
laser welding in a normal atmosphere without shielding is not entertained at all. Weld
machines come with a cutting gas attachment that shoots gas to the weld surface making
sure that no impurities are mixed with the weld.

Laser welding can be done in two ways – Heat conduction welding and keyhole
welding. Heat conduction welding: In this process, the metal surface is heated above the
melting point of the metal, but not to an extent that it vaporizes. This process is used for
welds that do not need high weld strength. The advantage of hot conduction welding is that
the final weld will be highly smooth and aesthetical. Low power laser in the range of <500W
is used for heat conduction welding. Keyhole welding: In this process, the laser beam heats
up the metal in such a way that the contact surface vaporizes, digging deep into the metal.
This creates a keyhole where a plasma-like condition is created with temperatures rising well
above 10,000K. This process required high powered lasers with power above 105W/mm2.

Laser welding is often used in conjunction with arc welding to create something
called Hybrid Laser Arc Welding. In hybrid laser arc welding, any one of the arc welding
processes like MIG, TIG or SAW is used with deep penetration laser welding. The result is
a weld that has the advantages of both laser welding and arc welding. The resultant weld will
 10

have deep penetrating joints, thanks to the laser weld and will also have improved tolerance
to joint fit-up. Other undesirable effects like cracking and internal porosity are also reduced.

Pump source provides energy to the medium, exciting the laser such that electrons
held with in the atoms are elevated temporarily to higher energy states. The electrons held
in this excited state cannot remain there indefinitely and drop down to a lower energy level.
The electron looses the excess energy gained from the pump energy by emitting a photon.
This is called spontaneous emission and the photons produced by this method are the seed
for laser generation. Photons emitted by spontaneous emission eventually strike other
electrons in the higher energy states. The incoming photon “knocks” the electron from the
excited state to a lower energy level creating another photon. These photons are coherent
meaning they are in phase, of the same wavelength, and traveling the same direction. A
process called stimulated emission.

Photons are emitted in all directions, however some travel along the laser medium
to strike the resonator mirrors to be reflected back through the medium. The resonator
mirrors define the preferential amplification direction for stimulated emission. In order for
the amplification to occur there must be a greater percentage of atoms in the excited state
than the lower energy levels. This population inversion of more atoms in the excited state
leads to the conditions required for laser generation.

The focus spot of the laser is targeted on the workpiece surface which will be
welded. At the surface the concentration of light energy converts into thermal energy (heat).
The heat causes the surface of the material to melt, which progresses through the surface by
a process called surface conductivity. The beam energy level is maintained below the
vaporization temperature of the workpiece material.The ideal thickness of the materials to
be welded is 20mm. The energy is a laser is concentrated, an advantage when working with
materials that have high thermal conductivity.

The laser can be compared to a solar light beam for welding. It can be used in air.
The laser beam can be focused and directed by special optical lenses and mirrors. It can
operate at a considerable distance from the workpiece.

When using the laser beam for welding, the electromagnetic radiation impinges on
the surface of the base metal with such a concentration of energy that the temperature of the
surface is melted vapor and melts the metal below.
 11

One of the original questions concerning the use of the laser was the possibility of
reflectivity of the metal so that the beam would be reflected rather than heat the base metal.
It was found, however, that once the metal is raised to its melting temperature, the surface
conditions have little or no effect.

The distance from the optical cavity to the base metal has little effect on the laser.
The laser beam is coherent and it diverges very little. It can be focused to the proper spot
size at the work with the same amount of energy available, whether it is close or far away.

With laser welding, the molten metal takes on a radial configuration similar to
convectional arc welding. However, when the power density rises above a certain threshold
level, keyholing occurs, as with plasma arc welding.

Keyholing provides for extremely deep penetration. This provides for a high depth-
to-width ratio. Keyholing also minimizes the problem of beam reflection from the shiny
molten metal surface since the keyhole behaves like a black body and absorbs the majority
of the energy. In some applications, inert gas is used to shield the molten metal from the
atmosphere.

The metal vapor that occurs may cause a breakdown of the shielding gas and creates
a plasma in the region of high-beam intensity just above the metal surface. The plasma
absorbs energy from the laser beam and can actually block the beam and reduce melting.

Use of an inert gas jet directed along the metal surface eliminates the plasma
buildup and shields the surface from the atmosphere.

The welding characteristics of the laser and of the electron beam are similar. The
concentration of energy by both beams is similar with the laser having a power density in
the order of 106 watts per square centimeter. The power density of the electron beam is only
slightly greater. This is compared to a current density of only 104 watts per square centimeter
for arc welding.

Laser beam welding has a tremendous temperature differential between the molten
metal and the base metal immediately adjacent to the weld. Heating and cooling rates are
much higher in laser beam welding than in arc welding, and the heat-affected zones are much
smaller. Rapid cooling rates can create problems such as cracking in high carbon steels.
 12

Experimental work with the laser beam welding process indicates that the normal
factors control the weld. Maximum penetration occurs when the beam is focused slightly
below the surface. Penetration is less when the beam is focused on the surface or deep within
the surface. As power is increased the depth of penetration is increased.

1.4 TYPES OF LASER WELDS

1. Conduction mode welding

2. Conduction/penetration mode
3. Penetration or keyhole mode

Figure 1.3 Types of Laser Welds

1.4.1 Conduction Welding

Performed at lower energy levels forming a wide and shallow weld nugget.There
are two modes:

direct heating: heat flow is governed by classical thermal conduction from a

surface heat source. The weld is made by melting portions of the base material. Can be
made using pulsed ruby and CO2 lasers using a wide range of alloys and metals. Can also
use Nd:YAD and diode lasers.

energy transmission: energy is absorbed through novel inter-facial absorption

methods.An absorbing ink is placed at the interface of a lap joint. The ink absorbs the laser
beam energy, which is conducted into a limited thickness of surrounding material to form a
molten inter-facial film that solidifies as the welded joint. Butt welds can be made by
 13

directing the energy towards the joint line at an angle through material at one side of the
joint, or from one end if the material is highly transmissive.

Conduction/penetration welding occurs at medium energy density and results in

more penetration.

The keyhole mode welding creates deep narrow welds. In this type of welding the
laser light forms a filament of vaporized material known as a “keyhole” that extends into
the material and provides conduit for the laser light to be efficiently delivered into the
material.

The direct delivery of energy into the material does not rely on conduction to
achieve penetration, so it minimizes the heat into the material and reduces the heat affected
zone.

1.4.2 Penetration Laser Welding

The laser forms a hole that is sealed by the molten material behind the laser. The
result is called a keyhole weld.

Figure 1.4 Laser Keyhole Weld Diagram

1.5 METALS USED IN LASER WELDING

The laser beam has been used to weld:

1. Carbon Steel
2. Aluminum
 14

3. Titanium
4. Low alloy and stainless steel
5. Nickel
6. Platinum
7. Molybdenum
8. Kovar

Laser welds made in these materials are similar in quality to welds made in the
same materials by electron beam process.

Experimental work using filler metal is being used to weld metals that tend to
show porosity when welded with either EB or LB welding. Materials 1/2 in. (12.7 mm)
thick are being welded at a speed of 10.0 in. (254.0 mm) per minute.

1.6 PROCESS VARIATIONS

Figure 1.5 Arc Augmented Laser Welding Diagram

In arc augmented laser welding the arc from a TIG or MIG torch is mounted close
to the laser beam interaction point. The TIG torch will automatically lock onto the laser
generated hot spot.

The temperature required for this phenomenon is around 300C above the
surrounding temperature. The effect is either to stabilize an arc which is unstable due to its
traverse speed or to reduce the resistance of an arc which is stable.
 15

The locking only happens for arcs with a low current and therefore slow cathode jet
for currents less than 80A. The arc is on the same side of the workpiece as the laser which
allows doubling of the welding speed for a modest increase in the capital cost.

