10.2305 IUCN - UK.2020-2.RLTS.T44175A2992874.en

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™
ISSN 2307-8235 (online)

IUCN 2020: T44175A2992874
Scope(s): Global
Language: English
Amblyrhynchus cristatus ssp. hassi, Santa Cruz Marine

Iguana
Assessment by: MacLeod, A., Nelson, K. & Grant, T.D.
View on www.iucnredlist.org
Citation: MacLeod, A., Nelson, K. & Grant, T.D. 2020. Amblyrhynchus cristatus ssp. hassi. The IUCN
Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T44175A2992874.
https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T44175A2992874.en
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Taxonomy
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family
Animalia Chordata Reptilia Squamata Iguanidae
Scientific Name: Amblyrhynchus cristatus ssp. hassi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962
Parent Species: See Amblyrhynchus cristatus
Common Name(s):
• English: Santa Cruz Marine Iguana
Taxonomic Source(s):
Iguana Taxonomy Working Group (ITWG). 2016. A checklist of the iguanas of the world (Iguanidae;
Iguaninae). In: J.B. Iverson, T.D. Grant, C.R. Knapp and S.A. Pasachnik (eds), Iguanas: Biology,
Systematics, and Conservation, pp. 4–46. Herpetological Conservation and Biology 11(Monograph 6).
Assessment Information
Red List Category & Criteria: Endangered B1ab(iii,v)c(iv); C2b ver 3.1
Year Published: 2020
Date Assessed: December 1, 2019
Justification:
The Santa Cruz Marine Iguana is found on the islands of Santa Cruz, Baltra, Seymour Norte, Plaza Sur,
Plaza Norte, and very likely other satellite cays in the Galápagos Islands, Ecuador. The estimated extent
of occurrence is 1,439 km2 by minimum convex polygon and the area of occupancy is estimated at 580
km2. The population size is poorly known and crudely estimated at 2,000–13,000 total iguanas with
fewer than 7,800 mature individuals. Genetic data indicate a small effective population size. Overall
population trend is unknown, but is subject to extreme reductions and fluctuations during El Niño
events, which are predicted to intensify in the future with ongoing climate change. This iguana is
threatened by invasive alien Black Rats, Norway Rats, feral cats, and free-roaming pigs and dogs. Santa
Cruz Marine Iguanas are threatened by a region-wide increase in human population and visitation that
has multiplied the impacts from stress, marine pollution, habitat degradation, and chance of further
invasive species introductions and emergent diseases. Land-based tourist presence and intensity has
been shown to have a significant overall negative effect on iguana health.
The population is estimated to have been reduced by at least 30–40% over the last three generations
(18–24 years) due to the impacts of invasive alien predators, oil spills, low effective population size, and
cyclic feast/famine fluctuations. Without significant invasive species and pollution control, declines are
projected to continue in the near future, with a percent reduction of at least 20–30% estimated over the
past two generations and one generation into the future. This subspecies qualifies for listing as
Endangered.
Previously Published Red List Assessments
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Amblyrhynchus cristatus ssp. hassi – published in 2020. 1
2004 – Vulnerable (VU)
https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T44175A10856112.en
Geographic Range
Range Description:
The Santa Cruz Marine Iguana is restricted to Santa Cruz, Baltra, Seymour Norte, Plaza Sur, Plaza Norte,
and very likely other satellite cays, (Rassmann et al. 1997, Wikelski and Wrege 2000, Miralles et al.
2017), Galápagos Archipelago, Ecuador. This iguana has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,439 km2
by minimum convex polygon enclosing all subpopulations. The area of occupancy is estimated at 580
km2 by excluding land mass beyond 2 km from the shoreline on Santa Cruz and using a 2x2 km grid
overlay. They are found near and below sea level at depths up to 30 m (large adult males). Maximum
elevation for Santa Cruz is 864 m, although it is unlikely they are found at high elevation.
Country Occurrence:
Native, Extant (resident): Ecuador (Galápagos)
FAO Marine Fishing Areas:

