Project Report

“FATIGUE CHARACTERIZATION OF A356-SiCp BASED METAL
MATRIX COMPOSITES”
A project report Submitted to
P.E.S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, MANDYA

(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTE AFFILIATED TO VTU, BELGAUM)
In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
(COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING)
2013-2014
Submitted by
SATISH H S [4PS12MCM12]
Under the guidance of
Dr. S.L.AJIT PRASAD M.Tech, Ph.D.

Professor and Head of the Department of Mechanical Engineering,
P.E.S.C.E, MANDYA.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
P.E.S COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING
MANDYA-571401
(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTE AFFILIATED TO VTU, BELGAUM)
CERTIFICATE
Certified that, Mr. SATISH H S bearing university seat number 4PS12MCM12 has
satisfactorily completed the project preliminary report entitled “FATIGUE
CHARACTERIZATION OF A356-SiCp BASED METAL MATRIX
COMPOSITES” in partial fulfillment for the award of degree Master of Technology in
Mechanical Engineering, P.E.S.C.E, Mandya during the year 2013-2014. The Project has
been approved as it satisfies the academic requirements in respect of project work
prescribed for the Degree in Master of Technology.
Signature of the Guide Signature of the HOD

Dr. S.L. AJIT PRASAD Dr. S.L. AJIT PRASAD
Dr. V. SRIDHAR
Principal, P.E.S.C.E, Mandya
Details of Project Work Viva Voice Examination held
Examiners
Sl. No. Date
Name Signature
1
2
DECLARATION
I, SATISH H S hereby declare that this dissertation work entitled

“FATIGUE CHARATERIZATION OF A356-SiCp BASED METAL MATRIX
COMPOSITES” has been independently carried out by me under the guidance of
Dr. S.L.AJIT PRASAD, Professor and Head of the Department Mechanical
Engineering, P.E.S. College of Engineering, Mandya in the partial fulfillment of the
requirement of the degree Master of Technology in Mechanical Engineering (Computer
Integrated Manufacturing).
I further declare that I have not submitted this dissertation either in part or full to
any other university for the award of any degree or diploma.
Place: Mandya SATISH H S

Date:
This project is affectionately
Dedicated to
My dear parents,
teachers
&
Loving
friends
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Before introducing my thesis work, I would like to thank the people without whom
the success of this thesis would have been only a dream.
I have a great pleasure in expressing my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness

to Dr. S.L.AJIT PRASAD, Professor and Head of the Department Mechanical
Engineering, P.E.S. College of Engineering, Mandya for his guidance, constant
supervision and his interest and precious help in the completion of my project work.
I would like to extend my sincere thanks to Dr. V. SRIDHAR, Principal, P.E.S.

College of Engineering, Mandya for permitting me to carry out this project work.
I am sincerely thankful to Mohana kumar K.C, Abhinandan K.S, Ashok

kumar M.S and Vikram C.K for their support and guidance to carry out this project.
I am thankful to Mr. G.C. Krishnappa Naik, Grindwell Norton LTD, for

providing the SiC particles to carry out this project.
I thank all the staff members of Mechanical, Industrial and production department,
P.E.S. College of Engineering, Mandya for their co-operation in the timely completion of
my project work.
I thank Mr. Ravi, Mr. Nagaraju Foreman, Chandru, Chennegowda, Mahesh

and Mr. Y.H. Nagaraju for their co-operation during the project work.
Also I express my deep sense of gratitude to my parents and also to my friends,

who have supported me during the project work.
SATISH H S
ABSTRACT
Composite materials are increasingly replacing traditional engineering materials

because of their advantages over monolithic materials. The development of metal matrix
composite has been one of the major innovations in the materials in the recent times. The
Metal Matrix Composite is a material which consists of metal alloy reinforced with
continuous fibers, whiskers, or particulates of ceramics. These MMCs are widely being
used in the transport, aerospace, marine, automobile and mineral processing industries,
owing to their improved strength, stiffness and wear resistance properties.
Aluminium alloy is the most commonly used matrix for the metal matrix
composites. The ceramic particles reinforced aluminium composites are termed as new
generation material and these materials can be tailored and engineered with specific
required properties for specific application requirements. Among metal-ceramic particle
composite, aluminium-graphite, aluminium-alumina and aluminium-silicon carbide
particles can possess improved wear resistance, high temperature hardness and strength.
In the present study, A356 with 0%, 5% and 10% SiC p MMC material was fabricated
using stir casting (vortex method) method. The vortex method is one of the better known
approaches used to create and maintain a good distribution of the reinforcement material
in the matrix alloy. The cast composites were carefully machined to prepare the test
specimens for hardness, tensile tests, and fatigue test as well as for micro structural
studies as per ASTM standards. Microstructural analysis of cast specimens has been
carried out to investigate the influence of processing parameters.
From the tests conducted for characterization of mechanical properties, composite

material specimens have been found to possess enhanced hardness and tensile strengths
compared to matrix alloy specimens, while at the same time, losing ductility as compared
to matrix alloy.
Also from the fatigue test performed it is found that fatigue life of the composite
with 5% SiCp as reinforcement has longer fatigue life compared with 0% and 10% SiCp.
Also fatigue life has increased with decrease in the neck diameter of composite with 5%
SiCp at identical stress condition.
CONTENTS Page no.
Acknowledgement
Abstract
List of Figures I
List of Tables III
Nomenclature IV
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1-4
CHAPTER 2: THEORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW 5-41
2.1 COMPOSITE MATERIAL 5
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS 6
2.2.1 Based on the form of reinforcement component 6
2.2.2 Based on the structure of the matrix materials 8
2.3 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES 9
2.3.1 Merits of MMCs 11
2.3.2 Demerits of MMCs 11
2.4 ALUMINIUM MATRIX COMPOSITES 11
2.5 PROCESSING TECHNIQUES OF MMC 13
2.5.1 Solid state processing 13
2.5.2 Liquid state processing 14
2.6 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDER DURING STIR CASTING 17
2.6.1 Distribution of the reinforcement materials 17
2.6.2 Wettability of reinforcement 19
2.6.3 Porosity in cast metal matrix composites 20
2.7 MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 21
2.8 FATIGUE CHARACTERIZATION 22
2.8.1 Mechanism of Fatigue failure 24
2.8.2 The Stress life approach and The Strain life approach 26
to determine the fatigue life
2.8.3 Factors affecting Fatigue behaviour 27
2.8.4 Establishing S-N curve 29
2.9 LITERATURE REVIEW 30
CHAPTER 3: OBJECTIVE AND METHODOLOGY 42-44
3.1 OBJECTIVE 42
3.2 WORK PLAN 43
3.2 METHODOLOGY 44
CHAPTER 4: EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS 45-55
4.1 WORK MATERIAL DETAILS 45
4.2 PROCESSING DETAILS 47
4.2.1 Fabrication of Al-SiCp metal matrix composites 47
4.2.2 Procedure to fabricate composites 49
4.3 MATERIAL CHARACTERISATION 50
4.3.1 Microscopy 50
4.4 MECHANICAL CHARACTERISATION 51
4.4.1 Rockwell Hardness Number (RHN) 51
4.4.2 Measurement of Tensile strength 52
4.4.3 Fatigue characterization 53
CHAPTER 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 56-68
5.1 MICROSTRUCTURAL STUDY 56
5.1.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 56
5.2 MECHANICAL CHARACTERISATION 57
5.2.1 Hardness 57
5.2.2 Tensile strength 58
5.3 FATIGUE CHARATERIZATION 62
5.3.1 Stress Calculations 62
5.3.2 Fatigue life of the Composites with varying 63
the percentage of the reinforcement
5.3.3 Fatigue life of the Composites with 5%SiC 65
with varying the Neck diameter
5.3.4 Fatigue fractured surface SEM analysis 68
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS 69
SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK 70
REFERENCES 71
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig Page
No. CAPTION No.
2.1 Classification Based On The Form Of The Reinforcement 6
2.2 Types of reinforcement materials in composites 7
2.3 Classification of composite materials based on matrix materials. 8
2.4 Schematic representation of stir casting process 15
2.5 Different types of stirrer used in stir casting 18
2.6 A sketch of three degrees of wetting and the corresponding contact angles 20
2.7 S-N relationship for ferrous and non-ferrous alloys 25
2.8 Typical S-N relationship 26
3.1 Schematic diagram of work plan 43
4.1 Electrical heating furnace 47
4.2 Permanent spilt mould 48
4.3 Alumina- sodium silicate powder coated stirrer 48
4.4 Al Raw ingot material 49
4.5 Slag Remover 49
4.6 Degasser hexachloroethane C2Cl6 tablet 50
4.7 Cast Aluminium composites 50
4.8 Scanning Electron Microscope 51
4.9 Tensile testing machine 52
4.10 Tensile specimen according to ASTM B557 standard 53
4.11 Tensile test specimen 53
4.12 Rotary Bending machine 54
4.13 Fatigue test Specimen according to ASTM E446 54
4.14 Fatigue testing machine and loading diagram 55
5.1(a) 0%SiC cast-1000X 56
5.1(b) 5%SiC with 23μm cast-1000X 56
5.1(c) 10%SiC with 23μm cast-1000X 56
5.2 RHN of Base alloy and Composites 57
5.3(a) Load v/s Displacement (elongation) of 0% SiCp 58
5.3(b) Load v/s Displacement (elongation) of 5% SiCp 58
5.3(c) Load v/s Displacement (elongation) of 10% SiCp 59
5.4(a) Stress-Strain diagram of 0% SiCp 59
5.4(b) Stress-Strain diagram of 5% SiCp 60
5.4(c) Stress-Strain diagram of 10% SiCp 60
5.5 Proof Stress of base alloy and composites 61
5.6 Tensile strength of base alloy and composites 61
5.7 Strain to failure of base alloy and composites 61
5.8 Fatigue life of Base Alloy(0% SiCp) 63
5.9 Fatigue life of Composite with 5% SiCp 63
5.10 Fatigue life of Composite with 10% SiCp 64
5.11 Comparision of the Fatigue life of Composite with 0%SiCp, 5%SiCp & 10% 64
SiCp
5.12 Fatigue life of Composite with 5% SiCp having Neck dia 4mm 65
5.16 Comparision of the Fatigue life of Composite with 5%SiCp having varying 67
neck diameter
5.17 Fatigue Fractured Surface of 0% SiC reinforced in A356 Matrix (1000X) 68
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
No. CAPTION No.
4.1 Mechanical properties of A356 45
4.2 Chemical composition of A356 46
4.3 Mechanical properties of SiC 46
4.4 Technical Specifications of Rotating Bending Fatigue Tester 55
5.1 RHN of as cast and extruded composites 57
NOMENCLATURE
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials
Al Aluminium
SiC Silicon Carbide
PMC Polymer matrix composite
MMC Metal Matrix Composite
CMC Ceramic Matrix Composite
AMC Aluminium Metal Matrix
DRA Discontinuously Reinforced Aluminium
N Load in Newton
µ Microns
m Meter
σ Stress
ε Strain
E Young’s Modulus
M Bending moment
RHN Rockwell Hardness Number
F Imposed load in N
Kg Kilo gram
d Neck diameter of the Fatigue specimen
SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy
1000X 1000 times magnification

“FATIGUE CHARACTERIZATION OF A356-SiCp BASED METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES”
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The engineering fraternity has always been on the lookout for wonder-materials
which would fit the bills for all types of service conditions. It stem from the need to make
progressive discoveries made by scientists, affordable. This affordability quotient has
persuaded many researchers to develop such materials which would satisfy various
hitherto unexplored conditions. In today’s world almost all generic materials have been
tried for various uses and their limitations have been met. But the never ending quest of
civilization requires that materials qualify for harsher environments. This unavoidable
situation demands that new materials be created from various combinations of other
compatible materials. It is to be noted here that this method is not new; it has been with
mankind since ages. In every part of the world, various materials have been combined to
achieve some intended properties, albeit each case differs from the others, i.e. one can
create new materials with unique properties, which can be tailor-made and are different
from their base ingredients. This concept holds true for a genre of materials called
Composite materials where in, various types of matrices may be combined with
reinforcements which contribute to the enhancement of the properties.
A composite material is a combination of two or more chemically different
materials with a distinct interface between them. The constituent materials maintain their
separate identities in the composite, yet their combination produces properties and
characteristics that are different from those of the constituents. One of these constituents’
forms a continuous phase and it is called as the matrix. The other major constituent is the
reinforcement phase available in the form of fibers or as a particulate in general, added to
the matrix to improve or alter the matrix properties. Reinforcement by a particulate forms
a discontinuous phase uniformly distributed throughout the matrix. Therefore, composites
have improved mechanical properties such as strength and toughness when compared
with monolithic materials.
Neither the matrices nor the reinforcements taken alone can stand up to the
requirement, but the composite may be able to do so. This alteration in properties can be
controlled by many ways, viz. controlling the matrix and reinforcement quality, their
M.Tech, Thesis 2013-2014 Dept. of Mechanical Engg, P.E.S.C.E, Mandya 1