1.7 FACTORS AFFECTING WELD SHAPE

1.7.1 Power Density

One of the most important parameters is the power density of the incident laser
beam. This is defined as the power of the laser beam / beam area on the upper surface of the
workpiece. The definition of the cross-sectional area of the laser beam is not always
straightforward. Some lasers, such as the CO2 lasers, have laser beams which are comprised
of different TEM modes; the TEM00 mode, being the most prevalent, has a gaussian
intensity distribution. The diameter of such a beam is defined as being where the intensity
has dropped to 1/e2 of the intensity in the centre of the beam.13 The Nd:YAG and diode
lasers, however, if guided onto the workpiece through an optic fibre, produce a beam which
has a top-hat intensity distribution and a well defined beam size.

1.7.2 Welding Speed

The welding speed obviously affects the energy input per unit volume of the
workpiece. In order to produce a melt pool at all not only must sufficient energy to heat and
melt the metal be supplied, but the rate of power input must exceed the power loss, primarily
by conduction through the base metal. If the power input is excessive, however, complete
penetration of the workpiece may occur, with loss of material through the lower surface
(melt through), or even complete removal of metal under the beam (as in cutting). To achieve
a good weld, therefore, it is necessary to balance the power input from the laser beam (power
density) against the speed at which it is traversed across the workpiece.

If the speed is too high for a given laser power, insufficient energy is absorbed to
produce a large melt pool. If the speed is too low, large amounts of heat are wasted by
conduction into the base metal. The melting efficiency (described in section 2.3) is indicative
of the optimum use of energy for the production of a weld.5 The shape and quality of the
weld is also affected by welding speed. As the speed increases, the welding mode changes
from deep penetration welding to conduction welding. At high speeds conduction welding
 16

occurs and the weld pool is shallow. At low speeds (provided the power density is great
enough) deep penetration welding occurs and the weld pool is very deep and narrow.28 At
too high a welding speed, the keyhole becomes unstable and non-uniform penetration occurs.
Establishing a stable keyhole is important for the production of a good weld.

1.7.3 Laser Beam Divergence and Focal Plane

A further factor which affects the power density is the beam divergence. The laser
beam is focused to a small spot by a lens. Changes in the position of this spot with respect
to the surface plane of the workpiece clearly cause a change in the power density of the beam
on the surface. The penetration depth and weld pool geometry is consequently greatly
influenced by such variations. A defocused beam produces welds with a much lower
penetration than one which is focused on the surface of the workpiece.

When the defocus is such that the power density is close to the threshold for keyhole
formation, a stable keyhole is not formed and the pool shapes can be very variable.20 It has
also been found that focusing in a plane above the surface results in a rapid reduction in
penetration depth, but this is much less apparent with distance below the surface, within the
material.

A fairly constant penetration for defocus values of up to -2.5mm have been obtained
using a 120mm focal length lens.29 Tsukomoto et al.30 found the penetration to decrease
rapidly at defocus values greater than 2mm above the surface, and much more slowly for
values <-2mm. The sharp reduction in penetration and weld pool size when the beam is
focused above the surface was attributed to the high beam intensity in the region of the
shielding gas and metal vapour. The gas absorbs energy from the beam and forms a plasma
when the power density exceeds a critical value (see section 5 below); this process is less
significant when the beam is focused below the surface of the material and the beam intensity
above the surface is lower.

1.8 FLOW RATE AND TYPE OF SHIELDING GAS

Assist gases are needed to run most laser applications, either as a cutting gas,
supporting the cutting process, or as a shielding gas, protecting a surface from the
atmosphere during laser welding and surface treatment. It is also needed to control plasma
formation during high-power laser welding and to protect the focusing optics from fumes
 17

and spatter.36 He or Ar are generally used as shielding gases, as they are inert and do not
react with the weld metal.

The high energy-density laser beam vaporises the workpiece during the welding
process. Some of the vaporised metal atoms become ionised and forma a metal plasma just
over the metal surface. Similarly, a plasma composed of shielding gas ions often forms above
it, along the path of the laser beam. These plasmas absorb, diffuse and, if the critical electron
density is reached, reflect the incident radiation, causing severe attenuation of the incident
laser power (inverse Bremsstrahlung effect) and degrading the optical properties of the
beam.

This results in a lower quality weld and reduced penetration depth.17,30 the plasma
also emits radiation over a large spectral range, which contributes to surface heating,
(particularly in the UV where the absorptivity of metal is high).23 The increased scattering
of the beam over the top surface is responsible for producing welds with cross-sectional
shapes which resemble a nail-head, with a wide upper section and a narrow, parallel-sided
lower section. Narrow, straight-sided melt pools have been produced by a CO2 laser,
operating under partial vaccum, which suppressed plasma formation.

In CO2 laser welding a gas plasma has been observed to form only when the laser
power exceeds a critical density of about 6.6x105 W/cm2. The precise value depended on
gas flow rate and increased with flow rate.30 The effect of shielding gas on penetration depth
has been investigated using a 2kW CO2 laser to produce bead on plate welds in AISI 1018
carbon steel at various welding speeds (1-35 cm/s). The observed penetration depths are
given below as a percentage of the theoretical maximum possible depth:

The attenuation factor was constant for a given shielding gas for the range of
welding speeds tested here, though this is not necessarily true for all laser conditions. Plasma
formation is usually avoided by the use of a gas stream directed at an angle onto the molten
surface. However, determination of the appropriate nozzle diameter and angle of flow is
often difficult. The penetration depth of the welds has been found to decrease with
decreasing flow rate (from 70 to 10 l/min), particularly in the case of Ar as the shielding
gas.30 This is caused by an increase in the size of the gas plasma plume.

One effective gas flow system that has been proposed had many small orifices
which produced a turbulent flow of gas both above and below the workpiece. The only
 18

parameter which needed to be adjusted and controlled was the gas flow rate. It's disadvantage
was its high gas consumption. For an Ar flow rate>20 litres/min the plasma was inhibited
completely. Welds with no pores or other defects could be produced with a CO2 laser.

When using He as the shielding gas, sound welds could be made at high speeds
(2.5-4.75 m/min) in plates of thickness 1.25, 0.75 and 0.5mm.17 As the plasma formation is
a function of laser power density,30 it is important to ensure that the laser beam is not
brought to a focus above the plane of the specimen.

The weld pool size has been observed to be greater when the beam is focused within
the plate; the lower beam intensity above the plate results in less absorption by the formation
of a plasma in the gas phase above the plate.

The choice of shielding gas depends on e.g. gas shielding device, laser power and
intensity, material thickness and quality requirements. He is better at suppressing plasma
formation and is generally used for CO2 laser welding. Ar is generally used for Nd:YAG
laser welding

1.9 ADVANTAGES OF LASER WELDING

1. Works with high alloy metals without difficulty

2. Can be used in open air
3. Can be transmitted over long distances with a minimal loss of power
4. Narrow heat affected zone
5. Low total thermal input
6. Welds dissimilar metals
7. No filler metals necessary
8. No secondary finishing necessary
9. Extremely accurate
10. Produces deep and narrow welds
11. Low distortion in welds
12. High quality welds
13. Can weld small, thin components
14. No contact with materials
 19

1.10 LIMITATIONS OF LASER WELDING

1. Rapid cooling rate may cause cracking in some metals

2. High capital cost for equipment
3. Optical surfaces of the laser are easily damaged
4. High maintenance costs
 20

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

Over the years a lot of research has been done in the area of dissimilar welding and
many interesting results have been brought up with regards to the problems encountered in
dissimilar welding. With dissimilar welding finding its use in nuclear, petrochemical,
electronics and several other industrial domains, this section brings into account the work of
the predecessors in this field.

It is a fact that the essential force to originate sliding a material is better than that to
continue motion so the coefficient of static friction becomes greater than coefficient of
dynamic friction. It is detected that the choice of standards of frictional forces varies by
orders of scale dependent on the span of the tenders, macroscopic or microscopic.

Torkamany et al. [1] reported the effect of dissimilar laser welding mode on microstructure
and mechanical performance of low carbon–austenitic stainless steel and revealed that the
size of fusion zone and dilution percentage of low carbon∗steel is highly dependent on the
transition of laser welding mode from conduction to keyhole. The notched-tensile strength
(NTS)of dissimilar LBW of plain carbon steel and AISI 316 was investigated by Anawa and
Hashmi (2006), who reported that the tensile strength of the dissimilar joint can be controlled
by laser power and welding speed.