Native: Pacific - southeast
Distribution Map
Population
Only very rough estimates of population size are available for the Santa Cruz Marine Iguana. They are
noted to be as low as 2,000 total individuals after a strong El Niño famine and as many as 13,000 after
several years of La Niña abundant food conditions (Wikelski and Nelson 2004).
Recent genetic analysis indicates that the population shows a small effective population size (167, range:
126–214; MacLeod and Steinfartz 2016), which may have serious consequences for the fitness of the
population and could reduce the ability to adapt to rapidly changing environmental conditions
(Frankham et al. 2014). Little is known regarding current adult numbers, but it is estimated to be under
7,800 based on calculations indicating that 60% of the maximum total population are adults (Laurie
1983, Laurie and Brown 1990a, MacLeod et al. 2016). Average generation length is five years for females
and 12 years for males.
Populations undergo extreme fluctuations by cyclic, but unpredictably recurring, famine (El Niño) and
feast (La Niña) events. On Seymour Norte during the El Niño of 1997–1998, ca 90% of population
disappeared, reducing the population size to less than 150 individuals (Wikelski and Wrege 2000,
Romero and Wikelski 2001). El Niño events dramatically reduce the abundance, diversity, and nutritional
value of available marine algae, as the iguanas are unable to digest the algae that grows during these
periods (Trillmich and Trillmich 1986). Population declines are strongly density-dependent: the higher
the population density, the higher the mortalities during El Niños (from 10–90%). Population recovery
after El Niños can be rapid, as individuals grow faster, reproduce more frequently and lay more eggs
(Laurie and Brown 1990a).
The population is estimated to have been reduced by at least 30–40% over the last three generations
(18–24 years) due to the impacts of invasive alien predators, oil spills (62% mortality in 2001–2002 on
nearby Santa Fé for a spill that occurred off the coast of San Cristóbal), low effective population size, and
cyclic feast/famine fluctuations. The number of iguanas on Santa Cruz was noted to be significantly less
than expected in 2002 (Snell and Márquez 2002). Without significant invasive species and pollution
control (another diesel spill in 2019), declines are projected to continue in the near future, with a
percent reduction of at least 20–30% estimated over the past two generations and one generation into
the future.
Current Population Trend: Unknown
Habitat and Ecology (see Appendix for additional information)

Marine Iguanas are the only lizard species that forage in the ocean. Adults and juveniles occur on rocky
coasts and intertidal zones. Adult females can be found nesting up to 2 km inland and adult males can
be found foraging in marine waters, up to depths of 30 m.
Santa Cruz Marine Iguanas feed almost exclusively on marine algae, primarily three red genera
(Centroceras, Gelidium, Pterocladia; Rubenstein and Wikelski 2003) and the green algal genus Ulva
when exposed during low tides (Shepherd and Hawkes 2005). The majority of iguanas graze intertidally,
though the largest iguanas of each colony also dive beneath the sea surface to forage on offshore algal
beds (30 m offshore, 2–30 m depth; Buttemer and Dawson 1993, Wikelski and Trillmich 1994). Some
iguana populations have been known to supplement their algal diet with highly salty land plants,
primarily Saltwort (Batis maritima), but also other coastal succulents such as Sesuvium portulacastrum
(Wikelski and Wrege 2000).
Marine Iguanas exhibit high morphological diversity, including substantial body size and shape variation
among populations and sexes (Chiari et al. 2016). Santa Cruz Marine Iguanas are the largest subspecies;
males are larger, with different head morphology than females and very well-developed spines along
the back. Average body size (snout-to-vent length) is 351 mm (range 210–485 mm; Miralles et al. 2017).
Adult males weigh approximately 70% more than adult females (Laurie and Brown 1990a). Differences
in maximum body size across islands is likely due to variability in algal productivity and sea surface
temperature between islands (Wikelski and Trillmich 1997, Wikelski and Romero 2003, Wikelski 2005).
The Santa Cruz Marine Iguana is the only subspecies that is known to occasionally hybridize with the
Galápagos Land Iguana (Conolophus subcristatus), and only on the island of Plaza Sur (Rassmann et al.
1997). This island has an unusual topography that allows contact between the two species, whereas
their habitats normally do not overlap. A hybrid that was first marked in 1993 was recaptured in 2013,
extending the previous longevity record for hybrids by 10 years (H. Snell pers. comm.).
Reproduction occurs once a year during a month-long mating season, coinciding with the highest
abundance and best nutritional quality of food (Rubenstein and Wikelski 2003). Nutrient-rich upwellings
from the Humboldt and Cromwell currents affect all islands differently, so mating occurs at different
times across the archipelago, varying somewhat from year to year. During this time males tend to
become more colourful.
Marine Iguanas are the only lizard known to use a lek mating system, in which dominant males defend
small territories (without resources beyond themselves) from other males. Male mating success is highly
skewed to a few individuals and depends on body size, condition, and head-bob courtship behavior. A
single territorial male may be responsible for 35% of copulations on a lek (Trillmich 1983; Wikelski et al.
1996, 2001). Non-territorial males roam the periphery and try to force copulations with females,
although they are rarely successful (Wikelski and Bäurle 1996). “Sneaker” males (physically small and
resembling females) occupy the territories and also try to force copulations with females, which is also
almost never successful.
Around four weeks after mating, females seek out and defend suitable sandy areas for digging burrows
(Rauch 1988). Females lay 1–6 eggs (most commonly 2–3), which is highly dependent on female body
condition and food availability. On Santa Cruz Island, Rauch (1988) examined females in 1981 and 1982.
Although the number of eggs laid ranged from 1–4, the average clutch size was 2.26. Eggs are left to
incubate for three months (Laurie 1990; Laurie and Brown 1990a, 1990b). Individual female iguanas
typically reproduce once every two years (Vitousek 2009), or annually during periods of high food
abundance (Laurie 1990). Hatchlings emerge at a body mass of ca 50 g (Trillmich and Trillmich 1986).
Systems: Terrestrial, Marine
Use and Trade