proportion or the fabrication route. This flexibility in manufacturing allows one to
develop composites with varying properties in a precisely controlled fashion.
The main advantage of a composite material over conventional material is the
combination of different properties which are not often found in the conventional
materials. The extraordinary combination properties include high strength to weight ratio,
higher stiffness to weight ratio, improved fatigue resistance, improved corrosion
resistance, higher resistance to thermal expansion, higher wear resistance and fracture
toughness etc. There are a number of situations in service that demand an unusual
combination of properties. Further, the present day trend is to go in for light weight
constructions for easy handling and reduced space, aesthetic appearance and high
resistance to weathering attack. These factors have propelled the modern designers to
develop newer composite materials up to the stage of large-scale production with exacting
requirements.
It is the superiority of properties that has triggered the penetration of composite
materials into all fields of manufacturing. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) have
emerged as a class of materials suitable for structural, aerospace, automotive, electronic,
thermal and wear applications owing to their advantages over the conventional monoliths.
They score over in terms of specific modulus, specific strength, high temperature
stability, controlled coefficient of thermal expansion, wear resistance, chemical inertness,
etc. But the down side is populated by inferior toughness and high cost of fabrication in
comparison with Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs). But MMCs supersede in terms of
higher transverse strength and stiffness, shear strength and high temperature capabilities.
The physical properties that attract are no moisture absorption, non-flammability, high
electrical and thermal conductivities and resistance to most radiations.
Compositionally, MMCs have at least two components, viz. the matrix and the
reinforcement. The matrix is essentially a metal, but seldom a pure one. Except sparing
cases, it is generally an alloy. The most common metal alloys in use are based on
Aluminium and Titanium. Both of them are low density materials and are commercially
available in a wide range of alloy compositions. Other alloys are also used for specific
cases, because of their own advantages and disadvantages. Beryllium is the lightest of all
structural materials and has a tensile modulus greater than that of steel, but it is extremely
brittle, rendering it unsuitable for general purpose use. Magnesium is light, but is highly
reactive to Oxygen. Nickel and Cobalt based super alloys have also found some use, but
some of the alloying elements present in the matrices have been found to have
undesirable effect(promoting oxidation) on the reinforcing fibers at high temperatures.
Aluminium oxide and silicon carbide powders in the form of fibers and particulates are
commonly used as reinforcements in MMCs and the addition of these reinforcements to
aluminium alloys has been the subject of a considerable amount of research work.
Aluminium oxide and silicon carbide reinforced aluminium alloy matrix composites are
applied in the automotive industries as engine pistons and cylinder heads, where the
tribological properties of these materials are considered important. Therefore, the
development of aluminium matrix composites is receiving considerable emphasis in
meeting the requirements of various industries. Incorporation of hard second phase
particles in the alloy matrices to produce MMCs has also been reported to be more
beneficial and economical due to its high specific strength and corrosion resistance
properties.
Aluminium is the most popular matrix for the metal matrix composites. The
aluminium alloys are quite attractive due to their low density, their capability to be
strengthened by precipitation, their good corrosion resistance, high thermal and electrical
conductivity, and their high vibration damping capacity. They offer a large variety of
mechanical properties depending on the chemical composition of the aluminium matrix.
They are usually reinforced by aluminium oxide, silicon carbide, silicon dioxide,
graphite, boron nitride, boron carbide etc., Aluminium based composites, reinforced with
ceramic particles, offer improvements over the matrix alloy: an elastic modulus higher
than that of aluminium, a coefficient of thermal expansion which is closer to that of steel
or of cast iron, a greater resistance to wear and an improvement in rupture stress
especially at higher temperatures and possibly improved resistance to thermal fatigue.
Following successful demonstration and qualification programmes, AMCs are
now being used in the aerospace industry, which represents a major breakthrough in the
growing acceptance of these composite materials in a market with exceptionally high
levels of technical requirements. AMCs are also recognised as having an important role to
play in high speed machinery applications where increased operating speeds of more than
50% have been achieved. Furthermore, their combination of lightness, fatigue resistance,
and stiffness make them ideal for many sporting applications, such as road and mountain
bicycles.
Applications in the defence sector are also varied and make use of some of the
unique properties offered by AMCs. The strength of hoop-wound tubes is exciting, giving
high burst and collapse strengths. Development is also expected for gun barrel overwraps,
missile bodies, rocket blast pipes and submersibles. Other applications for AMCs will
utilise their thermal and electrical properties, especially in dimensionally stable platforms
and electronic packaging.
The major methods to produce aluminium metal matrix composites are: stir
casting, powder metallurgy, liquid metal infiltration, squeeze casting, rheocasting, and
spray deposition technique. Liquid infiltration is a common process to produce metal
infiltration, which involves a melt liquid infiltration into porous preform. However, the
major problem for the production of these materials is to accomplish the wetting of
reinforcement by the liquid metal, which is very poor and is favoured by strong chemistry
bonding at the interface. The poor wetting is because of the presence of oxide film at the
surface of the aluminium. The wettability is a complex phenomenon that depends on
factors such as geometry of interface, process temperature, soaking time, and it
determines the quality of bonding among the systems.
The objective of developing the Al-SiCp metal matrix composite in the present
study is to derive their potential application in the engineering fields. They are prepared
by making use of stir casting technique. These Al-SiCp MMC is then analysed under
SEM to study the SiC particle distribution in the matrix metal Al356 and also the porosity
defects are being considered. Then an attempt has been made to study the mechanical
properties viz. Hardness, Tensile strength and Fatigue life of the cast composite
specimen.
CHAPTER 2
THEORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 COMPOSITE MATERIAL
A composite material is a bi-phase or multiphase material whose mechanical properties

are superior to those of the constituent materials acting independently. One of the phases is
usually discontinuous, stiffer and stronger and is called reinforcement where as the less stiff and
weaker phase is continuous and is called matrix. Sometimes because of the chemical
interactions or the other processing effects, an additional phase called interface exists between
the reinforcement and the matrix.
Literally the term composite means- a solid material that results when two or more
different substances, each with its own characteristics, are combined to create a new
substance whose properties are superior to those of the original components for any
specific application. The term composite more specifically refers to a structural material
within which a reinforcement material (such as silicon carbide) is embedded. And the
engineering definition would also go alongside- A material system composed of a mixture
or combination of two or more constituents that differ in form or material composition
and are essentially insoluble in each other. In principle, composites can be fabricated out
of any combination of two or more materials-metallic, organic, or inorganic; but the
constituent forms are more restricted. The matrix is the body constituent, serving to
enclose the composite and give it a bulk form. Major structural constituents are fibers,
particulates, laminates or layers, flakes and fillers. They determine the internal structure
of the composite. Usually, they are the additive phase.
When two or more materials are interspersed, there is always a contiguous region.
Simply this may be the common boundary of the two phases concerned, in which case it
is called an interface. A composite having a single interface is feasibly fabricated when
the matrix and the reinforcement are perfectly compatible. On the other end, there may an
altogether separate phase present between the matrix phase and the reinforcement phase.
This intermediate phase is called an inter-phase. In case there is an inter-phase present,
there are two interfaces, one defining the boundary between the matrix and the inter-
phase, and the other between the inter-phase and the reinforcement. The strength of the
composite in such a case is dependent upon the strength of the weakest of the two
interfaces. There are certain advantages of having a preferred inter-phase. Such a
composite with an inter-phase is fabricated if the matrix and reinforcement are not
chemically compatible or if the wettability of the pair is very poor, such a composite is
materialized, by introducing a third material that has good bonding properties,
individually with the matrix and the reinforcement, which would not be possible
otherwise.
More or less, the strength of a composite is a function of the strength of its
interface between the matrix and the reinforcement. The failure of a functional composite
is essentially a result of the failure of the interface. Hence the strengthening mechanism is
the most dominant parameter in successful fabrication of a high strength composite.
Composites differ by their matrix type, reinforcement type, size and form,
composition, temper state, etc. With such a big window available for fabricating a
composite from different constituent materials, it is not uncommon to experiment with
materials with vividly different properties. There are three broadly classified groups of
composites: Polymer Matrix Composite, Metal Matrix Composite and Ceramic Matrix
Composite.
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
2.2.1 Based on the form of the Reinforcement components
Reinforcing Material
Particulate Or Fiber Structural

Whiskers
Continuous fibers Laminates

Large particles
Discontinuous (Short) Sandwich Panels
Dispersions
Aligned or
Random
Fig 2.1: Classification based on the form of the reinforcement
Fig 2.2: Types of reinforcement materials in composites
1) Particulates
Microstructures of metal and ceramics composites, which show particles of one
phase strewn in the other, are known as particle reinforced composites. The shape of the
reinforcements can be square, triangular, or random as shown in Fig 2.2. The size and
volume concentration of the dispersoid distinguishes it from the dispersion.
The dispersed size in particulate composites is of the order of a few microns. The
reinforcement in the matrix materials reinforces the matrix alloy by arresting motion of
dislocations and needs large forces to fracture the restriction created by dispersion.
2) Whiskers
Single crystals grown with nearly zero defects are termed whiskers. They are
usually discontinuous and short fibers of different cross sections made from several
materials like Graphite, Silicon Carbide, Copper, and Iron etc. Whiskers differ from
particles in which, whiskers have a definite length to width ratio which is greater than
one. Whiskers were grown quite incidentally in laboratories for the first time. Initially,
their usefulness was overlooked as they were dismissed as incidental by-products of other
structure. However, study of crystal structures and growth in metals sparked off an
interest in them and also the study of defects that affect the strength of materials, led to
their incorporation in the composites using several methods.
3) Fiber reinforcement
Fibers are the important class of reinforcements, as they satisfy the desired
conditions and transfer strength to the matrix constituent influencing and enhancing their
properties as desired. Glass fibers are the earliest known fibers used to reinforce
materials. Ceramic and metal fibers were subsequently developed and put to extensive
use, to render composites stiffer and more resistant to heat. Fibers fall short of ideal
performance due to several factors. The performance of a fiber composite is judged by its
length, shape, orientation, composition and the mechanical properties of the matrix. The
different types of fibers in use are Glass fibers, Silicon Carbide fibers, High Silica and
Quartz fibers, Alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, Graphite fibers, Boron fibers,
Aramid fibers and multiphase fibers.
2.2.2 Based on the Structure of the Matrix materials
Matrix Material
Polymer Metal Ceramic

Matrix Matrix Matrix
 Thermoplastic  Light metal &alloys  Ceramic

(Al, Mg, Li &Ti) (oxides,
 Thermosets  Refractory Metals Carbide etc)
(Co, W etc)  Carbon
Fig 2.3: Classification of composite materials based on matrix materials
1) Polymer matrix composites (PMC) - Also known as FRP-Fiber reinforced

polymers(or plastic)-these materials use a polymer based resin as the matrix and variety
of fibers such as glass, carbon, and aramid as the reinforcement.
2) Metal matrix composites (MMC) - Increasingly found in the automotive industry,

these materials use a metal such as aluminium as the matrix, and reinforce it with
fibers/particles such as silicon carbide.
3) Ceramic matrix composites (CMC) - Used in very high temperature environments,
these materials use a ceramic as the matrix and reinforce it with short fibers or whiskers
such as those made from silicon carbide and boron nitride.
2.3 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES
The sustained interest to develop engineering materials which could cope with the
raised performance standards, resulted in emergence of a newer class of materials, called
Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs). They constitute a family of customizable materials
with customizable critical property relationships. Such materials are known for their
exceptional high modulus, stiffness, wear resistance, fatigue life, strength-to-weight
ratios, tailorable coefficient of thermal expansion, etc. With these enhancements in
properties, they pose for strong candidature for replacing conventional structural
materials. But what makes them stand apart is the ability to customize their properties to
suit the service requirement. Such advantages have made this group of materials a nice
pick for use in weight-sensitive and stiffness-critical components in transportation
systems.
MMCs can be described as a group of materials in which a continuous metallic
phase (matrix) is combined with one or more reinforcement phases. The aim of such a
composite material is to enhance the suitability of the end product by selectively
enhancing the complimentary properties, and masking the detrimental properties of the
matrix and the reinforcement. While fabricating the MMC, a solid material results when
two or more substances are physically (not chemically) combined to create a new material
whose properties are superior to those of the original substances for a specific application.
The matrix may be a pure metal or any alloy suitable for the intended application.
The reinforcement may be any other material in the form of particulates, whiskers, fibers,
platelets, etc. The most common reinforcements are ceramics having nominal size in the
range of 0.1 to 100 micrometers. But in fact, just about anything suitable for the
application may be utilized as a potential reinforcement. Even though at times, the matrix
and the reinforcement both can be metallic in nature, MMCs are not fabricated by
conventional alloying methods suitable for metals; since, such a process would mar the
essence of a composite. In alloys the phases are not chemically and physically distinct.
But in a composite, such phases are intentionally kept distinct, to exploit the properties of
the constituents to the fullest.
The reinforcing phase is the nominal constituent of a composite. It is the principal
load bearing component in the system. Hence the reinforcements with better mechanical
properties than the matrix materials are chosen while designing a composite. The matrix
is responsible for holding the load-carrying reinforcement together and retaining the bulk
shape of the composite. It also shares some portion of the total load which is transferred
to the reinforcement via the interface or vice versa. It is the effectiveness of the interface
that decides how much load is transferred to and from the matrix.
In MMCs a high degree of interaction between the matrix and the reinforcement is
inherent. The resulting strength is a direct function of effectiveness of the interface
between the matrix and the reinforcement. The character of the interface depends upon
the chemical and mechanical compatibility of the two phases involved. The chemical
incompatibility constraint can be overcome either by opting for a low-temperature
processing route or by selecting stable constituents. The thermal mechanical
incompatibility problem is sorted out by employing a ductile matrix that accommodates
the strain generated by the thermal alterations. Also it helps to select a pair of matrix and
reinforcement having matching coefficient of thermal expansion. However when it is
chemically or thermo-mechanically not feasible to fabricate a composite from a pair of
constituents, an intermediate phase which is compatible with the matrix and the
reinforcement may be introduced in between the two that masks the incompatibility of the
original pair. This interphase prevents the chemical reaction between the matrix and the
reinforcement and/or aids the matrix in accommodating the strain generated due to any
incongruous strain build-up. A soft precipitate-free layer around the reinforcing
particulates limit the propagation of the crack generated at their surface by effectively
reducing the stress value gradually, thereby increasing the ultimate strength.
Metal matrix composites have been under constant development since the days of
the World War-II. They were intended to be used in the aircrafts as structural materials.
After the war ceased, no longer the purpose was the war, rather MMCs found interest in
civilian uses. Today the composites are extensively used in all aspects of life, be it food
packaging, medical implants, military armours, automotive applications, space
applications or just about anything else. This deep penetration of MMCs in a wide
spectrum of application can be attributed to the previously mentioned advantages
associated with them.
Generally MMCs are classified according to type of reinforcement and the
geometric characteristics of the same. In particular, the main classification groups these
composites into two basic categories:
1) Continuous reinforced composites, constituted by continuous fibers or filaments.
2) Discontinuous reinforced composites, containing short fibers, whiskers or particles.
Both reinforcement and matrix are also selected on the basis of what will be the
interface that unites them. This interface can be as a simple zone of chemical bonds (as
the interface between the pure aluminium and alumina), but can also occur as a layer
composed by reaction (matrix/reinforcement) products.
2.3.1 Merits of MMCS
1. Very high specific strength and specific modulus