Marashi et al. [2] studied the failure behaviour of dissimilar resistance spot welds and
concluded that the mechanical performance of the welded joint is highly influenced by the
fusion zone characteristics.

Paventhan et al. [3] reported the fatigue behaviour of a friction welded carbon steel–
stainless steel dissimilar joint and concluded that the formation of an intermetallic phase is
a result of alloying element diffusion at the weld inter-face.

Sun and Moisio et al. [4] Investigated the laser beam welding of austenitic/ferritic
dissimilar joints using a nickel based filler wire and concluded that dilution from low alloyed
steel substantially influenced the final microstructure.
 21

Chengwu et al. [5] in their work on weld interface microstructure and mechanical properties
of copper-steel dissimilar welding, the microstructure near the interface between Cu plate
and the intermixing zone was investigated. Experimental results showed that for the welded
joint with high dilution ratio of copper, there was a transition zone with numerous filler
particles near the interface. However, if the dilution ratio of copper is low, the transition
zone is only generated near the upper side of the interface. At the lower side of the interface,
the turbulent bursting behaviour in the welding pool led to the penetration of liquid metal
into Cu. The welded joint with lower dilution ratio of copper in the fusion zone exhibited
higher tensile strength.

Jiang and Guan [6] studied the thermal stress and residual stress in dissimilar steels. They
suggested that large residual stresses are induced by welding in the weld metal and heat
affected zone (HAZ), which superimpose and increase the thermal stress.

Gyun Na, Kim and Lim [7] studied the residual stress and its prediction for dissimilar welds
at nuclear plants using Fuzzy Neural network models. The factors that have an impact upon
fatigue strength are residual stress, stress concentration, the mechanical properties of the
material, and its micro and macro structure.

Gyun Na et al. [8] stated that residual stress is one of the most important factors but its
effect on high-cycle fatigue is of more concern than the other factors. Residual stress is a
tension or compression that exists in a material without any external load being applied, and
the residual stresses in a component or structure are caused by incompatible internal
permanent strains. Welding, which is one of the most significant causes of residual stress,
typically produces large tensile stresses, the maximum value of which is approximately equal
to the yield strength of materials that are joined by lower compressive residual stresses in a
component. The residual stress of welding can significantly impair the performance and
reliability of welded structures. The integrity of welded joints must be ensured against
fatigue or corrosion during their long use in welded components or structures.

Khan et al. [9] studied laser beam welding of dissimilar stainless steels in a fillet joint
configuration and during the study metallurgical analysis of the weld interface was done.
Fusion zone microstructures contained a variety of complex austenite ferrite structures.
Local micro-hardness of fusion zone was greater than that of both base metals. The welding
fusion zone microstructure consists of mostly primary ferrite dendrites with an inter-
dendritic layer of austenite.This austenite forms through a peritectic–eutectic reaction and
 22

exists at the ferrite solidification boundaries at the end of solidification. Some lathy ferrite
morphology is also observed in this zone. This is due to restricted diffusion during ferrite–
austenite transformation that results in a residual ferrite pattern.

Khan et al. [10] came to the conclusion that formation of ferrite along the austenite grain
boundary in the heat affected zone on austenite side is observed. At the same time,
microstructures are composed of two-phase ferrite and martensite with intra-granular carbide
on ferrite side. Also the variation in local micro-hardness observed across the weld depends
on the fraction intermix of each base metal and the redistribution of austenite- and ferrite-
promoting elements in the weld.

Itoh et al. [11] got a patent on the joined structure on the dissimilar metallic materials. This
invention relates generally to a joined structure of dissimilar metallic materials having
different characteristics. More specifically, the invention relates to a joined structure of a
current carrying contact or arching contact which are used for, e.g., a power breaker, or a
coating end structure of a metal base and a coating material for improving conductivity and
heat resistance.

Delphin et al. [12] studied the effect of thermal and weld residual stresses on CTOD (Crack
Tip Opening Displacement) in elastic-plastic fracture analysis. They stated that structures
may fail because of crack growth both in welds and in the heat affected zone (HAZ). The
welding process itself induces residual stresses in the weld and HAZ, which contribute to
crack growth.

Delphin et al. [13] used a non-linear thermoplastic finite element model to simulate the
circumferential weld in a relatively thin-walled stainless steel pipe. After the pipe had cooled
down after welding a circumferential surface crack was introduced. The crack, located in the
centre of the weld, was subjected to two types of loads. Firstly, the welded pipe was
subjected to a primary tensile load, and then to a secondary thermal load and stated that the
choice of hardening model is important. It is believed that kinematic hardening is a better
choice than isotropic hardening in low cycle simulations i.e. in a few-pass welding process,
as in the present study. For the case of weld residual stresses in combination with high
thermal stresses, it is found that the plasticity induced by the thermal stresses is not sufficient
to suppress the influence of weld residual stresses on CTOD, even for very high thermal
loads. The residual stresses can be relaxed by unloading from a primary tensile load.
 23

Mai and Spowage [14] did their work on characterisation of dissimilar joints of steel-kovar,
copper-steel and aluminium-copper. It was stated in their work that joining of dissimilar
materials is one of the challenging tasks facing modern manufacturers. Dissimilar metal
welding technologies find application in many sectors such as micro-electronics, medical,
optoelectronics and microsystems. The tiny geometry of the joints and the different optical
and thermal properties of the materials makes laser welding one of the most suitable
production methods. Also high temperature gradients in a welding may result in martensitic
reactions leading to excessive hardness in the fusion zone. The X-ray stress analysis
technique was unable to resolve the stress variations generated by the different processing
parameters used. In similar steel welds the residual stress at the centre of the weld pool has
been reported to be close to the material yield strength.

Colegrove et al. [15] studied the welding process impact on residual stress and distortion.
Their work seeks to understand the relationship between heat input, fusion area, measured
distortion and the residual stress predicted from a simple numerical model, and the residual
stresses is validated with experimental data. Residual stress is caused by the compressive
yielding that is occurring around the molten zone when the material is heated and its
expansion during welding. When the weld metal cools it gets contracted which results to a
tensile residual stress, primarily in the longitudinal direction. After the welding is over, a
residual tensile stress is present across the weld centreline which causes a balancing
compressive stress away from the weld zone. The tensile residual stress on the weld
centreline decreases the fatigue strength and toughness, especially when combined with any
of the notches or other defects related to the weld bead.

Mohammed Asif et. al [16] presents an approach based on Taguchi method and Grey
relational analysis to optimize process parameters of friction welding of UNS31803 duplex
stainless steel. The main objective is to maximize mechanical properties like tensile strength,
hardness and impact toughness and to minimize corrosion rate. Heating pressure, heating
time, upsetting pressure and upsetting time were the four process parameters taken each at
three levels. According to Taguchi quality design concept, an L9 orthogonal array was
selected for experiments. The best combination of process parameters was found by both
Taguchi method and Grey relational analysis. The influence of the process parameters on
overall quality characteristics of the friction welding process was evaluated by the analysis
of variance (ANOVA) method. The confirmation test results with optimal parameters
confirmed the effectiveness of the proposed method in this study. Later, comparison was
 24

done between Taguchi method and Grey relational analysis on the basis of improvement in
multi-response signal to noise (S/N) ratio over initial process parameters.

P.Sathiya et al. [17] Friction welding of austenitic stainless steel (AISI 304) and
optimization of the welding parameters to establish weld quality was done. Austenitic
stainless specimens were welded using the laboratory model friction welding machine. Aural
emission originated during the tension test from the joints was acquired to evaluate the
quality of the joints. They also proposed a genetic algorithm to decide near optimal
configurations of process parameters. The tensile tests showed that the weld joints exhibited
similar strength with the base material. The post welding analysis showed increase in
hardness due to recrystallization.

J. Adamowski et al. [18] analyzed the mechanical properties and micro structural variations
in Welds in the AA 6082-T6 with varying process parameters. Tensile test of the welds was
done and relation among the process parameter was judged. Microstructure of the weld
interface was observed under optical microscope. Also, micro hardness of the resulting joint
was measured. It was observed that test welds show resistance to increment of welding
speed, Hardness reduction was observed in weld nugget and heat affected zone (HAZ). The
reason for this occurrence was the kinetic and thermal asymmetry of the FSW process. An
initial stage of a longitudinal, volumetric defect was found at the interface of weld nugget
and TMAZ. The hardness was inferior to that of fusion welding. Tunnel (worm hole) defects
were found in the nugget zone.

2.2 CONCLUSIONS FROM LITERATURE REVIEW

The main challenge for the manufacturer is how to change the process input
parameters that would produce an excellent weld joint. Laser welding process parameters
such as laser power, welding speed, shielding gas and focal distance affect the quality of
welded samples. A number of researchers have reported on applying optimized process
values such as welding speed, laser power, and beam intensity to achieve a superior weld
joint quality. . In this study, austenitic stainless steel with low carbon steel can be joined by
using laser machine without using filler materials. The effect of the laser process parameters
laser power, welding speed and shielding gas flow rate on the weld joint tensile strength has
been investigated.
 25

CHAPTER 3

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

3.1 PROBLEM FORMULATION

The literature review reflects that in the welding operation, the input parameters
such as laser power, welding speed, shielding gas affects the physical characteristics of weld
strength.

Some research work has been reported in this regard for various work materials
such as High-Chromium-High-Carbon die steel, magnesium alloys, alluminium alloys,
A319, SS316 L, stainless steel and carbon steel, Inconel 718, AISI1040 steels etc. However
there is critical need for exploring these issues in welding of AISI316L to E250BR joint for
which almost few work has been reported.

3.2 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY

1. To study the effects of input parameters such as laser power, welding speed,
shielding gas on the tensile strength during welding operation on AISI316L to E250BR joint
as work material using RSM DOE approach.

2. Parametric optimization of laser welding operation for optimizing tensile strength

using Response Surface Methods (RSM).

3.3 SCOPE OF STUDY

This work covers the study of complete welding operation on AISI316L to E250BR
joint used as work material and more strength variation is given to the response as it is
capable to respond fast with the changing input parameters, and these input parameters
should be compatible with these new technological changes.

A performance measurement frame work has been developed for this study based
on extensive review of literature on "Design of Experiment (DOE) approach and Response
Surface Method (RSM)". Laser welding is one of the most prevalent welding techniques in
industrial applications. In this study the input parameters which are responsible (significant)
for major changes in response variable are identified by using MINITAB software.
 26

CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

In this chapter, laser welding process is briefly explained along with experimental
procedure followed, parameters chosen, mechanical properties, chemical composition of
work material. The laser welding AISI316L and E250BR dissimilar joint was carried out at
different operating parameters combination. The chosen variables and their levels are
discussed.

4.1 LASER WELDING

The CO2 laser is commonly used type of solid-state laser in many fields at present
because of its good thermal properties and easy repairing. The generation of short pulse
duration in laser is one of the researcher areas. CO2 is chosen for most materials processing
applications because of the high pulse repetition rates available. The power supply of pulsed
CO2laser is designed to produce a maximum average power. The beam quality and output
power are depending on length of resonator. The beam quality is important to the laser
designer because the quality of a given beam profile depends on the application for which
the beam is intended. The beam quality can be improved by inserting an aperture inside the
resonator in order to reduce the effective radius of the gain medium [19]. CO2laser can be
used for direct energy conduction welding of metals and alloys; the absorptive of metals
increases as wavelength decreases. Since conduction welding is normally used with
relatively small components, the beam is delivered to the work piece via a small number of
optics. Simply beam defocusing to a projected diameter that corresponding to the size of
weld to be made [19].

4.1.1 Processing parameters

Processing is normally carried out at room temperature in a clean environment.

Appropriate fixture is needed to ensure that the parts do not move relatively to one another
welding to prevent misalignment and the formation of gap. Molten weld metals are protected
from environmental contamination by a quiescent blanket of inert shielding gas such as
argon.
 27

4.1.2 Base Materials

The rectangular specimens are equally prepared with a size of 100mm (length) x 75
mm (width) x 3mm (thickness) austenitic stainless steel AISI 316L to High Strength Low
Alloy Steel (HSLA) specimens. The austenitic stainless steel 316L presence of nickel
(11.9%), along with chromium (16.25%), enhances its corrosion [26, 27]. In high pressure
boilers, alloy materials are used for making the super heater and economizer. The cost of
alloy steel is very high and hence in order to reduce the cost, the alloy steels may be mutual
with low carbon steel [28]. Most commonly used austenitic stainless steel contain 18%
chromium and 8% nickel. They have an excellent corrosion resistance, weldability,
formability fabricability, ductility, cleanability and hygiene characteristics. Along with good
high and excellent low temperature properties, these are non-magnetic and are hardenable
by cold work only.

All dimensions are in mm

Figure 4.1 The Graphical Representation Austenitic Stainless Steel

Especially welded products, made with 316 steel that require superior intra granular
corrosion resistance. Grade 316, the low carbon version of 316 and is immune from
sensitization (grain bounding carbide precipitation). Thus, extensively used in heavy gauge
welded component. The type 316L stainless steel chemical composition is detailed below.
 28

Table 4.1 Chemical Composition of Stainless Steel (Grade 316L)

Type 316L stainless steel (Base metal)

Elements C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni N

Wt% 0.03 0.75 2.0 0.045 0.03 18.0 3.0 14.0 0.1

As the carbon content increases, along with manganese, and especially when
chromium and molybdenum are added, the potential for hardening during welding increases.
To prevent hardening, the steel may be pre-heated a few hundred degrees. On cooling, the
pre-heated steel now has time to transform to some phase other than martensite by the time
it reaches room temperature. This reduces hardness and internal stresses. Steel in the range
of 0.30-0.50% carbon usually requires some preheat, along with low hydrogen welding
practice. Preheat and inter pass temperatures in the 200-400°F range cover most medium
carbon steels. Alloy steels such as low carbon steel may require preheat in the 300-450°F
range, the chemical composition of low carbon steel is given below. They are,

Table 4.2 Chemical Composition of HSLA

Elements C Si Mn P S Al Ce

Wt% 0.14 0.19 0.7 0.02 0.021 0.022 0.257

4.1.3 Laser source

The CO2 laser welding system was used and presented in Figure 4.2. The laser beam
having a maximum peak power 10 kW and standard pulse to pulse stability ±3%. The laser
fibre diameter 600 µm and standard fibre length 10 m. The laser beam was focused by using
a copper mirror of focus length 200 mm.

4.1.4 Shielding Gas

The pure Argon gas at flow rate of 1.5 bar to 2.5 bar are supplied through a tube of
4 mm diameter in experimentation purpose with the nozzle angle 450 and standoff distance
being 5 cm.
 29

Figure 4.2 Laser Beam Welding Experimental Setup

4.2 EXPERIMENTAL PARAMETERS

There are a number of process parameters which affect the quality, size and
properties of laser weld. Experiments have been carried out using both continuous wave
lasers and pulsed lasers. In the case of cw lasers, the only parameters relating to the laser
beam are laser power, beam size and shape on the workpiece, position of the focal plane of
the beam with respect to the surface of the workpiece, power density (power/beam size),
wavelength of the laser beam, beam divergence (focal length of the focusing lens), and
intensity distribution of the beam. For pulsed lasers there are in addition the parameters:
pulse energy, pulse repetition rate, pulse duration, mean laser power (pulse energy x pulse
repetition rate), average peak power (pulse energy/pulse duration), average peak power
density (average peak power/spot area), pulse shape. Other important parameters are: the
welding speed (seam and stitch welds), welding time (spot welds) and length of weld (stitch
welds).

The amount of power in the incident laser beam which is actually absorbed (rather
than reflected) by the material is dependent on the material and surface properties. The
amount then used to produce a melted weld pool depends on the heat capacity and flow
characteristics. Material related properties include: heat capacity, heat conductivity, surface
reflectivity, melting temperature, thickness of material, physical orientation of weld (vertical
or horizontal). Another set of parameters are related to the gas used to shield the welding
process: type of gas, flow rate of gas, angle of gas flow to workpiece, nozzle designs. This
review will be confined to continuous wave lasers only.
 30

The design technique helps us to study many factors (Process parameters)

simultaneously and most economically. In this work, experiments are planned as per Box-
Behnken Design (BBD). The austenitic stainless steel 316L to HSLA 3 mm sheets to be
welded by using CO2 laser beam welding system. Three level and three factors were used in
this experiment. They are laser power, welding speed and shielding gas flow rate of LBW.
Large numbers of trial runs were carried out using dissimilar materials to determine optimum
values of LBW process parameters. From the trial runs the most suitable parameters were
identified which is listed Table 1.