2. Low thermal coefficient of expansion
3. Retention of properties at high temperatures
4. Higher operating temperature
5. Better capability to withstand compression and shear loading
2.3.2 Demerits of MMCS
1. Difficulty with processing

2. Reduction in ductility.
However, MMCs are not without some drawbacks either. Their inadequate
fracture toughness and damage tolerance, poor ductility, size limitations, inhomogeneity
of properties, isotropy of properties stand as hindrance to their usability front. Continuous
research works are underway to overcome these limitations and explore new possibilities.
2.4. ALUMINIUM MATRIX COMPOSITES
Aluminium is the most popular matrix for the metal matrix composites. The
aluminium alloys are quite attractive due to their low density, their capability to be
strengthened by precipitation, their good corrosion resistance, high thermal and electrical
conductivity, and their high vibration damping capacity. They offer a large variety of
mechanical properties depending on the chemical composition of the aluminium matrix.
They are usually reinforced by aluminium oxide, silicon carbide, silicon dioxide,
graphite, boron nitride, boron carbide etc. In the 1980s, transportation industries began to
develop discontinuously reinforced aluminium matrix composites. They are very
attractive for their isotropic mechanical properties and their low costs. The properties are
inevitably a compromise between the properties of the matrix and reinforcement phases.
It is clear that the composition and properties of the matrix phase affect the properties of
the composite both directly, by normal strengthening mechanisms, and indirectly, by
chemical interactions at the reinforcement/matrix interface. Aluminium based composites,
reinforced with ceramic particles, offer improvements over the matrix alloy: an elastic
modulus higher than that of aluminium, a coefficient of thermal expansion which is closer
to that of steel or of cast iron, a greater resistance to wear and an improvement in rupture
stress especially at higher temperatures and possibly improved resistance to thermal
fatigue.
Research has shown that the addition of SiCp to Aluminium alloys would result in
an increase of modulus, and may also be accompanied by an increase in yield stress
depending upon the alloy composition, heat treatment, and manufacturing method.
Furthermore it helps in increasing resistance to wear, corrosion and fatigue crack
initiation as compared to the performance of the matrix alloy alone. It has been reported
that addition of SiC particulate reinforcement to Aluminium alloys usually lowers the
fracture toughness. However this drop in the fracture toughness has been found to be
caused by the alterations in flow stress, fracture of SiC particulates, poor dispersion of
SiC and a decrease in tensile ductility. Other factors such as the volume fraction of the
reinforcement, matrix alloy chemistry and processing variables have also been found to
affect the composite character. But the interactions of these parameters are yet to be
quantified to an extent that they can be deciphered.
Al-Si alloys are widely used for applications in the mechanical and tribological
components of internal combustion engines, such as cylinder blocks, cylinder heads,
pistons etc., owing to their good castability, high corrosion resistance and low density.
However, they exhibit poor seizure resistance, which restrict their uses in such
mechanical tribological environments. The wear resistance of these alloys can be
enhanced by incorporation of a ceramic phase in the soft aluminium alloy matrix.
Continuous-fiber-reinforced MMCs exhibit highly anisotropic properties, and this result
in a higher cost for the metal working process. Discontinuous silicon carbide particles
reinforced MMCs are particularly attractive because they exhibit good specific properties
and can be produced by conventional metal working processes. Hence they are being
increasingly used in the automotive industry as materials for pistons, brake rotors,
calipers and liner.
2.5. PROCESSING TECHNIQUES OF MMC’s
There is a multitude of fabrication techniques of metal matrix composites

depending on whether they are aimed at continuously or discontinuously reinforced
MMC production. The techniques can further be subdivided, according to whether they
are primarily based on treating the metal matrix in a liquid or a solid form. The
production factors have an important influence on the type of component to be produced,
on the micro-structures, on the cost and the application of the MMCs.
Processing methods of MMCs can be classified into two categories.
1. Solid state processing.
2. Liquid state processing.
2.5.1. SOLID STATE PROCESSING
1. Powder Blending and Consolidation

Blending of aluminium alloy powder with ceramic short fibre/whisker/particle is
versatile technique for the production of AMCs. Blending can be carried out dry or in
liquid suspension. Blending is usually followed by cold compaction, canning, degassing
and high temperature consolidation stage such as hot isostatic pressing (HIP) or extrusion.
AMCs processed by this route contain reinforcement particles in the form of plate like
particles of few tens of nanometers thick and in volume fractions ranging from 0.05 to 0.5
depending on powder history and processing conditions. These fine particles tend to act
as dispersion–strengthening agent and often have strong influence on the matrix
properties particularly during heat treatment.
2. Diffusion Bonding
The diffusion bonding employs the matrix in the solid phase, in the form of sheet
or foil. Composite laminates are produced by consolidating alternate layers of precursor
wires or fibre mats and metal matrix sheets or foils under temperature and pressure. The
precursor wires are collimated filaments held together with a fugitive organic binder. This
is achieved either by winding binder-coated filaments onto a circular cylindrical mandrel
or by spraying the binder on the filaments that are already wound on a mandrel. When the
solvent is evaporated, the fibre-resin combination forms a rolled fibre mat on the mandrel
surface. The binder resin in precursor wires and fibre mats decomposes at a high
temperature without leaving any residue. Under temperature and pressure metal sheets or
foils melt and diffuse through fibre layers to form a laminate. A multilayered laminate
may have any desired stacking sequence. Several complex composite components can be
fabricated by stacking monotapes as per design requirements. The temperature, pressure
and their duration are very critical for making good quality composites. Carbon fibres
have been successfully combined with matrices like aluminium, magnesium, copper, tin,
lead and silver to make a wide range of carbon fibre reinforced metal composites. A
number of products ranging from flat plates to curved engine blades have been fabricated
using the diffusion bonding technique.
3. Physical Vapour Deposition

This process involves continuous passage of fibre through a region of high partial
pressure of the metal to be deposited, where the condensation takes place and a relatively
thick coating of aluminium on the fibre. Composite fabrication is usually completed by
assembling the coated fibres into bundle or array and consolidating in a hot press or HIP
process. Composites with uniform distribution of fibre and volume fraction as high as
80% can be produced by this technique.
2.5.2. LIQUID STATE PROCESSING
1. Stir Casting
This involves incorporation of ceramic particulate into liquid aluminium melt and
allowing the mixture to solidify. Here, the crucial thing is to create good wetting between
the particulate reinforcement and the liquid aluminium alloy melt. The simplest and most
commercially used technique is known as vortex technique or stir-casting technique. The
vortex technique involves the introduction of pre-treated ceramic particles into the vortex
of molten alloy created by the rotating impeller (Fig. 2.4).
Microstructural inhomogeneities can cause notably particle agglomeration and
sedimentation in the melt and subsequently during solidification. Inhomogeneity in
reinforcement distribution in these cast composites could also be a problem as a result of
interaction between suspended ceramic particles and moving solid-liquid interface during
solidification. Generally it is possible to incorporate up to 30% ceramic particles in the
size range 5 to 100 μm in a variety of molten aluminium alloys. The melt–ceramic
particle slurry may be transferred directly to a shaped mould prior to complete
solidification or it may be allowed to solidify in billet or rod shape so that it can be
reheated to the slurry form for further processing by technique such as die casting, and
investment casting. The process is not suitable for the incorporation of sub-micron size
ceramic particles or whiskers. Another variant of stir casting process is compo-casting.
Here, ceramic particles are incorporated into the alloy in the semi solid state.
Fig.2.4 Schematic representation of stir casting process
Major factors to be consider during stir casting
 Difficulty of achieving of uniform distribution of the reinforcement materials.

 Wettability between the two main substances.
 Porosity in cast metal matrix composites
 Chemical reaction between the reinforcement material and matrix alloy.
2. Infiltration Process
Liquid aluminium alloy is injected/infiltrated into the interstices of the porous pre-
forms of continuous fibre/short fibre or whisker or particle to produce AMCs. Depending
on the nature of reinforcement and its volume fraction preform can be infiltrated, with or
without the application of pressure or vacuum. AMCs having reinforcement volume
fraction ranging from 10 to 70% can be produced using a variety of infiltration
techniques. In order for the preform to retain its integrity and shape, it is often necessary
to use silica and alumina based mixtures as binder. Some level of porosity and local
variations in the volume fractions of the reinforcement are often noticed in the AMCs
processed by infiltration technique. The process is widely used to produce aluminium
matrix composites having particle/whisker/short fibre/continuous fibre as reinforcement.
3. Spray Deposition
Spray deposition techniques fall into two distinct classes, depending whether the
droplet stream is produced from a molten bath (Osprey process,) or by continuous feeding
of cold metal into a zone of rapid heat injection (thermal spray process). The spray
process has been extensively explored for the production of AMCs by injecting ceramic
particle/whisker/short fibre into the spray. AMCs produced in this way often exhibit
inhomogeneous distribution of ceramic particles. Porosity in the as sprayed state is
typically about 5–10%. Depositions of this type are typically consolidated to full density
by subsequent processing. Spray process also permit the production of continuous fibre
reinforced aluminium matrix composites. For this, fibres are wrapped around a mandrel
with controlled inter fibre spacing, and the matrix metal is sprayed onto the fibres. A
composite monotype is thus formed; bulk composites are formed by hot pressing of
composite monotypes. Fibre volume fraction and distribution is controlled by adjusting
the fibre spacing and the number of fibre layers. AMCs processed by spray deposition
technique are relatively inexpensive with cost that is usually intermediate between stir
cast and PM processes.
4. In-situ Processing (Reactive Processing)

There are several different processes that would fall under this category including
liquid-gas, liquid-solid, liquid-liquid and mixed salt reactions. In these processes
refractory reinforcements are created in the aluminium alloy matrix. One of the examples
is directional oxidation of aluminium also known as DIMOX process. In this process the
alloy of Al-Mg is placed on the top of ceramic preform in a crucible. The entire assembly
is heated to a suitable temperature in the atmosphere of free flowing nitrogen bearing gas
mixture. Al-Mg alloy soon after melting infiltrates into the preform and composite is
formed.
2.6 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDER DURING STIR CASTING
In order to achieve the optimum properties of the metal matrix composite, the
distribution of the reinforcement material in the matrix alloy must be uniform, and the
wettability or bonding between these substances should be optimised. The porosity levels
need to be minimised, and chemical reactions between the reinforcement materials and
the matrix alloy must be avoided.
2.6.1 Distribution of the reinforcement materials
One of the problems encountered in metal matrix composite processing is the

settling of the reinforcement particles during melt holding or during casting. This arises as
a result of density differences between the reinforcement particles and the matrix alloy
melt. The reinforcement distribution is influenced during several stages including (a)
distribution in the liquid as a result of mixing, (b) distribution in the liquid after mixing,
but before solidification and (c) redistribution as a result of solidification. The mechanical
stirrer used (usually during melt preparation or holding) during stirring, the melt
temperature, and the type, amount and nature of the particles are some of the main factors
to be considered when investigating these phenomena. Proper dispersion of the particles
in a matrix is also affected by pouring rate, pouring temperature and gating systems. The
method of the introduction of particles into the matrix melt is one of the most important
aspects of the casting process. It helps in dispersing the reinforcement materials in the
melt. There are a number of techniques for introducing and mixing the particles including
1. Injection of the particles entrained in an inert carrier gas into the melt with the
help of an injection gun, wherein the particles are mixed into the melt as the
bubbles rise through the melt;
2. Addition of particles into the molten stream as the mould is filled;
3. Pushing particles into the melt through the use of reciprocating rods;
4. Spray casting of droplets of atomised molten metal along with particles onto a
substrate;
5. Dispersion of fine particles in the melt by centrifugal action;
6. Pre-infiltrating a packed bed of particles to form pellets of a master alloy, and
redispersing and diluting into a melt, followed by slow hand or mechanical
stirring;
7. Injection of particles into the melt while the melt is irradiated continuously with
high intensity ultrasound;
8. Zero gravity processing which involves utilising a synergism of ultra-high vacuum
and elevated temperature for a prolonged period of time.
The vortex method is one of the better known approaches used to create and
maintain a good distribution of the reinforcement material in the matrix alloy. In this
method, after the matrix material is melted, it is stirred vigorously to form a vortex at the
surface of the melt, and the reinforcement material is then introduced at the side of the
vortex. The stirring is continued for a few minutes before the slurry is cast. The different
designs of mechanical stirrers are as shown in Fig.2.5. Among them, the turbine stirrer is
quite popular. During stir casting for the synthesis of composites, stirring helps in two
ways: (a) transferring particles into the liquid metal, and (b) maintaining the particles in a
state of suspension.
Fig.2.5. Different types of stirrer used in stir casting