Table 4.3 Process Parameters and Their Actual Values

Factor Level
Factors Notation Unit
Low Medium High

Laser power P W 1500 1600 1700

Welding Speed S m/min 1.5 2 2.5

Gas flow rate G Lit/min 15 20 25

Table 4.4 Process Parameters

Laser power Welding Speed Gas Flow Rate

Run Order
(W) (m/min) (Lit./min)

1 1600 2 20

2 1700 1.5 20

3 1500 1.5 20

4 1700 2.5 20

5 1600 2 20
 31

6 1600 2.5 25

7 1600 1.5 15

8 1500 2 15

9 1700 2 25

10 1700 2 15

11 1600 2 20

12 1500 2.5 20

13 1600 1.5 25

14 1600 2.5 15

15 1500 2 25

4.3 HARDNESS OBSERVATION

Figure 4.3 Micro Vickers Hardness Tester Setup

 32

The micro-Vickers hardness tester was used to measure the hardness of welded
specimen after welding operation was carried out. The load applied on workpiece could be
within a range of 1 to 10 kg according to the need. The Micro Vickers hardness testing
equipment of Wilson Wolpert – Germany make used in this study (shown in Figure 4.3) with
a least count of 0.01 mm and hardness scales of HV, HRA, HRC, 15N, 30N.

4.4 TENSILE TESTING

The transverse tensile specimens are prepared as per ASTM E8M-04 guidelines and
the specimens after wire cut Electro Discharge Machining as shown figure 4.4

Figure 4.4 Tensile Test Specimen

Figure 4.5 Tensile Testing Machine with Sample

 33

4.5 MICROSCOPIC IMAGING EQUIPMENT

Welded specimens were studied for microstructural characteristics post welding for
understanding the metallurgical behavior of specimen. The De-Wintor Inverted Trinocular
Metallurgical microscope was used in this study as shown in Figure 3.67. It is capable of
reading the microstructure with a resolution from 50X till 1000X having a wide range of
measurement from 200 μm to 10 μm. It is useful in studying the following features:

• Phase contrast study and evaluations.

• Grain size measurements

• Phase segmentations

• Inclusion rating as per international standards.

• Case depth

• Nodularity in different S.G. irons.

• Characteristics of different type of flaked graphite’s.

• Porosities evaluations in given area.

• Nature of grains and it percentages in given matrix.

• Crack length and propagations.

• De carburized depth.

• Study of wear pattern with standards.

Figure 4.6 De-Wintor Inverted Trinocular Metallurgical Microscope

 34

4.6 SEM IMAGING EQUIPMENT

A Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that

produces images of a sample by scanning the surface with a focused beam of electrons. The
electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that contain
information about the surface topography and composition of the sample. Welded specimen
were studied SEM image for understanding the topography as shown in Figure 4.7.

Figure 4.7 Scanning Electron Microscope Test Set Up

4.7 XRD TESTING EQUIPMENT

Welded specimen were studied for X-ray powder diffraction characteristics post
welding for understanding the used for phase identification of a crystalline material and can
provide information on unit cell dimensions of specimen. The Rigaku miniflex 600 X-ray
diffraction test set up was utilized in this study as seen in Figure 4.8.
 35

Figure 4.8 Rigaku miniflex 600 X-ray Diffraction Test Set Up

 36

CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The disparate weld joints utilizing AISI316L and E250BR work material have been
completed after Box-Behnken plan of analyses approach. From the work, the mechanical
property estimation of tensile and hardness were estimated. This section sums up the
conversation on the mechanical properties acquired.

5.1 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The feasibility in the welding of dissimilar joint using laser welding process by
varying the weld speeds in three levels is discussed in this section. The optimization and
prediction of laser weld process parameters in the welding of 316L to HSLA steels joint is
also presented in detail in this chapter. In order to evaluate the weldability of 316L to HSLA
steels welded joints and to evaluate the effect of weld speed for laser welding of 316L to
HSLA steels is investigated by varying the welding speed as 1 m/min, 1.5 m/min and 2
m/min, varying the laser power 1500 W, 1600 W and 1700 W, by varying the gas flow rate
15 Lit/min, 20 Lit/min and 25 Lit/min.

The tensile testing samples were prepared from the welded specimens according to
ASME Section IX-2010 test methods and they were tested in 400 kN Universal Testing
Machine. The tensile strength of the joints was evaluated and the results are presented in
Table 5.1. Fractures have occurred for all the tensile tests samples in the base metal region.

A total of fifteen experiments were conducted at different levels of parameters to

obtain a laser beam welded joints of specimens. The values of weld strength obtained from
experiments from response surface model are tabulated in table 5.1.

5.2 TENSILE TEST RESULTS

The tensile test examples as appeared in Figure 5.1 has been removed of the welded
tests by means of wire cut electric release machining measure (appeared in Figure 5.2). The
ductile example was cleaned and perfectly cleaned for testing. The ductile test was
completed in an aligned elastic analyzer and the equivalent is appeared in Figure 5.3. Trial
results were recorded for every example at the hour of disappointment. The Table 5.1 shows
the tensile results for comparable material weld joint made of AISI316L and E250BR.
 37

Figure 5.1 Standard Tensile Specimen with Dimensions

Figure 5.2 Actual Tensile Specimens

Figure 5.3 Tensile Testing of Sample

 38

Experimental tensile results were recorded for each specimen in the Table 5.1 for
dissimilar material weld joints made of AISI316L and E250BR. The results represented a
highest value of tensile strength of 478.02 N/mm2 and least value of 449.23 N/mm2. The
highest value was observed for the input combination of 1700 W, 2 m/min and 15 lit/min
input parameter in the laser equipment. Similarly, the least value was observed for the input
combination of 1600 W, 1.5 m/min and 15 lit/min parameter combinations.

Table 5.1 Tensile Results

Laser power Welding Speed Gas Flow Rate Tensile strength

Run Order
(W) (m/min) (Lit./min) (MPa)

1 1600 2 20 470.85

2 1700 1.5 20 459.55

3 1500 1.5 20 453.5

4 1700 2.5 20 466.1

5 1600 2 20 468.2

6 1600 2.5 25 453.3

7 1600 1.5 15 449.23

8 1500 2 15 464.35

9 1700 2 25 467.2

10 1700 2 15 478.02

11 1600 2 20 469.2

12 1500 2.5 20 464.9

13 1600 1.5 25 456.65

14 1600 2.5 15 468.25

15 1500 2 25 469.3
 39

Figure 5.4 Main Effect Plot for Tensile Strength (MPa)

5.3 HARDNESS TEST RESULTS

In light of the focal composite plan, 20 preliminaries were led and their hardness
esteems were recorded in Table 5.2. The welded tests were deliberately taken care of in the
setting up the example for hardness estimation according to ASTM guidelines. The example
was set up by wire cut EDM activity of welded workpiece and surface was all around cleaned
to be liberated from machining garbage.

The cleaning was completed by ceaseless scouring of different evaluations of

grating sheets on to the machined surface of test. Vickers sort of hardness was chosen to suit
the need of utilization with shifting burden and workpiece measurements of 100 mm x 50
mm x 3mm utilizing round and hollow space apparatus pin.