2.6.2 Wettability of reinforcement
Wettability is another significant problem when producing cast metal matrix

composites. Wettability can be defined as the ability of a liquid to spread on a solid
surface. It also describes the extent of intimate contact between a liquid and a solid.
Successful incorporation of solid ceramic particles into casting requires that the melt
should wet the solid ceramic phase. The problem of the wetting of the ceramic by molten
metal is one of surface chemistry and surface tension. The chemistry of the particle
surface, including any contamination, or oxidation, the melt surface and oxide layer must
be considered. The basic means used to improve wetting are (a) increasing the surface
energies of the solid, (b) decreasing the surface tension of the liquid matrix alloy, and (c)
decreasing the solid-liquid interfacial energy at the particles-matrix interface. The
magnitude of the contact angles () in this equation is as shown in fig.2.6 describes the
wettability, i.e. (a) - 0o, perfect wettability, (b) -1800, no wetting and (c) 00 <  < 1800,
partial wetting.
Several approaches have been taken to promote the wetting of the reinforcement
particles with a molten matrix alloy, including the coating of the particles, the addition of
alloying elements to the molten matrix alloy, the treatment of the particles, and ultrasonic
irradiation of the melt. In general, the surface of non-metallic particles is not wetted by
the metallic metal, regardless of the cleaning techniques carried out. Wetting has been
achieved by coating with a wettable metal. Metal coating on ceramic particles increases
the overall surface energy of the solid, and improves wetting by enhancing the contacting
interface to metal-metal instead of metal-ceramic. Nickel and copper are well wetted by
many alloys, and have been used for a number of low melting alloys. In general, these
coatings are applied for three purposes viz. to protect the reinforcement from damage in
handling, to improve wetting, and to improve dispensability before addition to the matrix.
The type of coating, in terms of wettability, can be divided into coating which reacts with
the matrix, and coating which reacts with the oxide layer of the metal.
The addition of certain alloying elements can modify the matrix metal alloy by
producing a transient layer between the particles and the liquid matrix. This transient
layer has a low wetting angle, decreases the surface tension of the liquid, and surrounds
the particles with a structure that is similar to both the particle and the matrix alloy. The
composites produced by liquid metallurgy techniques show excellent bonding between
the ceramic and the metal when reactive elements, such as Mg, Ca, Ti, or Zr are added to
induce wettability . The addition of Mg to molten aluminium to promote the wetting of
alumina is particularly successful and it has also been used widely as an addition agent to
promote the wetting of different ceramic particles, such as silicon carbide and mica.
Fig.2.6 A sketch of three degrees of wetting and the corresponding contact angles
2.6.3 Porosity in cast metal matrix composites
The volume fraction of porosity, and its size and distribution in a cast metal
matrix composite play an important role in controlling the material's mechanical
properties. This kind of a composite defect can be detrimental also to the corrosion
resistance of the casting. Porosity levels must therefore, be kept to a minimum. Porosity
cannot be fully avoided during the casting process, but it can however, be controlled. In
general, porosity arises from three causes:
(a) Gas entrapment during mixing,
(b) Hydrogen evolution, and
(c) Shrinkage during solidification.
According to Ghosh and Ray, the process parameters of holding times, stirring
speed, and the size and position of the impeller will influence the development of
porosity. Their experimental work showed that there is a decrease in the porosity level
with an increase in the holding temperature. Structural defects such as porosity, particle
cluster, oxide inclusions, and interfacial reaction are found to arise from unsatisfactory
casting technology. It was observed that the amount of gas porosity in casting depends
more on the volume fraction of inclusions than on the amount of dissolved hydrogen.
Composite casting will have a higher volume fraction of suspended non-metal solid than
even the dirtiest conventional aluminium casting and hence the potential for the
nucleation of gas bubbles is enormous. It has been observed that the porosity in cast
composites increases almost linearly with particle content. The porosity of composite
results primarily from air bubbles entering the slurry either independently or as an air
envelope to the reinforcement particles. The air trapped in the cluster of particles also
contributes to the porosity. Oxygen and hydrogen are both sources of difficulty in light
alloy foundry. The affinity of aluminium for oxygen leads to a reduction of the
surrounding water vapour and the formation of hydrogen, which is readily dissolved in
liquid aluminium. There is a substantial drop in solubility as the metal solidifies, but
because of a large energy barrier involved in the nucleation of bubbles, hydrogen usually
stays in supersaturated solid solution after solidification.
2.7 MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Mechanical properties of material like strength, hardness, elasticity are of vital

importance in determining the type of fabrication and possible practical application.
a) Strength:
The ability of a material to resist failure under the action of stresses caused by a
load is known as its strength. The load to which a material is commonly subjected to are
compression, tension, shear and bending. The corresponding strength is obtained by
dividing the ultimate load with the cross-sectional area of the specimen.
b) Hardness:
The ability of a material to resist penetration by a harder body is known as its
hardness. It is a major factor in deciding the workability. The hardness bears a fairly
constant relationship to the tensile strength of given material.
c) Ductility:
It is the property of a material which permits a material to be drawn out
longitudinally to a reduced section under the action of tensile force. A ductile material
must be strong and plastic. The ductility is usually measured in terms of percentage of
elongation or percentage of reduction in cross section area of the test specimen.
d) Modulus of elasticity:
Hooke’s law states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is
directly proportional to the strain i.e. the ratio of stress to the strain is a constant with in
elastic limit. This constant is known as Modulus of Elasticity or “Young’s Modulus”.
Therefore, stress α strain
Stress
i.e. Strain = constant
ζ
i.e. =E
ε
Where E = Young’s Modulus.
2.8 FATIGUE CHARACTERIZATION
Fatigue is the condition where by a material fails due to the result of repeated
loading (cyclic stresses) applied below the ultimate strength of the material.
Fatigue failure is phenomenon in which a component fails due to repeated
loading. Repeated loading condition in a compound arrives when the stresses in it due to
the load applied vary or fluctuate between maximum and minimum values. In case of
static loading conditions, the load is applied gradually, giving sufficient time for strain to
develop. Whereas in case of repeated loading this does not hold good. Hence machine
member subjected to repeated loading have them been found to fail at stresses which are
very much below the ultimate strength and very often below the yield strength.
Stress is defined as the intensity of distributed forces that tend to resist change in
shape of a body. In most testing of those properties of materials that relate to the stress-
strain diagram, the load is applied gradually to give sufficient time for the strain to fully
develop. Furthermore, the specimen is tested to destruction and so the stresses are applied
only once. Testing of this kind is applicable, then to what are known as “static
conditions”. Such conditions only approximate the actual conditions to which many
structural and machine members are subjected. Most failures in machinery are due to time
varying loads rather than to static loads. These failures typically occur at stress levels
significantly lower than the yield strengths of the materials. Thus using only the static
failure theories can lead to unsafe designs when loads are dynamic. However, there are
conditions wherein the stresses vary or fluctuate between levels. For example, surface on
the rotating shaft subjected to the action of bending loads undergoes both tension and
compression for each revolution of the shaft. If, in addition, the shaft is also axially
loaded, an axial component of the stresses is superposed upon the bending component. In
this case, some stresses are always present, but the level of stress will be fluctuating.
These and other kinds of loading occurring in machine members produce stresses which
are called variable, repeated, alternating or fluctuating stresses.
It has been found experimentally that when a material is subjected to repeated
stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield point stresses, and such king of failure of a
material is known as fatigue. Fatigue is the phenomenon of progressive, localized,
permanent structural change occurring in a material subjected to conditions which
produce fluctuating stresses and strains at some point or points and which may terminate
in cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuation. Fatigue failure
begins with a small crack. The initial crack is so minute that it cannot be detected by the
naked eye and is even and is even quite difficult to locate in a magna flux of X-ray
inspection.
The crack will develop at a point of discontinuity in the material, such as change
in cross sectional, a keyway or hole stamp marks, internal cracks or irregularities caused
by machining. Once a crack is initiated, the stresses concentration effect becomes greater
and the crack progresses more rapidly. As the stressed area decreases in size, the stress
increases in magnitude until finally, the remaining area fails suddenly.
A fatigue failure is characterized by two distinct regions. The first of these is due
to the progressive development of the crack while the second is due to sudden fracture.
The zone of sudden fracture is very similar in appearance to the fracture of a brittle
material. When machine parts fail statically, they usually develop a very large deflection
because the stress has exceeded the yield strength, and the part is replaced before fracture
actually occurs. Thus many static failures give visible warning in advance. But a fatigue
failure gives no warning. It is sudden and total and hence dangerous. Therefore the design
of structural members is incomplete without fatigue considerations.
Fatigue of materials is a well known situation whereby rupture can be caused by a
large number of stress variations at a point even though the maximum stress is less than
the proof or yield stress. The fracture is initiated by tensile stress at a macro or
microscopic flaw. Once started the edge of the crack acts as a stress raiser and thus assists
in propagation of the crack until the reduced section can no longer carry the imposed
load. While it appears that fatigue failure may occur in all materials, there are marked
differences in the incidence of fatigue. For example, mild steel is known to have an
endurance limit stress below which fatigue fracture does not occur, this is known as the
fatigue limit. This does not occur with non-ferrous material, such as aluminum alloys,
however, there is no such limit.
To study and analyse the fatigue characteristic of different metals, rotating fatigue
testing machine is used. Fatigue testing machines apply cyclic loads to test specimens.
Fatigue testing is a dynamic testing mode and can be used to simulate how a
component/material will behave/fail under real life loading/stress conditions. They can
incorporate tensile, compressive, bending and/or torsion stresses and are often applied to
springs, suspension components and biomedical implants.
This machine is used to test the fatigue strength of materials and to draw S-N
diagram by research institutes, laboratories, material manufacturers and various
industries. This is a rotating beam type machine in which load is applied in reversed
bending fashion. The standard 5 mm diameter specimen is held in special holders at its
ends and loaded such that it experiences a uniform bending moment.
Specimen acts as rotating beam subjected to bending moment. Therefore it is
subjected to completely reversed stress cycle. Changing the bending moment by addition
or removal of weights can vary the stress amplitude
Basic fatigue testing involves the preparation of carefully polished test specimens
(surface flaws are stress concentrators) which are cycled to failure at various values of
constant amplitude alternating stress levels. The data are condensed into an alternating
Stress (S) verses Number of cycles to failure (N), curve which is generally referred to as a
material’s S-N curve. As one would expect, the curves clearly show that a low number of
cycles are needed to cause fatigue failures at high stress levels while low stress levels can
result in sudden, unexpected failures after a large number of cycles.
2.8.1 MECHANISM OF FATIGUE FAILURE
Fatigue failure always begins with a crack. The crack may have been present in
the material since its manufacture, or it may have developed with time due to cyclic
straining around a stress concentration. Virtually all structural members contain
discontinuities ranging from microscopic (<0.00254 mm), introduced in the
manufacturing process. Fatigue cracks generally start at a notch or other stress
concentration. The general term critical represents any geometric contour that increases
local stress. Thus, it is critical that dynamically loaded parts be designed to minimize
stress concentrations.
There are three stages of fatigue failure; crack initiation, crack propagation and
sudden fracture due to unstable crack growth. The first stage can be of short duration, the
second stage involves most of life of the part, and the third stage is instantaneous.
The figure (2.7-2.8) show typical stress life relationship. The ordinate of S-N
diagram is called the fatigue strength and is always accompanied by a statement of the
number of cycles N to which it corresponds. Endurance limit represents the largest value
of fluctuating stress that will not cause failure for essentially an infinite number of cycles.
In case of steels, a knee occurs in the graph and beyond this knee, failure will not occurs
for any number of cycles. The endurance limit for steel is about 10 6 cycles. Most non
ferrous alloys do not show knee and have no sharply defined endurance limit. Hence,
limit of 108 cycles is taken to be the endurance limit. The body of knowledge available on
fatigue failure from N=1 to N=1000 cycles is known as low cycles fatigue. High cycle
fatigue is concerned with stress cycles above 103 cycles.
Fig. 2.7 - S-N relationship for ferrous and non-ferrous alloys

Fig. 2.8 – Typical S-N relationship
2.8.2 THE STRESS LIFE APPROACH AND THE STRAIN LIFE APPROACH TO
DETERMINE THE FATIGUE LIFE
1. The Stress Life Approach

This is oldest of the three models and is mostly used for high cycle fatigue (HCF)
application where the assembly is expected to last for more than about 103 cycles of
stress. It works best when the load amplitudes are predictable and consistent over the life
of the part. It is the stress based model, which seeks to determine the fatigue strength and
or endurance limit for the material so that the cyclic stress can be kept below that level
and failure avoided for the required number of cycles. The part is then designed based on
the materials fatigue strength (or endurance limit) and a safety factor. In the effect, this
approach attempts to keep local stress in notches so low that the crack initiation stage
never begins. The assumption (and design) is that stress and strains everywhere remains
in the elastic region and local yielding occurs to initiate a crack.
This approach is fairly easy to implement, and large amounts of relevant strength
data are available due to its long-time use. However, it is the most empirical and least
accurate of the three models in terms of defining the true local stress/strain states in the
part, especially for low cycle (LCF) finite life situation where the total number cycle is
expected to be less than about 103 and the stresses will be high enough to cause local
yielding.
2. The Strain Life Approach
The initiation of crack involves yielding; a stress based approach cannot
adequately model this stage of the process. A strain based model gives a reasonable
accurate picture of the crack initiation stage. It can be also account for cumulative
damage due to variation in the cyclic load over the life of the part, such as overloads that
may introduce favourable or unfavourable residual stresses to the failure zone.
Combinations of fatigue loading and high temperature are better handled by this method,
because the creep effect can be included. This method is most often applied to LCF, finite
life problems where the cyclic stresses are high enough to cause local yielding. It is the
most complicated of the three models to use and requires a computer solution. Test data
are still being developed on the cyclic strain behaviour of various engineering materials.
2.8.3 FACTORS AFFECTING FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR
Variables affecting fatigue behaviour are conveniently classified as variations in,
1. Variation in the specimen

2. Surface defects
3. Design factors
4. Surface treatments
5. Size effect
6. Operating temperature
7. Corrosion
8. Stress concentration
9. Overload / Under load
10. Residual stress
1. Variation in the Specimen: The history and geometry of a specimen of a given

material will affect its fatigue behaviour, as will the different processing method
(resulting in variation in grain size, residual stress and surface finish). In general
treatments, which raise the yield strength or tensile strength of a composition, also raise
the fatigue resistance. Thus fine-grained structures have higher fatigue resistance than
corresponding coarse-grained structure.
2. Surface Defects: Since maximum stress within a component or a structure occurs at its
surface. Consequently most cracks leading to fatigue failures originate at surface
positions, specifically at stress amplification sites. Therefore it has been observed that
fatigue life is especially sensitive to condition and configuration of component surface.
3. Design Factors: Design of component can have significant influence on its fatigue
characteristics. Any notch or geometric discontinuity can acts as a stress raiser and fatigue
crack initiation site. These design factors include grooves, holes, keyways, threads etc.
The sharper the discontinuities the more severe are the stress concentration. The
probabilities of fatigue failure may be reduced by avoiding (whenever possible) these
structural irregularities.
4. Surface Factors: During machining operations small scratches and grooves are
invariably introduced into the work surface by cutting tool action. These surfaces marking
can limit the fatigue life. An important method of increasing fatigue performance is by
imposing residual compressive stress within a thin outer surface.
5. Size Effect: Larger specimens and machine parts are observed to exhibit poor fatigue
strength then smaller specimens or machine parts, especially when subjected to cyclic
bending stress. This may be due to the fact that larger specimens have greater volume and
surface area which in turn will have more number of defects when compared to smaller
specimens.
6. Operating Temperature: The temperature of operation has a significant influence on

the fatigue strength. The fatigue strength is enhanced at temperature below room
temperature and diminished at temperature above room temperatures.
7. Corrosion: A corrosive environment tends to lower the fatigue strength of the

engineering material, often by large amount. The use of certain solvents or the presence
of distilled water results in lowering the fatigue strength, especially when the specimens
are operated at elevated temperature.
8. Stress Concentration: The existence of irregularities or discontinuities, such as holes,

grooves, or notches, in a part increase the magnitude of stresses significantly in the
immediate vicinity of the discontinuity due to higher stress concentration. Fatigue failure
mostly originates from such places.
9. Overload/ Underload: The fatigue crack growth life decrease with increasing
overload stress and the fatigue life decreases with compressive underload stress.
10. Residual Stress: The fatigue crack growth behaviour of various types of alloy is
significantly affected by the presence of residual stress induced by manufacturing and
post-manufacturing processes. Residual stress is often a cause of premature failure of
critical components.
2.8.4 ESTABLISHING S-N CURVE
To determine the strength of materials under the action of fatigue loads,

specimens are subjected to repeated or varying forces of specified magnitudes while cycle
of stress reversals are counted to destruction. The most widely used fatigue testing device
is the R.R.Moore high speed rotating beam machine. This machine subjects the
specimens to pure bending by means of weights. The specimens are very carefully
machined and polished, with a final polishing in an axial direction to avoid
circumferential scratches, other fatigue machine are available for applying fluctuating or
reversed stresses, torsional stresses, or combined stresses to the test specimens.
To establish the fatigue strength of a material, quite a number of tests are
necessary because of the statistical nature of fatigue. For rotating beam test, a constant
bending load is applied, and the number of revolution (stress reversals) of the beam
required for failure is recorded. The first test is made at a stress which is somewhat under
the ultimate strength of the material. The second test is made at a stress which is less than
that used for first. The processed is continued, and the results are plotted on the S-N
diagram. In case of the ferrous metal and alloys, the graph become horizontal after the
material has been stressed for a certain number of cycles. Plotting on log paper
emphasizes the bend in the curve, which might not be apparent if the results were plotted
by using Cartesian coordinates.
The ordinate of the S-N diagram is called the fatigue strength S f, a statement of
this strength must always be accomplished by a statement of number of cycles N to which
it correspond.
The abscissa of the S-N diagram is life i.e. the number of cycles of stress reversals
required to cause the fatigue of the specimen.
2.9 LITERATURE REVIEW
Yunhui et.al [1] studied the tilt-blade mechanical stirring of A356-2.5vol%SiCp

liquid which was conducted in a cylindrical crucible to solve the problem of non-
homogeneous radial distribution of SiC particles in conventional straight-blade
mechanical stirring. In this paper, a specially-designed mechanical stirrer with the tilt
blade was used to stir A356-2.5vol% SiCp liquid. In straight-blade mechanical stirring of
A356-SiCp liquid, SiC particles can move from the centre to the periphery of the crucible
under the action of centrifugal force and thus resulting in a non-homogeneous distribution
of SiC particles in A356 liquid along the radial of crucible. In this experimental
equipment, a tilt-blade stirrer which can generate an inward movement of SiC particles is
used. The radial distribution of SiC particles in A356 liquid was studied under the
conditions of 25° for horizontal tilt angle α of the blade, 200 RPM for rotating speed of
stirrer and 10 mm/s for speed of moving up and down of stirrer. The results show that the
non-homogeneous radial distribution of SiC particles in conventional straight-blade
mechanical stirring can be eliminated in tilt-blade mechanical stirring of A356-SiCp
liquid by adjusting the circumferential tilt angle β of tilt-blade. The reasonable tilt-blade
mechanical stirring parameters of A356-2.5vol%SiCp liquid are 26 ° for circumferential
tilt angle β of blade, 25° for horizontal tilt angle α of blade, 200 RPM for rotating speed of
stirrer and 10 mm/s for speed of moving up and down of stirrer.
Sakthivel et.al [2] studied 2618 aluminium alloy metal matrix composites(MMCs)
reinforced with two different sizes and weight fractions of SiCp particles up to 10%
weight were fabricated by stir cast method and subsequent forging operation. The effects
of SiCp particle content and size of the particles on the mechanical properties of the
composites such as hardness, tensile strength, hot tensile strength (at 1200C),and impact
strength were investigated. The density measurements showed that the samples contained
little porosity with increasing weight fraction. Optical microscopic observations of the
microstructures revealed uniform distribution of particles and at some locations
agglomeration of particles and porosity. The results shows that hardness and tensile
strength of the composites increased with decreasing size and increasing weight fraction
of the particles. The hardness and tensile strength of the forged composites were higher
than those of the cast samples.
Abdel Jaber [3] et.al, in this study has aimed to investigate solidification and
mechanical behaviour of Al- Si alloy against both the molding conditions and silicon
content (3%- 15% Si). The pure aluminium matrix and pure silicon with a purity of
99.793% have supplied by the aluminium company of Egypt. The alloy were prepared by
melting the pure aluminium in an oil fired crucible furnace and the required amount of
silicon was added to the molten aluminium in powder form with a particle size about
300µm to 500µm. Five sets of the casting alloys were prepared with different silicon
content, (3%, 6%, 8%, 12%, and 15%Si). From the results author concluded that with the
increase in silicon content the cooling rate decreased and also a decrease of the liquidus
temperature was observed up to 12% and then increased with increasing Si%. But with
the increase of silicon content the ultimate tensile strength and hardiness increased, and
high coefficient of friction and high wear resistance was produced. The change of mold
thickness affected on the cooling rate of aluminium-silicon casting alloys so on the
microstructure. A pronounced change in the mechanical and tribological properties by the
change of mold thickness was obtained.
Neelima Devi [4] et.al, have studied the mechanical characterization of aluminium
silicon carbide composite. In this paper tensile strength experiments have been conducted
by varying mass fraction of SiC (5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) with Aluminium. The tension
test is conducted on a universal testing machine model TUE600(C) at room temperature.
Aluminium silicon carbide alloy composite material is two times less in weight than the
aluminium of the same dimensions. From the results obtained it is found that the
maximum tensile strength has been obtained at 15% SiC ratio. This indicates that the
Aluminium silicon carbide composite material is having less weight and more strength.
The corrosion behaviour of 6061 Al alloy-SiC composites (in as cast and extruded form)
have also been studied in sea water and acid media. The effects of temperature of both the
media and concentration of the acid medium were also investigated. The corrosion
behaviour was evaluated using electrochemical technique. The studies revealed that
corrosion damage of composites exposed to sea water medium was mainly localized in
contrast to uniform corrosion observed for base alloy. Further, composites were found to
corrode faster than the base alloy even though the attack was mainly confined to the
interface, resulting in crevices or pits.
Bahul Saroya [5] et.al, studied about the aluminium (Al-6063)/SiC Silicon carbide
reinforced particles metal matrix composites which are fabricated by melt-stirring
technique. The MMCs bars and circular plates are prepared with varying the reinforced
particles by weight fraction ranging from 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%. The average
reinforced particles size of SiC are 220 mesh, 300 mesh, 400 mesh respectively. The
stirring process was carried out at 200 rev/min rotating speed by graphite impeller for 15
min. The microstructure and mechanical properties like Tensile strength upper yield point
(MPa), Tensile strength lower yield point (MPa), Ultimate tensile strength (MPa),
Breaking strength(MPa), % Elongation, % Reduction in area, Hardness (HRB) Density
(gm/cc), Impact Strength (Nm) are investigated on prepared specimens of MMCs. From
the result it is observed that the hardness of the composite is increased with increasing of
reinforced particle weight fraction and Tensile strength upper yield point (MPa), Tensile
strength lower yield point (MPa), Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) and Breaking strength
(MPa) increases with the increase in reinforced particulate size (220 mesh, 300 mesh, 400
mesh) and weight fraction (5%, 10%, 15%, 20%) of SiC particles. % Elongation and %
Reduction in area decreases with the increase in reinforced particulate size (220 mesh,
300 mesh, and 400 mesh) and weight fraction (5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) of SiC particles.
Manjunath [6] et.al, in the present study have studied silicon carbide particulate
reinforced LM6 alloy matrix composites which were produced by gravity die casting
process by varying the percentage of the reinforcement added (5% and 15%). The
reinforcement was silicon carbide particles in powder form of size 150 microns was used
as a dispersoid. Mechanical properties such as tensile, impact and wear test studies were
conducted to determine the tensile strength, ductility, and toughness and wear
characteristics of cast MMC’s. The results of the study suggest that with the increase in
weight percentage of SiC, an increase in tensile strength has observed. Ductility of the
prepared MMC decreased with increase in weight percentage of SiC in base alloy. Impact
strength of the base alloy LM6 is high. When the reinforcing material SiC (with 5% &
15%) is added in LM6 alloy, the impact strength is reduced notably. The abrasive wear
resistance of MMC has increased with increase in SiC content. But wear has increased
with increase in sliding velocity and normal load.
Mahendra Boopathi [7] et.al, in this study focused on the formation of Al-Sic-fly
ash hybrid metal matrix composites. The present study was aimed at evaluating the
physical properties of Aluminium 2024 in the presence of silicon carbide, fly ash and its
combinations. The compositions were added up to the ultimate level and stir casting
method was used for the fabrication of aluminium metal matrix composites, Al-SiC, Al-
fly ash, Al-SiC-fly ash composites with various concentrations like aluminium 2024 with
5%SiC, 10%SiC, 5%fly ash, 10%fly ash, 5%SiC+5%fly ash, 5%SiC+10%fly ash,
10%SiC+5%fly ash, and 10%SiC+10%fly ash were prepared. The mechanical behaviours
of composites like density, tensile strength, yield strength, elongation and hardness tests
were conducted. Based on the experimental observations the following conclusions have
been drawn: Density of the composites decreased by increasing the content of the
reinforcement. Hence, it was found that, instead of Al-SiC and Al-fly ash composites, Al-
SiC-fly ash composites show better performance. Increase in area fraction of
reinforcement in matrix result in improved tensile strength, yield strength and hardness.
With the addition of SiC and fly ash with higher percentage the rate of elongation of the
hybrid MMCs is decreased significantly. From the above results they conclude that
instead of Al-SiC or Al-fly ash composites, the Al-SiC-fly ash composites could be
considered as an exceptional material in sectors where lightweight and enhanced
mechanical properties are essential.
Ajay Singh [8] et.al, in this present work focused on the study of behaviour of
Aluminium Cast Alloy (6063) with alumina (Al2O3) composite produced by the stir
casting technique. Different percentage of alumina powder is used as reinforcement phase
in this AMMC. Various mechanical tests like tensile test, Hardness Test, Impact test are
performed on the samples of AMMC to evaluate the mechanical properties of this
aluminium based metal matrix composite. These tests are done on various mechanical
testing machines like universal testing machine, Vickers hardness testing machine, impact
testing machine. The results confirmed that Al alloy 6063 with Al 2O3 reinforced
composites is clearly superior to base Al alloy 6063 in the comparison of tensile strength,
Impact strength as well as Hardness. Dispersion of Al2O3 particles in aluminium matrix
improves the hardness of the matrix material. It is found that elongation tends to decrease
with increasing particles weight percentage, which confirms that alumina addition
increases brittleness. It appears from this study that UTS and Yield strength trend starts
increases with increase in weight percentage of Al2O3 in the matrix.
Basavaraju [9] et.al, Studied on Mechanical properties and Tribological
characteristics of LM25 Graphite-Silicon Carbide and LM25-Flyash-Silicon Carbide -
Hybrid MMC’s. The studies were done using graphite and fly ash by varying the
percentage of Silicon Carbide and aluminium LM25 as base metal, composite were
produced by the stir casting technique. Aluminium LM25 ingot was weighed and melted
in electric furnace up to 800°C, and the 2% Graphite (2% of aluminium weight) was
mixed using a mechanical stirrer for uniform dispersion. The Silicon carbide was added
for 2, 4, 6, and 8 % weight of aluminium. The same method was prepared for 2% Fly ash
and Silicon carbide in varying proportions as 2, 4, 6, and 8 %. The cast was poured into
the mould and the specimens were machined according to ASTME standards required for
testing. Tensile, compression and hardness tests were conducted and the results were
derived. From the results it is observed that Graphite and Fly ash mixed with SiC makes
the material harder up to a certain limit. Prepared MMC’s provide excellent wear
characteristics up to a limit load. The tensile strength improves for 2% addition of SiC
and 4% of SiC in Al+Graphite. The hardness of the material increases with the
combination of 2% addition of SiC and Graphite. The compressive strength is ideal at 2%
and 4% addition of SiC graphite and Fly ash.
Harun [10] et.al, studied the behaviour of Aluminium alloy metal matrix with
reinforcement of 10 % & 15% Fly ash and Sic with weight Percentage of 10% and they
concluded that increase in the fly ash content increased the porosity in the composites,
with matrix alloy was found with 15% weight % of Fly ash particulate having the highest
porosity and lower hardness. Hardness of the Aluminium alloy increased with the
addition of Sic particulate in composites.
Lokesh [11] et.al, studied the mechanical properties of Aluminium metal matrix
with 5 wt% of Cu, Fly ash and Silicon carbide. Author fabricated specimens with Al-4.5
Wt. % Cu and reinforcement Fly ash 49-60 μm particle size and Sic with 65 μm particle
size fly ash weight percentage was 4% and Sic with 6 %. Author concluded that with the
addition of 4 % Fly ash and 6% SiC hardness was improved and similarly tensile, wear
resistance enhanced.
Uvaraja [12] et.al compared Al6061 and Al7075 with Sic, B4C reinforcements (5
%, 10 % and 15 % weight ration) respectively for both alloys. The hybrid composite
specimen specimens were fabricated and author experimentally concluded that hardness
for both the composition was found to be maximum at 15% weight ratio, wear resistance
was also found to be improved. Author also concluded that Al7075 with Sic and B4C was
performing better that Al6061.
Sujan [13] et.al, in this paper presented a study on the performance of stir cast
Al2O3 SiC reinforced metal matrix composite materials. The composites used in the
experiments are produced by the stir casting method. For Al-Al 2O3 composite material,
Al356 alloy powders are mixed with Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) particles of uniform size
(400 μm) in the weight fraction of 5%, 10%, and 15%. For Al-SiC composite material,
Al356 alloy powders are mixed with SiC in the weight fraction of 5%, 10%, and 15%.
From the results obtained it is observed that aluminium metal matrix composites with
aluminium oxide (Al2O3) as particle reinforcements have higher density values compared
to Aluminium metal matrix composites with Silicon Carbide (SiC) as particle
reinforcements. The composite materials achieve significant improvement in hardness
and tensile strength compared to Al 356 alloy. For instance, the tensile strength of Al with
15% SiC is 23.68% more than that of pure Al. The composite materials show
significantly higher strength to weight ratios compared to pure Al. For instance, Al with
15% SiC exhibits strength to weight ratio of 1.74. The corresponding values of strength to
weight ratios for pure Al and cast iron are 1.54 and 0.765 respectively. It is found
experimentally that the wear rate decreases significantly with the addition of
reinforcement particles. Al-SiC composites exhibit lower wear rate compared to Al-Al2O3
composites.
Viswanatha [14] et.al, in the present investigation studies on microstructure and