Experimental results were recorded for each specimen in the Table 5.1 for
dissimilar material weld joints made of AISI316L and E250BR. The results were represented
a highest value of hardness for 358.5 and least value of 347.12. The highest value was
observed for the input combination of 1700 W, 2 m/min and 15 lit/min input parameter in
the laser equipment. Similarly the least value was observed for the input combination of
1600 W, 1.5 m/min and 15 lit/min parameter combinations.
 40

Table 5.2 Hardness Results

Laser power Welding Speed Gas Flow Rate Micro Hardness

Run Order
(W) (m/min) (Lit./min) (VH)

1 1600 2 20 356.11

2 1700 1.5 20 352

3 1500 1.5 20 349.33

4 1700 2.5 20 354.33

5 1600 2 20 355.78

6 1600 2.5 25 349.21

7 1600 1.5 15 347.12

8 1500 2 15 353.11

9 1700 2 25 354.54

10 1700 2 15 358.5

11 1600 2 20 353.77

12 1500 2.5 20 353.1

13 1600 1.5 25 350.63

14 1600 2.5 15 354.97

15 1500 2 25 355
 41

Figure 5.5 Main Effect Plot for Microhardness

 42

CHAPTER 6

RESPONSE SURFACE METHODOLOGY & OPTIMIZATION

Cycle improvement, advancement and accomplishment of wanted outcomes

through different factual techniques were followed during the previous century. A cutting-
edge approach with an aggregate strategy joining both the factual and numerical
methodology valuable in dynamic cycle was the Response surface technique (RSM). It
utilized the qualities of before referenced strategies to configuration, create and plan the
exploratory space considered for any examination works. It additionally helps being
developed of more current items, and lib of existing items or cycles. The field of reaction
surface philosophy comprises of the test methodology for investigating the space of the cycle
or free factors exact factual demonstrating to build up a suitable approximating connection
between the reactions and the cycle factors, and streamlining techniques for finding the
levels or estimations of the cycle variables that produce attractive estimations of the
reactions. This part manages the itemized investigation of the erosion mix welding carried
on weld joints of AISI316L and E250BR.

6.1 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)

It is one of the measurable procedures utilized in checking the methods for more
number of information gatherings. It profoundly centers around testing speculation
considered for the experimentation. It deals with the guideline of complete change assessed
between assembled information. The change noticed is isolated as segments owing to various
wellsprings of variety. It checks about the effect of number of elements considered by
contrasting the methods gathered from various example space. This could work as an
exploratory device to clarify the perceptions recorded. Here Anova is utilized to test whether
the input space picked for the examination is substantial or not and afterward clarifies how
they impact the outcomes. In light of the outcomes saw in past sections, the Anova Tables
6.1-6.2 were outlined keeping standard measurable techniques

6.1.1 ANOVA of Tensile Strength

The ANOVA analysis indicates that the most significant parameters of the laser
beam welding of 3mm thickness dissimilar welding factor when considering the ultimate
tensile strength. Mathematical predictive model of response surface methodology approach
 43

have been developed to accurately predict the desire responses. The suitable response models
for the response factors are selected based on the fit summaries. Table 6.1 quadratic model
statistically fitted to the experimental data to obtain from the regression equation.1. The
Model F-value of 66.55 implies the model is significant.

There is only a 0.01% chance that a "Model F-Value" this large could occur due to
noise. Values of "Prob > F"less than 0.0500 indicate model terms are significant. In this case
A, B, C, B2 AC, BC are significant model terms. Values greater than 0.1000 indicate the
model terms are not significant. If there are many insignificant model terms (not counting
those required to support hierarchy), model reduction may improve your model. All the
above consideration indicates the adequacy of the developed relationship.

Table 6.1 ANOVA Table for Tensile Strength

P-
Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value
Value

Model 9 865.706 96.19 66.55 0

Linear 3 206.513 68.838 47.63 0

Welding Speed (m/min) 1 138.778 138.778 96.02 0

Laser power (W) 1 44.274 44.274 30.63 0.003

Gas Flow Rate (Lit./min) 1 23.461 23.461 16.23 0.01

Square 3 462.657 154.219 106.7 0

Welding Speed
(m/min)*Welding Speed 1 420.332 420.332 290.82 0
(m/min)

Laser power (W)*Laser power

1 18.949 18.949 13.11 0.015
(W)

Gas Flow Rate (Lit./min)*Gas

1 14.251 14.251 9.86 0.026
Flow Rate (Lit./min)

2-Way Interaction 3 196.536 65.512 45.33 0

 44

Welding Speed (m/min)*Laser

1 5.881 5.881 4.07 0.1
power (W)

Welding Speed (m/min)*Gas

1 128.482 128.482 88.89 0
Flow Rate (Lit./min)

Laser power (W)*Gas Flow

1 62.173 62.173 43.02 0.001
Rate (Lit./min)

Error 5 7.227 1.445

Lack-of-Fit 3 3.645 1.215 0.68 0.642

Pure Error 2 3.582 1.791

Total 14 872.933

6.1.2 ANOVA of hardness

The ANOVA analysis indicates that the most significant parameters of the laser
beam welding of 3mm thickness dissimilar welding factor when considering the ultimate
hardness. Mathematical predictive model of response surface methodology approach have
been developed to accurately predict the desire responses. The suitable response models for
the response factors are selected based on the fit summaries. Table 6.2 quadratic model
statistically fitted to the experimental data to obtain from the regression equation.1. The
Model F-value of 81.22 implies the model is significant.

There is only a 0.01% chance that a "Model F-Value" this large could occur due to
noise. Values of "Prob > F"less than 0.0500 indicate model terms are significant. In this case
A, B, C, B2 AC, BC are significant model terms. Values greater than 0.1000 indicate the
model terms are not significant. If there are many insignificant model terms (not counting
those required to support hierarchy), model reduction may improve your model. All the
above consideration indicates the adequacy of the developed relationship.
 45

Table 6.2 ANOVA Table for hardness

Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value

Model 9 134.017 14.8907 81.22 0

Linear 3 32.25 10.75 58.64 0

Welding Speed (m/min) 1 8 8 43.64 0.001

Laser power (W) 1 21.125 21.125 115.23 0

Gas Flow Rate (Lit./min) 1 3.125 3.125 17.05 0.009

Square 3 71.517 23.8389 130.03 0

Welding Speed
(m/min)*Welding Speed 1 1.083 1.0833 5.91 0.059
(m/min)

Laser power (W)*Laser power

1 65.391 65.391 356.68 0
(W)

Gas Flow Rate (Lit./min)*Gas

1 5.391 5.391 29.41 0.003
Flow Rate (Lit./min)

2-Way Interaction 3 30.25 10.0833 55 0

Welding Speed (m/min)*Laser

1 1 1 5.45 0.067
power (W)

Welding Speed (m/min)*Gas

1 9 9 49.09 0.001
Flow Rate (Lit./min)

Laser power (W)*Gas Flow

1 20.25 20.25 110.45 0
Rate (Lit./min)

Error 5 0.917 0.1833

Lack-of-Fit 3 0.25 0.0833 0.25 0.858
Pure Error 2 0.667 0.3333
Total 14 134.933
 46

6.2 RESPONSE SURFACE MODELLING

In modern industrial world, plenty of situations prevail with the involvement of

more than one input variables. These variables will show influence on the final product or
process or desired results in really prospective fashion. This performance measure or quality
characteristic is called the response. RSM provides a versatile application of such response.
Modern industrial or real world situations involve several responses at once and are
subjected to change their effect on results. In this approach, the input parameters are often
referred to as independent variable / regressor.

The RSM elaborates the problem considered in a simple, but elegant graphical way.
This led to the term ‘Response Surface Modelling’ or ‘Response Surface Methodology’.
Common problems would involve only simple response functions which could be easily
arrived to final solutions. Unfortunately, these functions for most of the industrial
applications were unknown and yet to be explored. Here, the same approach has been
followed in understanding the FSW design space with the impact of input parameters over
the mechanical property results.

The influence of independent variables on hardness was analysed statistically by

Anova. However, the relationship between the input parameters and response were not
clearly explained with that approach. On the same way, perturbation analysis was also used
for identification of generalized solution from the original solution. It states about the
dependency of input variables over output responses. However, the relationship between the
input parameters and output responses were not clearly explained. This could be easily
achieved by the response surface models developed in Figure 6.1 & 6.2.

6.2.1 RSM for Tensile Strength

The Figure 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3 shows about the relation between the input parameters
laser power (W), Welding speed (m/min), gas flow rate (lit/min) and output tensile strength
of the joints developed from dissimilar base metals AISI316L and E250BR.