mechanical properties of Aluminium Matrix Composites (AMCs) reinforced with silicon
carbide (SiCp) and graphite (Gr) particles. A356 alloy is used as the matrix material with
varying the reinforcement of SiCp from 0 to 9 wt% in steps of 3 wt% and fixed quantity
of 3 wt% of graphite. The composites were fabricated by liquid metallurgy stir casting
method which is considered to be the most potential method for engineering applications
in terms of production capacity and cost efficiency. The prepared composites were
examined for microstructure to know the particle distribution in the matrix material.
Hardness and tensile properties were studied and compared with the alloy. The hardness
tests were conducted using Vickers macro hardness testing system as per ASTM E-92
standard. Tensile tests were carried out using computerized universal tensile testing
machine. The tensile specimens were machined according to the ASTM E8 standard.
From the experimental investigation the following conclusions were drawn on the
mechanical properties SiCp and graphite particles reinforced A356 aluminium alloy
composites. The hardness of composites increased significantly with addition of SiCp,
while maximum hardness was obtained for 9% of SiCp. The addition of low weight
percentage of SiCp to A356 leads to increase in tensile strength and decrease in
percentage elongation with increase in SiCp particles. The tensile strength of the
composite material improved by 5%, with an addition of 3 wt% of SiC and graphite
particles.
Arivukkarasan [15] et.al, have studied the fatigue behaviour of Aluminium alloy
(LM4)-Alumina silicate (Al2O3SiO2) particulate composite in comparison with
unreinforced LM4 aluminium alloy in this work. Four different volume fractions (0.05,
0.15 and 0.20) of Alumina silicate particulates of size 10 µm are introduced into the melt.
The fabrication of specimen is carried out by stirring followed by squeeze casting. After
the production of composite billets size of 160×100×30mm, specimens are cut and
machined from these billets. The test specimens (ASTM B 557M) were cut from the
billet. The fatigue strength tests are conducted on these specimens with a stress ratio (R)
of 0.1, fatigue tests are conducted at three different stress levels: 100, 75 and 50Mpa. The
results found that the composite specimens have longer fatigue lives than matrix alloy in
lower stress state and exhibited a reduced fatigue lives at elevated stress state irrespective
of their reinforcement volume fraction.
Ana Garcia Romero [16] et.al, have studied the fatigue behaviour of an aluminium
alloy matrix composite locally reinforced with 15% short δ-alumina fibres has been
analysed. Prototype pistons were industrially produced by squeeze casting infiltration of a
preform of fibres with the molten Al-12%Si-1%Mg-1%Cu-1%Ni alloy into a cylinder
shaped mould. Samples were in the T5 condition that is just aged for 12 hours at 160º C.
Cylindrical 6.4 mm diameter and 25.4 mm gauge length smooth specimens were
machined from the composite zone of the pistons. Two of these specimens were used to
perform tensile tests at room temperature according to ASTM D3552 standard. The
remaining ones were used for conducting uniaxial constant stress amplitude fatigue tests
according to ASTM E466 standard. These fatigue tests were carried out also at room
temperature with a stress ratio R=0.1 and a frequency of 10 Hz. The stress-life (S-N)
diagram was obtained by plotting the maximum stress of the cycle versus the fatigue life.
The results showed a large scatter in the fatigue lives, Fractographic examination
indicates that the presence of a cluster of fibres at periphery of the component could
significantly decrease its fatigue performances. Analysis of the data revealed that crack
closure played a significant role in the fatigue crack growth in this condition.
Gonzalo M. Dominguez Almaraz [17] et.al, conducted Rotating bending fatigue

tests on the aluminium alloy 6063-T5 for pre-corroded and non corroded specimens.
Special attention was devoted to fatigue endurance reduction induced by controlled
surface corrosion on testing specimens. Corrosion attack was obtained by immersion of
specimens in an acid solution for: two, four and six minutes in order to induce three
degrees of surface corrosion. The corrosion agent was a solution of hydrochloric acid
with a pH close to 0.8 and solution concentration of 38%. Rotating bending fatigue tests
at room temperature and without environmental humidity control were carried out on the
pre-corroded and non corroded specimens in order to investigate the corrosion effect on
the fatigue endurance. Additionally, numerical crack propagation investigation was
carried out using a 2D model for testing specimen and the Displacements Correlation
Method (DCM).The results showed Rotating bending fatigue endurance decreases with
time of corrosion attack in pre-corroded specimens. The compared fatigue life reduction
between pre-corroded specimens increases when the loading rate decreases (for 60% and
70% of yield stress of this material). Corrosion pits size and depth increase with
corrosion time; corrosion pits density on specimen surface increases with corrosion time.
Analysis on fracture surfaces shows that corrosion pitting holes were the sites for crack
initiation and propagation
Eleichea [18] et.al, have performed Low-cycle fatigue tests of rotating

cantilevered notched beams under deflection controlled conditions on four grades of high
strength medium alloy steel of hardness 280, 310, 350 and 380 HB. The cyclic stress–
strain response and strain-life fatigue curves are determined. The effects of hardness,
prestraining and machine allowance after heat treatment, on the fatigue life have also
been studied. In the present work the notched specimens have been investigated in the
low-cycle fatigue regime under conditions of rotating bending. The results showed in
notched fatigue tests under rotating bending, the actual measured lives in notched
specimens for the four investigated materials were five times greater on the average, than
the predicted lives based on crack initiation model. This indicates that the notched
specimens have extremely longer proportion of lives during the crack propagation phase
than those in the initiation phase. The notch fatigue resistance for the investigated
materials were found to increase with the increase in hardness. This may indicate that a
significant fraction of the total life is involved in crack propagation region, where the
applied nominal stresses are taken into consideration. In this region, the crack is no longer
affected by the notch. Abolishing the machine allowance after heat treatment for the
notched specimens was found to lower fatigue life under rotating bending.
Yuki Nakamura [19] et.al,has studied the effect of alumite surface treatments on
long life fatigue behaviour of cast aluminium in rotating bending. Alumite treatment is
one of surface treatments for aluminium alloy and it provides an oxide layer (Al2O3) on
the surface by anodizing. This method has been widely used for aluminium alloy because
the alumite possesses characteristics such as high hardness, wear resistance, and electrical
resistance. In order to examine the effect of alumite layer on the fatigue behaviour,
fatigue tests were carried out on aluminium alloy specimens with two different alumite
treatments by means of a dual-spindle rotating bending fatigue testing machine. Tests
were also conducted on untreated specimens for comparison. Fracture surfaces of all the
failed specimens were examined in a scanning electronic microscope (SEM). As results
of fatigue tests, significant deteriorations of the fatigue strength for alumite-treated
specimens having each thickness of the alumite layer were observed in comparison with
the results for untreated specimen in the short life regime. However, in long-life regime of
>107, the fatigue strength of alumite-treated specimen having 3 µm alumite layer becomes
a little higher than the results for untreated specimen.
Shin and Chen [20] in their work have evaluated the fatigue crack propagation
behaviour using surface crack growth in a rotating bending rod. Nine different rod
geometries have been tested. Cylindrical rod specimens with lengths L = 86, 56 and
43mm and diameters φ = 12, 8 and 6 mm, giving a total of nine different size
combinations, were machined from 12.5mm diameter SK4 carbon steel rod stock. Cyclic
testing was carried out on a rotating bending machine. Suitable loading was applied
through the use of dead weights in the form of four-point bending. Consequently, a speed
of 7000 rpm, which can be comfortably achieved in all cases, was chosen for the tests.
From the results it is observed that Crack growth behaviour in the rod specimens under
rotating bending is not sensitive to rod length except for the shortest (43mm long)
specimens with the smallest diameter (6 mm), which exhibited a slower rate than the
longer rods with the same diameter.
Arun [21] et.al, have studied the dynamic behaviour of hybrid aluminium6061
metal matrix reinforced with sic and fly ash particulates. The Aluminium alloy composite
are made by mixing particulate in a molten alloy. The present work is concentrated in a
view to produce such type of enhanced composites. The cheaper method of fabricating
Aluminium metal matrix composite is by stir casting method and by proper reinforcement
selection. Silicon Carbide (SiC) is ceramic material which is hard and can enhance
aluminium strength, fly ash is a power plant debris and easily available. The composition
is selected on weight percentage basis SiC with 6 % and 9% and fly ash with constant 15
% and AL6061 T6 alloy as matrix material. Mechanical characteristics like tensile test
and fatigue test were conducted; specimens were prepared according to ASTM standards.
Tensile test is conducted with Universal testing machine and fatigue test is carried out on
rotating bending machine with predetermined value of loads by considering
0.5UTS,0.7UTS and 0.9UTS and for which required stress level and cycles up to failure
were documented which is used in plotting S-N curve. From results it is observed that
Tensile strength of composite has enhanced and at 15% fly ash it is higher when
compared with Al6061 T6 alloy, fatigue strength of the composite with 6% SiC and 15%
fly ash reinforcement is having good fatigue performance compared to the monolithic
AL6061 T6 Alloy.
Achutha [22] et.al, has investigated the fatigue and mechanical properties of
composites of A6061 (LM 25) aluminium alloy reinforced with silicon carbide and
graphite particles. Author fabricated the composites by gravity die casting technique in
which the reinforcement particles were dispersed in the vortex created in the molten
matrix alloy. Initially he evaluated the fatigue properties of the composites through
experimental setup and he found that the data are scattered and to plot S-N curve it
requires more number of test specimens, hence he used Monte Carlo simulation technique
to plot the S-N curve the composites. Initially he validated the software results with
experimental results and then he plotted for composites. Author concluded that the
presence of the reinforcements increases the fatigue strength of the composite materials.
Chitoshi Masuda [23] et.al, has studied the fatigue properties and fatigue fracture
behaviour of A357 alloy reinforced with Sic whiskers and Sic particles by using rotating
bending fatigue test method. Author added reinforcement up to volume fraction of 20%.
Author stated that the fatigue strength of the Sic whiskers composites are 60% higher than
the unreinforced alloy and also the fatigue strength of Sic particulates are superior to the
base alloy materials. Author also observed that the fatigue crack propagation is different
for both whiskers and particulate composites and both composites would have very
significant effect on the fatigue crack initiation and crack propagation near the fatigue
limit.
Victor H. Mercado Lemus [24] et.al, have worked with rotating bending fatigue
tests on aluminium alloy 6061-T6, under loading condition close to elastic limit of
material. One or two artificial pitting holes are machined at the narrow section of the
hourglass shape specimen. Special attention was focused on the stress concentration
factors caused by the artificial pitting holes and the relationship to experimental fatigue
endurance. Results have been obtained for three types of specimens: without artificial
pitting, specimens with one artificial pitting hole and specimens with two close artificial
pitting holes. Results show that fatigue endurance under rotating bending fatigue tests of
aluminium alloy 6061-T6 decreases with the presence of one artificial pitting hole and
dramatically with two close artificial pitting holes. In order to explain this behaviour,
numerical analysis by FE were carried out to determine the stress concentrations for the
three types of specimens. It is found that the stress concentration for two close pitting
holes is an exponential function of the separation between the two holes, under uniaxial
loading.
Raja Thimmarayan and Thanigaiyarasu [25] have studied the effect of particle
size, forging and ageing on the mechanical and fatigue properties of the cast, forged and
age-hardened aluminium 6082 (AI6082) reinforced with SiCp. Al6082 reinforced with
three different particle sizes of SiC p (average particles size of 22, 12 and 3 µm) in the
forged and ageing conditions were studied. The samples were characterised by optical
microscopy, hardness, tensile and fatigue tests. The forged microstructure shows a more
uniform distribution of SiCp in the aluminium matrix. The addition of SiCp results in
improved tensile strength, yield strength and elastic constants of the composites with
reduction in ductility. It also increases the fatigue strength of the composites by
increasing the number of cycles required for fatigue failure of the composites for the
given value of stress. The results also show considerable improvements in mechanical
fatigue properties due to forging and ageing heat treatment of the metal matrix
composites.
CHAPTER 3
OBJECTIVE AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 OBJECTIVE
In the view of the large scope available for investigation, the present work is taken
up to study the influence of SiC reinforcement particulates in A356 matrix alloy, on the
mechanical and fatigue characteristics of the composites.
The following are the main objectives of the present work.
 Fabrication of Al-SiCp Metal Matrix Composite using stir casting method with 0%
5% and 10% SiC particulates.
 Micro structural analysis of the cast composite.
 Mechanical characterization of cast Al- SiCP Metal Matrix Composite.
 Fatigue characterization of cast Al-SiCp Metal Matrix Composites.
3.2 WORK PLAN
The schematic diagram of work plan for the present studies is as shown in Fig.3.1
Matrix Material Reinforcement Material
A356 SiC (23µm)
Electric Resistance Furnace Casting

by Stir Casting
Composites Prepared with varying percentage of reinforcement content
A356-SiCp (0%, 5%, 10%)
Fatigue Characterization Mechanical properties
• Fatigue life evaluation of the • Hardness

composite casted (0%, 5%, • Tensile strength
10% SiCp) with 5mm neck dia.
• Fatigue life evaluation for
composite with 5% SiCp by
varying the neck dia
(4mm, 5mm, 6mm, and
7mm).
Micro structural study

of the composite casted
Fig.3.1 Schematic diagram of work plan

3.3 METHODOLOGY
In order to fulfill the objectives selected for the present work, the following
methodology has been adopted.
a) Casting
In the present work Al-SiCp composites specimens have been fabricated by stir
casting method, with composition of 0%, 5% and 10% SiC particulates. Specimens of two
different diameters 30mm and 10mm are cast to facilitate fabrication of specimens for
mechanical and Fatigue characterization. The details of fabrication are discussed in the
next section.
b) Micro Structural Analysis

The cast specimens are subjected to micro structural analysis using scanning
electron microscope to study the structural features like grain structure, porosity, casting
defects, secondary phases etc.,
c) Mechanical Characterization
The cast specimens are subjected to mechanical characterization tests as per
ASTM standards in order to evaluate the hardness, tensile strength, ductility and
percentage of deformation of the material.
d) Fatigue Characterization
The cast specimens are also subjected to fatigue characterization tests as per
ASTM standards in order to evaluate the fatigue life of the cast composites with 0%, 5%,
10% SiCp as reinforcement with same neck diameter and to evaluate the fatigue life for
composites with 5% SiCp by varying the neck diameter.
CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
The details of experimental investigation planned, to fulfill the objectives set for
the present work are discussed in the following section.
4.1 WORK MATERIAL DETAILS
The details of the material selected for present investigation are as discussed
below. Aluminium (A356) based metal matrix composite with varying volume fraction
(0%, 5% and10%) of reinforcement of particulate silicon carbide particles of 23µm size
has been selected for the present investigation.
a) Aluminium A356
Among several series of aluminium alloys, A356 is one of the most extensively
used alloys for its excellent properties. Basically A356 is an alloy of Aluminium,
Magnesium and Silicon, which is highly resistant to corrosion, has excellent extrudability
and exhibit moderate strength. A356 alloy is of much use in the fields of construction,
automotive and marine applications. The MMCs consisting of A356 matrix alloy
reinforced with SiCp have found extensive industrial applications. The A356 ceramic
particulate reinforced composites exhibit improved mechanical characteristics and they
find applications as cylinder blocks, pistons, piston insert rings, brake disks, calipers,
connecting rod, microwave filters, vibrator component, contactors, impellers and space
structures. Some of the properties of A356 are represented in Table.4.1.
Table 4.1 Mechanical properties of A356
Properties Values
Elastic Modulus (Gpa) 70-80
Density (g/cc) 2.7
Poisson’s Ratio 0.33
Brinell Hardness (HB500) 75
Tensile Strength in Mpa 220
Melting Temperature in 0C 660
Chemical composition of matrix alloy selected
The chemical composition of the A356 aluminium alloy is mentioned in
Table.4.2.
Table 4.2 Chemical composition of A356
Elements Percentage of Elements

Al 91.1-93.3
Cu <=0.2
Iron <=0.2
Mg 0.25-0.45
Mn <=0.1
Other each <0.05
Silicon 6.5-7.5
Titanium <=0.2
Zinc <=0.1
b) Silicon Carbide (SiC)

Silicon Carbide is the only chemical compound of Carbon and Silicon. It was
originally produced by a high temperature electro-chemical reaction of sand and carbon.
SiC is an excellent abrasive which is used in grinding wheels and other abrasive products.
Some of the properties of SiC are represented in Table.4.3.
Table 4.3 Mechanical properties of SiC
Properties
Values
Elastic Modulus (Gpa) 410
Density (g/cc) 3.1
Poisson’s Ratio 0.14
Hardness (HB500) 2800
Compressive Strength (Mpa) 3900
Melting Temperature in 0C 3100
4.2 PROCESSING DETAILS
4.2.1 Fabrication of Al-SiCp Metal Matrix Composites
The casting unit consists of a graphite crucible of about 5kg capacity, which is
heated by electrical resistance type heating coils. The temperature level of the heating unit
is controlled by thermocouple activated controlling unit. Duration of heating is
determined based on the quantity of material to be melted. The furnace used in the present
work is of bottom pouring type, which is regulated using a valve operated from the
bottom. A motor operated stirrer is provided at the top, for mixing the particulate
reinforcement with the molten metal. Arrangement is made at the bottom of the crucible
for exact positioning of the mould below the valve as shown in Fig 4.1.
Electric motor
Stirrer
Control panel
Heating unit
Permanent mould with

Band heater
Fig 4.1: Electrical heating furnace

a) Permanent mould box details:
Permanent split type of mould made of Mild Steel is used for casting the
composites in the present study as shown in Fig 4.2.
Split mould mould assembly

Fig 4.2: Permanent spilt mould
b) Mechanical stirrer:
The mechanical stirrer used for stirring the molten alloy during fabrication of
composites is made of steel blades coated with Alumina powder and sodium silicate
mixture to withstand high temperature and to avoid iron pickup by the melt. Ceramic-
coated impeller can be immersed up to ¾ of molten metal from top and rotated at a speed
of about 800 rpm to create the vortex. Fig 4.3 shows the Al2O3 coated stirrer.
Fig 4.3: Alumina- sodium silicate powder coated stirrer

4.2.2 Procedure to Fabricate Composites:
 Cleaned A356 ingot (Fig 4.4) of required quantity is to be placed in the melting
crucible. The furnace top is to be closed by refractory material and heater is to be
switched on and set to the required temperature (9000C). Heating is to be
continued for about 2 hrs and stabilize it for 20 minutes after reaching 9000C.
 The SiC reinforcement particulates of about 23 microns size are to be heated to
4500C for about 1 hr in another closed furnace.
 Add the Slag remover (fig4.5) to the molten metal to remove the slag.
 Chlorine based solid degassing tablet hexachloroethane – C2Cl6 Tablet (fig4.6) is
to be added to remove gasses entrapped during melting.
 Magnesium of about 0.5% is to be added to the melt to improve the wettability.
 Stirrer is to be immersed up to ¾ of the molten metal and stirring action to be
carried for about 2 minutes while heated SiC material is to be added slowly.
 Heat the mixture for 15 min after stirring.
 After stirring the molten composite metal is poured into pre heated mould by
opening the bottom valve of the furnace.
 After allowing the mould to cool at room temperature, the cast material (fig4.7) is
taken out, by opening the mould halves.
 Aluminium alloy specimens (0% Sic) as well as Aluminium metal matrix
composites with SiC reinforcement of 5% and 10% by weight were cast, by the
above mentioned procedure.
Fig 4.4: Al Raw ingot material Fig 4.5: Slag Remover

Fig 4.6: Degasser hexachloroethane Fig 4.7: Cast Aluminium composites
C2Cl6 tablet
4.3 MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION
4.3.1 MICROSCOPY
Microstructure analyses of the specimens is carried out to study the grain structure,
secondary phases, voids, surface defects, cracks and the types of deformations that take
place during strength and tribological tests.
Specimens for micro structural analysis are prepared as discussed below.

1) Cut the cast specimen in the shape of cube with dimensions 15×15 mm
approximately. Also all the surfaces must be flat and parallel to the opposite
surface and must be perpendicular to the adjacent surfaces.
2) Polish the specimen’s surface using rough emery paper and wash the specimen.
3) Then the specimen are polished using fine emery paper of grade 0,1,2,3.
4) After polishing with emery paper, wash the specimen with water. Polishing is
done again using a polishing machine with different grades of alumina paste like
alumina-grade1, alumina- grade 2 and alumina- grade 3 one after the other.
5) After polishing in polishing machine, wash the specimen with water and etching
has to be done by adding few drops of Hydro fluoric acid in to water;
approximately 3 drops of acid into 9 drops of water (i.e. 1:3 ratio).
6) After etching, the specimen is observed under Scanning Electron Microscope with
different magnification.
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) uses electron beam rather than light
beam for analysis. The SEM produces images of high resolution. The Microstructure
images for polished faces of casted specimen and fractured surfaces of the fatigue
specimen were examined using a Scanning Electron Microscope. The scanning electron
microscope is as shown in the fig 4.8.
Fig 4.8: Scanning Electron Microscope
4.4. MECHANICAL CHARACTERISATION
4.4.1 ROCKWELL HARDNESS NUMBER (RHN)
The Rockwell Hardness number is obtained by applying load of 100 Kg for 30-
60sec with ball indenter of 1.58mm diameter on flat composite specimens.
Procedure to find RHN of composite specimens

1) Flatten two faces of composite specimens whose hardness is to be found.
2) The flat surface should not contain any scale, rust, oil.
3) The load is applied on the composite and RHN values are noted obtained from the
display unit. In display unit C-scale is to be referred for RHN value (C-scale is
used for non-ferrous materials and B-scale is used in ferrous materials).
4.4.2. MEASUREMENT OF TENSILE STRENGTH
The tensile tests were conducted using standard computerized Universal Testing
Machine. The machine is of 20 KN capacities with a loading rate of 0.02 mm/sec. The
equipment is best suited for tensile, compression, and Shear, Flexural properties of
different materials. The tensile test was performed in accordance with ASTM–B557 for
standard Aluminium alloy. From the tensile strength tests, the effect of reinforcement on
the tensile strength and ductility of composite materials can be studied. Fig4.9 shows the
tensile testing machine and fig.4.10 shows the specimen geometry as per ASTM B557
Standard.
Fig.4.9 Tensile testing machine

Fig4.10. Tensile specimen ASTM B557 standard, all dimensions are in mm
Fig 4.11: Tensile test specimen
4.4.3 FATIGUE CHARACTERIZATION
The experiments were conducted on the rotating beam fatigue testing machine
(shown in fig 4.12). Technical Specifications of Rotating Bending Fatigue Tester is
shown in table 4.4. The specimen used for the fatigue testing is prepared as per ASTM
E446 and is as shown in the fig 4.13. The specimen is loaded as a simply supported beam
and the loading diagram is as shown in the fig 4.14. The Rotary Bending Machine have
been operated at a constant speed of 1750 rpm, then loads are added on and the specimens
were tested till failure. For these loads the stress is calculated, the number of cycles
required for failure is noted down and S-N curve is plotted.
Procedure for Fatigue Test
• Measure the dimensions of the specimen

• Fix the specimen in its position.
• Apply the loads in the pan attached to the spring.
• Note the initial reading on the counters and switch on the motor.
• Note down the number of revolution to break the specimen.
• Repeat the test on number of specimens for plotting S-N curve.
Fig 4.12: Rotary Bending machine
Fig 4.13: Fatigue test Specimen according to ASTM E446

Fig 4.14: Fatigue testing machine and loading diagram
Table 4.4 Technical Specifications of Rotating Bending Fatigue Tester
Maximum bending moment Up to 200 kg-cm

Speed Min 1000rpm
Max 3000rpm
Preset counter with speed 6 digits Indicator
Maximum load applied Up to 20kg
Specimen dimensions Length 70mm-90mm with neck
Diameter 4mm-8mm
Distance between load bearing point to 100mm
hinge bearing point
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Al-SiCp composite of different composition were prepared by stir casting

process. The cast specimens were subjected to mechanical characterization and fatigue
characterization. The result of the characterization tests are discussed in the following
section.
5.1. MICROSTRUCTURAL STUDY
5.1.1. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
Fig 5.1(a): 0%SiC cast-1000X Fig 5.1(b): 5%SiC with 23μm cast-1000X
Fig 5.1(c): 10%SiC with 23μm cast-1000X

Fig5.1 (a), (b) & (c) show the SEM micrographs of the cross section of cast
specimens with 0%, 5% &10% SiC particulates respectively. Shrinkage porosity can be
observed in fig5.1 (a) as well as some oxide particles of aluminium, which might have
formed during the process of casting. Distribution of secondary silicon phases can be
observed in fig5.1 (b) &(c). Secondary silicon phases appear largely at grain boundaries
in fig5.1 (b), whereas they are most uniformly distributed in fig5.1 (c).
5.2 MECHANICAL CHARATERIZATION
5.2.1 HARDNESS
Rockwell Hardness Number

It can be observed from the results that there is an increasing trend in the hardness
values of the composites. The increase in hardness can be attributed to the uniform
distribution of SiC particulate reinforcement in A356 matrix, forming strong interfacial
bond between the matrix and the reinforcement.
Table.5.1 RHN of as cast and extruded composites
Specimen RHN as cast composite
A356+ 0%SiCp 70
A356+ 5%SiCp 73
A356+10%SiCp 78
Fig 5.2: RHN of Base alloy and Composites

5.2.2 TENSILE STRENGTH
Fig 5.3 (a), (b) & (c) show the load-displacement curves and fig 5.4 (a), (b) & (c)
shows the stress-strain diagram of as cast specimens with 0%, 5% & 10% SiC p as
reinforcement respectively. Form the load-displacement curves and stress-strain diagram
Proof stress and Tensile strength and strain to failure of the cast composites have been
calculated and are shown in Fig5.5, 5.6 & 5.7 respectively.
Fig 5.3(a): Load v/s Displacement (elongation) of 0% SiCp
Fig 5.3(b): Load v/s Displacement (elongation) of 5% SiCp

Fig 5.3(c): Load v/s Displacement (elongation) of 10% SiCp
Fig 5.4(a): Stress-Strain diagram of 0% SiCp

Fig 5.4(b): Stress-Strain diagram of 5% SiCp
Fig 5.4(c): Stress-Strain diagram of 10% SiCp

Fig 5.5: Proof Stress of base alloy and composites
Fig 5.6: Tensile strength of base alloy and composites
Fig 5.7: Strain to failure of base alloy and composites
From the test results, it can be observed that there is an increase in the proof stress
values (fig 5.5) of the composite material with increase in the percentage composition of
SiC particles. This indicates that by increasing the percentage composition of SiC particle
in the aluminium matrix increases the strength of the cast composites.
Increase in proof stress is a clear indication that the tensile strength values (fig
5.7) of the cast composites also increases by increasing percentage composition of SiC p.
This increased strength can be attributed to the uniform distribution of the SiC particulate
reinforcement in the aluminium matrix alloy and better interfacial bonding between the
matrix and the reinforcement phases. SiC reinforcement with its higher tensile strength
imparts better mechanical properties to composite structure, when good interfacial bond is
formed between the matrix and reinforcement phases.
5.3 FATIGUE CHARACTERIZATION
5.3.1 Stress Calculations
𝐁𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭, 𝐌 = 𝐅 × 𝐋 N-mm
Where,
F= Load applied in N
L= Distance between load bearing point to hinge bearing point= 100mm
𝟑𝟐 𝐌
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬, 𝛔 = 𝐌𝐏𝐚
𝛑 𝐝𝟑
Where,
M= Bending moment in N-mm
d= Neck diameter in mm
5.3.2 Fatigue life of the Composites with varying the percentage of the reinforcement
250
200
Stress MPa
150
100
50
0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000
No. of Cycles
Fig 5.8: Fatigue life of Base Alloy(0% SiCp)
250
200
Stress MPa
150
100
50
0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000
No. of Cycles
Fig 5.9: Fatigue life of Composite with 5% SiCp