Tensile strength of the welded joint is maximum of about 478.02 N/mm2 when the
welding speed and laser power is intermediate at 2 m/min and maximum at 1700 W
respectively as seen in Figure 6.1. The parameters welding speed and laser power both show
parabolic relation with tensile strength. Maximum value is observed for intermediate and
maximum value of parameters. Either independent or simultaneous increase in value of both
 47

would tend to decrease tensile strength of welded joint. The same could be seen in Figure
6.1. Minimum tensile strength output was observed for 1700 W laser power and 2 m/min
welding speed.

Figure 6.1 Response Surfaces Developed for Tensile Strength of Weld Joint with
Reference to Welding Speed, Laser Power Vs. Tensile Strength

Figure 6.2 Response Surfaces Developed for Tensile Strength of Weld Joint with
Reference To Gas Flow Rate, Laser Power vs. Tensile Strength
 48

The tensile strength showed similar trend for rotational speed as in the former
combinational analysis. Maximum laser power at minimum gas flow rate had an increasing
impact on the tensile strength of the joints as seen in Figure 6.2. The maximum value of
tensile strength (478.02 N/mm2) could be perceived for maximum laser power of 1700 W
and minimum of gas low rate 15 lit/min. Increase in gas flow rate resulted in decrease of
tensile strength. Minimum tensile strength was observed at maximum gas flow rate of 25
lit/min and 1700 W of laser power.

Figure 6.3 Response Surfaces Developed for Tensile Strength of Weld Joint with
Reference to Gas Flow Rate, Welding Speed vs. Tensile Strength

from figure 6.3 relationship between welding speed and gas flow rate with tensile
strength can be witnessed. The higher value of tensile strength (≈478.02 N/mm2) can be seen
at minimum gas flow rate (15 lit/min) and maximum welding speed (25m/min). Similarly,
minimum tensile strength value could be evidenced for minimum value of both gas flow rate
(15 lit/min) and welding speed (1.5 m/min) combination. Gas flow rate has very lesser
impact on strength and change rate is negligible compared to the increment value. Raising
the welding speed at lower gas flow rate, resulted in maximum strength.
 49

6.2.2 RSM for hardness

The Figure 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6 shows about the relation between the input parameters
laser power (W), Welding speed (m/min), gas flow rate (lit/min) and output tensile strength
of the joints developed from dissimilar base metals AISI316L and E250BR.

Hardness of the welded joint is maximum of about 358.5 N/mm2 when the welding
speed and laser power is intermediate at 2 m/min and maximum at 1700 W respectively as
seen in Figure 6.4. The parameters welding speed and laser power both show parabolic
relation with hardness. Maximum value is observed for intermediate and maximum value of
parameters. Either independent or simultaneous increase in value of both would tend to
decrease hardness of welded joint. The same could be seen in Figure 6.4. Minimum hardness
output was observed for 1700 W laser power and 2 m/min welding speed.

Figure 6.4 Response Surfaces Developed for Hardness of Weld Joint with Reference
to Welding Speed, Laser Power Vs. Hardness
The Hardness showed similar trend for rotational speed as in the former
combinational analysis. Maximum laser power at minimum gas flow rate had an increasing
impact on the hardness of the joints as seen in Figure 6.5. The maximum value of hardness
(358.5 N/mm2) could be perceived for maximum laser power of 1700 W and minimum of
 50

gas low rate 15 lit/min. Increase in gas flow rate resulted in decrease of hardness. Minimum
hardness was observed at maximum gas flow rate of 25 lit/min and 1700 W of laser power.

Figure 6.5 Response Surfaces Developed for Hardness of Weld Joint with Reference
to Gas Flow Rate, Laser Power Vs. Hardness

Figure 6.6 Response Surfaces Developed for Hardness of Weld Joint with Reference
to Gas Flow Rate, Welding Speed vs. Hardness
 51

From Figure 6.6 relationship between welding speed and gas flow rate with
hardness can be witnessed. The higher value of hardness (≈358.5 N/mm2) can be seen at
minimum gas flow rate (15 lit/min) and maximum welding speed (25m/min). Similarly,
minimum hardness value could be evidenced for minimum value of both gas flow rate (15
lit/min) and welding speed (1.5 m/min) combination. Gas flow rate has very lesser impact
on strength and change rate is negligible compared to the increment value. Raising the
welding speed at lower gas flow rate, resulted in maximum strength.

Also reported interactions plots for tensile strength and micro hardfness shown in
Figure 6.7 & 6.8.

Figure 6.7 Interaction Plot for Tensile Strength

Figure 6.8 Interaction Plot for Hardness Strength

 52

Figure 6.9 Contour Plot for Tensile Strength vs Gas Flow Rate, Laser Power

Figure 6.10 Contour Plot for Tensile Strength vs Welding Speed, Laser Power
 53

Figure 6.11 Contour Plot for Tensile Strength vs Welding Speed, Gas Flow Rate

Figure 6.12 Contour Plot for Micro Hardness vs Gas Flow Rate, Laser Power
 54

Figure 6.13 Contour Plot for Micro Hardness vs Welding Speed, Laser Power

Figure 6.14 Contour Plot for Micro Hardness vs Welding Speed, Gas Flow Rate
 55

6.3 REGRESSION EQUATION MODELLING

The regression equation is an elegant way of representing the working of any

physical phenomenon that is happening. In this process, the results are considered as
dependent variable and inputs are treated as independent variables or regressor. These
regressor have the capability to vary on their own without disturbing any other input variable
involved in the formulation of system equations.

The regression or prediction equation is formed on the basis of Anova approach

discussed earlier. Based on the contribution of individual regressor and their combinational
effect on output, different terms of the equation will be formed. The hardness and tensile
strength can be predicted using the regression Equations (6.1) & (6.4) for similar and
dissimilar material weld joints.

Tensile strength (MPa) = 379 - 0.495 Laser power (W) + 263.2 Welding Speed (m/min)
+ 19.95 Gas Flow Rate (Lit./min)
+ 0.000227 Laser power (W)*Laser power (W)
- 42.68 Welding Speed (m/min)*Welding Speed (m/min)
- 0.0786 Gas Flow Rate (Lit./min)*Gas Flow Rate (Lit./min)
- 0.0242 Laser power (W)*Welding Speed (m/min)
- 0.00788 Laser power (W)*Gas Flow Rate (Lit./min)
- 2.267 Welding Speed (m/min)*Gas Flow Rate
(Lit./min)….(6.1)

In dissimilar weld joints, tensile strength can be predicted using the Equation (6.1)
with R-squared value of 0.991, Pred R-squared value of 0.924. The standard deviation of the
reading was observed to be 1.20. The ‘Pred R-squared’ value was in reasonable agreement
with that of ‘Adj R-squared’ value of 0.976. Hence, this model can be used for analyzing the
design space.

Microhardness = 223.7 - 0.0833 Laser power (W) + 104.58 Welding Speed (m/min)
+ 8.408 Gas Flow Rate (Lit./min) + 0.000054 Laser power (W)*Laser
power (W)
- 16.833 Welding Speed (m/min)*Welding Speed (m/min)
- 0.04833 Gas Flow Rate (Lit./min)*Gas Flow Rate (Lit./min)
- 0.01000 Laser power (W)*Welding Speed (m/min)
 56

- 0.003000 Laser power (W)*Gas Flow Rate (Lit./min)

- 0.9000 Welding Speed (m/min)*Gas Flow Rate
(Lit./min)…………..(6.2)

In dissimilar weld joints, hardness can be predicted using the Equation (6.2) with
R-squared value of 0.993, Pred R-squared value of 0.952. The standard deviation was
observed to be 0.428. The ‘Pred R-squared’ value was in reasonable agreement with that of
‘Adj R-squared’ value of 0.981. Hence, this model can be used for analyzing the design
space.

6.4 VALIDATION OF REGRESSION MODEL

The validation of the regression model developed using the above analysis
procedure is presented in this section. The Equations (6.1) & (6.4) were used for predicting
the mechanical property results by substituting input parameter values. Simple mathematics
were used for estimating the resultant values. The predicted values and experimental values
were compared in Figure 6.15 & 6.16.