250
200
Stress MPa
150
100
50
0
0 20000400006000080000100000120000140000160000180000
No. of Cycles
Fig 5.10: Fatigue life of Composite with 10% SiCp
250
0% SiC As Cast
5% SiC As Cast
200
Stress MPa
150
100
50
0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000
No. of Cycles
Fig 5.11: Comparision of the Fatigue life of Composite with

0%SiCp, 5%SiCp & 10% SiCp
Fatigue test is done to evaluate the fatigue life of the cast composites and the
fatigue test is performed on the Rotating Bending fatigue testing machine. Fatigue test is
performed on the cast composites with 0% SiC p, 5% SiCp and 10% SiCp with neck
diameter 5mm and at identical stress condition. Also at each loading point 3 specimens
were tested and the average value is taken to plot the S-N curve. From the results (fig 5.8-
fig 5.11) it can be seen that fatigue life of the composite with 5% SiC p is more at lower
stress levels and at higher stress levels when compared with composites with 0%SiC p and
10%SiCp.
5.3.3 Fatigue life of the Composites with 5%SiCp with varying the Neck diameter
450
400
350
Stress MPa
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000 350000 400000
No. of Cycles
Fig 5.12: Fatigue life of Composite with 5% SiCp having Neck dia 4mm
250
200
Stress MPa
150
100
50
0
0 50000100000150000200000250000300000350000400000
No. of Cycles
250
200
Stress MPa
150
100
50
0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000 350000
No. of Cycles
250
200
Stress MPa
150
100
50
0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000 350000 400000 450000 500000
No. of Cycles
450
4mm neck dia
5mm neck dia 6mm neck dia 7mm neck dia
400
350
Stress MPa
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000 350000 400000 450000 500000
No. of Cycles
Fig 5.16: Comparision of the Fatigue life of Composite with 5%SiCp
having varying neck diameter
Fatigue test were also performed on the composite with 5%SiCp reinforcement
added to the base alloy A356. Here in the composites, test were performed by varying the
neck diameter (4mm, 5mm, 6mm, 7mm). From the graphs (fig 5.12-fig 5.16) it is clearly
shown that the fatigue life of the cast composite with 5% SiC p has increased by reducing
the neck diameter of the specimen i.e, cast composites with 4mm neck diameter is having
higher fatigue life compared with composites with 5mm, 6mm and 7mm neck diameter at
identical stress conditions.
5.3.4 Fatigue fractured surface SEM analysis
Fig 5.17: Fatigue Fractured Surface of Fig 5.18: Fatigue Fractured Surface of
0% SiC reinforced in A356 Matrix 5% SiC reinforced in A356 Matrix
(1000X) (1000X)
Fig 5.19: Fatigue Fractured Surface of 10% SiC reinforced in A356 Matrix (1000X)
After the fracture of the specimen, the fractured surface of the specimen is
analysed under SEM for its microstructure study. The SEM analysis shows that there are
sharp edges at the crack surface which can be concluded that fatigue fracture is a brittle
fracture.
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS
Experimental investigations conducted in the present work to study the influence
of percentage composition of SiC particulates in A356 Aluminium matrix alloy on the
microstructural, mechanical and fatigue characteristics have provided the following
conclusions.
 SEM analysis shows that the SiC particles are evenly distributed.
 An improvement of about 5-12% in hardness of composite specimen is observed

as compared to matrix alloy specimens.
 An improvement of about 12-37% in tensile strength of composite specimen is

observed as compared to matrix alloy specimens.
 The fatigue strength of the composites with neck diameter of 5mm was found to
increase with increase in reinforcement content. And it was found that maximum
life was observed for composites with 5%SiC p as reinforcement at identical stress
condition.
 Also fatigue life of the cast composite with 5% SiCp has increased by reducing the
neck diameter of the specimen at identical stress condition.
SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK
Experience from the present study has shown avenues for future investigation
some of the possible studies are:
 To investigate the Fatigue life by extruding the composites casted.

 To investigate the Fatigue life by increasing the reinforcement content.
 To investigate the Fatigue life at various surface conditions
REFERENCES
1. Yunhui DU, Peng ZHANG, Yujie WANG, Jun ZHANG, Shasha YAO and
Chengyu LI “The Uniform Distribution of SiC Particles in an A356-SiCp
Composite Produced by the Tilt-blade Mechanical Stirring” Acta Metall. Sin.
(Engl. Lett.) Vol.26 No.1 pp. 69-74 February 2013.
2. A. Sakthivel, R. Palaninathan, R. Velmurugan‚ Rao‚ “Production and mechanical
properties of SiCp particle-reinforced” 43(2008) 7047–7056P.
3. G.T. Abdel Jaber, A. M. Omran, Khalil Abdelrazek Khalil, M. Fujii, M.Seki and
A.Yoshida “An Investigation into Solidification and Mechanical Properties
Behaviourof Al-Si Casting Alloys” International Journal of Mechanical &
Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:10 No:04
4. Neelima Devi. C, Mahesh.V, Selvaraj. N “Mechanical characterization of
Aluminium silicon carbide composite” International Journal Of Applied
Engineering Research, Dindigul Volume 1, No 4, 2011
5. Bahul Saroya, Prof Doordarshi Singh, Dr. Jaswanti, K.L.Meena “Experimental
Investigation to Analysis of Mechanical Properties of the Developed Al/SiC-
MMC’s” International Journal of Advanced Trends in Computer Science and
Engineering, Vol.2 , No.1, Pages : 130-134 (2013)
6. Mr.Manjunath.C.Melgi and Dr.G.K.Purohit “A Study of Microstructure and
Mechanical Properties of Aluminium Silicon Carbide Metal Matrix Composites
(MMC’s)” International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)
ISSN: 2278-0181 Vol. 2 Issue 9, September – 2013
7. Mahendra Boopathi, K.P. Arulshri and N. Iyandurai “Evaluation of mechanical
properties of aluminium alloy 2024 reinforced with silicon carbide and fly ash
hybrid metal matrix composites” American Journal of Applied Sciences, 10 (3):
219-229, 2013
8. Ajay Singh, Love Kumar, Mohit Chaudhary, Om Narayan, PallavSharma, Piyush
Singh, Bhaskar Chandra Kandpal, Som Ashutosh “Manufacturing of AMMCs
using stir casting process and testing its mechanical properties” International
Journal of Advanced Engineering Technology E-ISSN 0976-3945
9. Basavaraju.S, Arasukumar.K, Dr.Chandrashekhar Bendigeri, Dr.C.K.Umesh
“Studies on Mechanical Properties and Tribological Characteristics of LM25
Graphite- Silicon Carbide and LM25-Flyash- Silicon Carbide - Hybrid MMC’s”
International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and
Technology Vol. 1, Issue 1, November 2012
10. M.B.Harun, “ Effect Of Fly ash Particulate Reinforced On Microstructure,
Porosity and Hardness In AL-(Si-Mg)”, AJSTD Vol. 23 Issues 1&2 pp. 113-122
(2006)
11. G.N.Lokesh, “ Effect of Hardness, Tensile and Wear Behaviour of Al-4.5wt.% Cu
Alloy/Fly ash/ SiC metal matrix composite”. International Journal of Modern
Engineering Research (IJMER) Vol.3.Issue.1 Jan-Feb.2013 pp-381-385 ISSN:
2249-6645.
12. V.C.Uvaraja, “Comparision on Al6061 and Al7075 Alloy with Sic and B4C
Reinforcement hybrid metal matrix composites”. International Journal of Advance
Research In Technology (IJART), Vol.2 Issue 2,2012,1-12 ISSN NO:66023127
13. D. Sujan, Z. Oo, M. E. Rahman, M. A. Maleque, C. K. Tan “Physio-mechanical
Properties of Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites Reinforced with Al2O3 and
SiC” World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology Vol:6 2012-08-25
14. B. M. Viswanatha, M. Prasanna Kumar, S. Basavarajappa, T. S. Kiran
“Mechanical Property Evaluation Of A356/Sicp/Gr Metal Matrix Composites”
Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Vol. 8, No. 6 (2013) 754 – 763 ©
School of Engineering, Taylor’s University
15. S. Arivukkarasan, V. Dhanalakshmi, A. Suresh babu and M. Aruna “Performance
Study on Fatigue Behaviour in Aluminium Alloy and Alumina Silicate Particulate
Composites” Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp.
127134 (2013) DOI: 10.6180/jase.2013.16.2.03
16. Ana garcia romero, M. Anglada and A. M. Irisarri “Fatigue behaviour of an
aluminium alloy matrix composite” F. INASMET, Mikeletegi p.2 20009 San
Sebastian (Spain).
17. Gonzalo M. Dominguez Almaraz , Jorge L. Avila Ambriz, Erasmo Cadenas
Calderon “Fatigue endurance and crack propagation under rotating bending
fatigue tests on aluminum alloy AISI 6063-T5 with controlled corrosion attack”
Engineering Fracture Mechanics 93 (2012) 119–131
18. A.M. Eleichea, M.M. Megahedb, N.M. Abd-Allahc “Low-cycle fatigue in rotating
cantilever under bending. III: Experimental investigations on notched specimens”
International Journal of Fatigue 28 (2006) 271–280
19. Yuki Nakamura, Tatsuo Sakai , Hideo Hirano , K.S. Ravi Chandran “Effect of
alumite surface treatments on long-life fatigue behaviour of a cast aluminium in
rotating bending” International Journal of Fatigue 32 (2010) 621–626
20. C.S. Shin, P.C. Chen “Fatigue crack propagation testing using subsized rotating
bending specimens” Nuclear Engineering and Design 231 (2004) 13–26
21. Arun.L.R, Saddam Hussain. B, Dr. Suneel Kumar N.Kulkarni “Dynamic
behaviour of hybrid aluminium6061 metal matrix reinforced with sic and fly ash
particulates” International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering
and Technology Vol. 2, Issue 6, June 2013
22. Achutha.M.V, “Fatigue life estimation of hybrid aluminium matrix composites”,
International journal on Design and Manufacturing technologies, Vol.2, No.1, July
2008.
23. Chitoshi Masuda, “Fatigue properties and fatigue fracture mechanisms of sic
whiskers or sic particulate reinforced aluminium composites”, Journal of
Materials science 27 (1992) 413-422
24. Gonzalo M. Dominguez Almaraz, Victor H. Mercado Lemus, J. Jesús Villalon
Lopez “Rotating bending fatigue tests for aluminium alloy 6061 T6, close to
Elastic limit and with artificial pitting holes” Procedia Engineering 2010
25. Raja Thimmarayan, G. Thanigaiyarasu “Effect of particle size, forging and
ageing on the mechanical fatigue characteristics of Al6082/SiC p metal matrix
composites”.

Project Report

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Project Report

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

“FATIGUE CHARACTERIZATION OF A356-SiCp BASED METAL

A project report Submitted to

P.E.S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, MANDYA

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree

Under the guidance of

Dr. S.L.AJIT PRASAD M.Tech, Ph.D.

Signature of the Guide Signature of the HOD

I, SATISH H S hereby declare that this dissertation work entitled

Place: Mandya SATISH H S

I have a great pleasure in expressing my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness

I would like to extend my sincere thanks to Dr. V. SRIDHAR, Principal, P.E.S.

I am sincerely thankful to Mohana kumar K.C, Abhinandan K.S, Ashok

I am thankful to Mr. G.C. Krishnappa Naik, Grindwell Norton LTD, for

I thank Mr. Ravi, Mr. Nagaraju Foreman, Chandru, Chennegowda, Mahesh

Also I express my deep sense of gratitude to my parents and also to my friends,

Composite materials are increasingly replacing traditional engineering materials

From the tests conducted for characterization of mechanical properties, composite

ASTM American Society for Testing Materials

SiC Silicon Carbide

PMC Polymer matrix composite

MMC Metal Matrix Composite

CMC Ceramic Matrix Composite

AMC Aluminium Metal Matrix

DRA Discontinuously Reinforced Aluminium

RHN Rockwell Hardness Number

d Neck diameter of the Fatigue specimen

SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy

1000X 1000 times magnification

M.Tech, Thesis 2013-2014 Dept. of Mechanical Engg, P.E.S.C.E, Mandya 1

THEORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 COMPOSITE MATERIAL

A composite material is a bi-phase or multiphase material whose mechanical properties

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

2.2.1 Based on the form of the Reinforcement components

Particulate Or Fiber Structural

Continuous fibers Laminates

2.2.2 Based on the Structure of the Matrix materials

Polymer Metal Ceramic

 Thermoplastic  Light metal &alloys  Ceramic

Fig 2.3: Classification of composite materials based on matrix materials

1) Polymer matrix composites (PMC) - Also known as FRP-Fiber reinforced

2) Metal matrix composites (MMC) - Increasingly found in the automotive industry,

2.3 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

1) Continuous reinforced composites, constituted by continuous fibers or filaments.

2) Discontinuous reinforced composites, containing short fibers, whiskers or particles.

2.3.1 Merits of MMCS

1. Very high specific strength and specific modulus

2.3.2 Demerits of MMCS

1. Difficulty with processing

2.4. ALUMINIUM MATRIX COMPOSITES

2.5. PROCESSING TECHNIQUES OF MMC’s

There is a multitude of fabrication techniques of metal matrix composites

1. Solid state processing.

2. Liquid state processing.

2.5.1. SOLID STATE PROCESSING

1. Powder Blending and Consolidation

3. Physical Vapour Deposition

2.5.2. LIQUID STATE PROCESSING

Fig.2.4 Schematic representation of stir casting process

Major factors to be consider during stir casting

 Difficulty of achieving of uniform distribution of the reinforcement materials.

4. In-situ Processing (Reactive Processing)

2.6 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDER DURING STIR CASTING