Figure 6.15 Validation of Regression Model for Tensile Strength

 57

The tensile strength for dissimilar materials weld joints (AISI316L and E250BR)
could be easily predicted successfully by the Equation (6.1). The R-squared value is 0.991
and predicted values are comparatively presented in Figure 6.15 The confidence level of this
equation was 95% and only 5% possibility was allowed for error. The confidence level is
higher than 85% and the same can be used for predicting the results within the operating
range of experimentation.

Figure 6.16 Validation of Regression Model for Hardness

The hardness for dissimilar materials weld joints (AISI316L and E250BR) could be
easily predicted successfully by the Equation (6.2). The R-squared value is 0.993 and
predicted values are comparatively presented in Figure 6.16. The confidence level of this
Equation was 95% and only 5% possibility was allowed for error. The confidence level is
higher than 85% and the same can be used for predicting the results within the operating
range of experimentation.

6.5 PERTURBATION ANALYSIS

The numerical arrangement of hypothesis helpful in deciding the rough arrangement of a

given issue at circumstances where the chance of recognizing careful arrangement couldn't
be resolved/previously existing. The quest for the estimate bounces from careful answer for
the given issue. The plan space considered would group the basic issue into either 'resolvable'
 58

or 'perturbative'. This hypothesis is very well valuable in assortment of designing

applications and zones of quantum field hypothesis.

Figure 6.17 Perturbation Analysis for Hardness

Figure 6.18 Perturbation Analysis for Tensile Strength

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The Figure 6.17 shows that weld hardness of dissimilar weld joint of AISI316L and
E250BR could be prejudiced by the chosen input parameters within the range considered.
The inputs welding speed (A), Laser power (B) and Gas flow rate (C) had a good amount of
influence on hardness of dissimilar weld joints of AISI316L and E250BR metal plates. The
hardness of dissimilar joints had a noteworthy impact by welding speed (A). The same could
be seen by the curve A of Figure 6.17. The descending order of parameters impacting on
hardness could be represented as A > C > B.

The deviation of tensile strength with the chosen input parameters could be seen in
Figure 6.18 welding speed (A), Laser power (B) and Gas flow rate (C) taken for the
experiment had a substantial effect on the tensile strength of AISI316L and E250BR welded
joint. The descending order of parameters impacting on hardness could be represented as A
> C > B.

6.6 OPTIMIZATION USING DESIRABILITY

The desirability for results obtained vary with respect to the circumstances and
criteria will be framed accordingly to the objective functions. The regression Equations
developed earlier were considered to be objective functions for optimization. In this analysis
approach, the function for weld hardness was assigned with ‘maximization’ condition.
Similarly, ‘maximization’ condition was assigned for the tensile strength function.

Figure 6.19 Optimized Result for Weld Joint (desirability)

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The desirability value for achieving the expected response were estimated to be 0.98.
Optimized process parameters were estimated to be 1694.4 W laser power, 2.14882 m/min
welding speed and gas flow rate of 16.778 lit/min. The optimized results were estimated as
357.99 for weld hardness and 477.92 N/mm2 for tensile strength of weld joints.
 61

CHAPTER 7

MICROSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

7.1 MICROSTRUCTURE AND EDAX

In order to observe the microstructure under SEM specimens was cut from the weld
by the wire cut EDM process and sample were prepared. A scanning electron
microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by
scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample,
producing various signals that can be detected and that contain information about the
sample's surface topography and composition.

The electron beam is generally scanned in a raster scan pattern, and the beam's
position is combined with the detected signal to produce an image. SEM can achieve
resolution better than 1 nanometer. Specimens can be observed in high vacuum, low vacuum
and in environmental SEM specimens can be observed in wet conditions. The most common
mode of detection is by secondary electrons emitted by atoms excited by the electron beam.

Figure 7.1 Scanning Electron Microscope Testing Machine (SEM)

Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS, EDX, or XEDS) is an analytical

technique used for the elemental analysis or chemical characterization of a sample. Its
characterization capabilities are due in large part to the fundamental principle that each
element has a unique atomic structure allowing unique set of peaks on its X-ray spectrum.
To stimulate the emission of characteristic X-rays from a specimen, a high-energy beam of
charged particles such as electrons or protons or a beam of X-rays, is focused into the
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sample. An atom within the sample contains ground state electrons in discrete energy levels
or electron shells bound to the nucleus. An electron from an outer, higher-energy shell then
fills the hole, and the difference in energy between the higher-energy shell and the lower
energy shell may be released in the form of an X-ray. The number and energy of the X-rays
emitted from a specimen can be measured by an energy-dispersive spectrometer. As the
energy of the X-rays is characteristic of the difference in energy between the two shells, and
of the atomic structure of the element from which they were emitted, this allows the
elemental composition of the specimen to be measured.

Figure 7.2 Micro Structure of Welded Zone

Tensile test was performed using an universal testing machine. The tensile specimens
were made using a wire cut Electro Discharge Machining (EDM). Thickness of the tensile
specimens is 3 mm.
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Figure 7.3 Presentation of Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy line analyses.

The weld bead cross sectional surfaces specimen were observed using SEM. The
SEM micrographs of the base metal and fusion zone of joint made with a laser power 1700
W, welding speed 2m/min and shielding gas flow rate 15 lit/min. The formation of very fine
grains in weld region and moderate precipitates are the main reason for higher tensile
strength of the above joint.

Figure 7.4 Microstructure of HAZ

 64

Figure 7.4 shows the whole microstructure of the high strength low alloy it can be
observed that ferrite mixed with pearlite structure is predominant near the weld interface on
high strength low alloy side.

Figure 7.5 Microstructure of Weld Zone

Figure 7.6 Microstructure of Haz On Stainless Steel

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Figure 7.5 shows the weld zone has formed such that the stainless steel has melted
favourably to the HSLA. However, the solidification structure of the substance fusion zone
was predominantly fine columnar dendrites which had been nucleated at the fusion line and
grown toward the center of the molten pool.

Figure 7.6 shows the optical micrograph of dissimilar laser welded joints with
different laser welding process parameters. The entire dissimilar laser-welded stainless steel
heat affected zone (HAZ) is consisting of courser austenite; twin structure and little carbide
precipitation were seen in the grain boundary of HAZ to fusion boundary of stainless steel
side.
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CHAPTER 8

BUDGET

Table 8.1 Budget Information

S. NO. ITEM DESCRIPTION QUANTITY ACTUAL COST

no’s Rs.
MATERIAL
1. 5 Kg 2500
(AISI316L& E250BR)

2. WELDING PROCESS 20 no’s 10,000

3. TENSILE TEST 15 no’s 2000

4. MICRO HARDNESS 15 no’s 2000

MICROSTRUCTURE
5. 2 no’s 1000
ANALYSIS

7. SEM 1 no’s 1000

8. TOTAL 18,500
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CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION

In this study investigates the optimization of laser beam welding process parameters
through Response Surface Methodology (RSM) based on Box–Behnken. Laser beam
welding process parameters like laser power, welding speed and shielding gas flow rate on
the maximum tensile strength of dissimilar metal joints were determined in this parametric
study.

• The maximum ultimate tensile strength 478.02 MPa obtained by the

conditions like laser power (1700 W), shielding gas flow rate (15 lit/min) and
welding speed (2 m/min).
• A conformation experiment was also conducted in order to validate the
optimal process parameters values.
• The developed relationship can be effectively used to predict the tensile
strength of laser beam welded joints at 95% confidence level.
• The dissimilar weld zone consisting columnar dendrites along with few
amount chromium carbides.
• The maximum ultimate hardness 358.25 obtained by the conditions like laser
power (1700 W), shielding gas flow rate (15 lit/min) and welding speed (2
m/min).
• The developed relationship can be effectively used to predict the micro
hardness of laser beam welded joints at 95% confidence level.
 68

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

1. Rajkumar.T, Sabari Venkatesh.M, Thilagan.T, Udhaya Raja Sundaram.R,

Vignesh.I, “Enhancing the Mechanical and Metallurgical Properties of Dissimilar
Laser Weld Joint” ICRACME, DMI college of engineering, Chennai.
 69

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