This species is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Wildlife trafficking is the third most profitable illegal activity in the world,
and although Ecuador has never declared export of live specimens of Amblyrhynchus cristatus for
commercial trade (CITES trade data, UNEP-WCMC 2018), they are known to exist in the pet trade. Four
smuggling cases with prosecutions occurred between 2010 and 2015 (Auliya et al. 2016). While not
significantly reducing the population currently, their entry into the pet trade is of concern.
Threats (see Appendix for additional information)

Santa Cruz Marine Iguanas are threatened by extreme fluctuations in population size caused by periodic
El Niño events (30–50% average mortality in the region, and up to 90% as was observed on Seymour
Norte). Deaths are due to starvation following a rapid temperature-driven change in the algal
community (Wikelski et al. 1996). During El Niño events, warm water from the Gulf of Panama flows
toward the Galápagos and the nutrient upwelling is suppressed, which results in the proliferation of
brown algae (e.g., Giffordia mitchelliae) that is not easily digestible by iguanas and may be toxic. The
largest animals of each subpopulation starve first (Wikelski and Trillmich 1997, Wikelski et al. 1997,
Wikelski 2005) followed by smaller individuals during these periods. Food shortages during El Niño
events can lead to the unusual phenomenon of shrinking in body length within just a few months
(Wikelski and Thom 2000), apparently facilitated by absorption of their own bone matter. Predictions
that climate change may increase the severity and frequency of El Niño events (Timmermann et al.
1999) suggest that some subpopulations could be removed entirely.
There is an ongoing significant threat to Santa Cruz Marine Iguanas from invasive alien predators,
particularly cats (Felis catus), Black Rats (Rattus rattus), and Norway Rats (Rattus norwegicus), as well as
free-roaming domestic dogs (Canis familiaris, Kruuk and Snell 1981) and pigs (Sus domesticus), all of
which occur on Santa Cruz and some of its satellite cays (Phillips et al. 2012). For several decades, the
presence of cats has been associated with a lack of hatchling and juvenile Marine Iguanas (Laurie 1983,
Cayot et al. 1994, MacLeod and Steinfartz 2016) and predation has been directly confirmed (Konecny
1983, Laurie 1983). Black and Norway Rats likely pose the most significant threat to young Marine
Iguanas on islands where other food sources for the rats are scarce as on the small cays (Cayot et al.
1994).
The Galápagos has seen a dramatic recent increase in both tourists and residents living on the islands
and adversely affecting the ecosystem. Approximately 25,000 people live among five islands (Toral-
Granda et al. 2017), though this figure likely does not include illegal residents seeking work in the
tourism industry. The total number of tourists arriving in Galápagos each year has also increased from
11,765 in 1979 to 224,755 tourists in 2015, a 19-fold increase. Between 2000 and 2015, average annual
tourism growth was 8.2% and the number of sites visited has increased to 169. The nature of tourism
has also changed, from being historically boat-based, to now being significantly land-based (on the
inhabited islands) (Toral-Granda et al. 2017). Tourist presence and intensity has been shown to have a
significant overall negative effect on immunological capability, endocrine response, and oxidative stress
in Marine Iguanas (French et al. 2010, 2017).
Cargo ship traffic has risen to supply the larger resident and tourist population, and this has brought an
increase in various types of pollution, habitat degradation, and an increased chance of invasive
terrestrial species introductions and emergent mosquito-borne diseases. Additionally, the potential for
aquatic invaders on ship hulls and in ballast water may pose a threat to the Marine Iguanas’ food supply
(Toral-Granda et al. 2017). An unusual mortality (62% loss) on Santa Fé was recorded in 2001 following a
diesel and oil spill from a tanker that ran aground near the island of San Cristóbal (Wikelski et al. 2002).
Other subpopulations may have well been affected, but this was not recorded due to lack of long-term
monitoring for most islands. Notable is that just trace amounts of oil around Santa Fé caused this
mortality, indicating the extreme sensitivity of Marine Iguanas to such pollution. It is thought that the
symbiotic bacteria within the gut of the iguanas that are essential for proper digestion (Mackie et al.
2004) were negatively affected/removed by this exposure, resulting in the iguanas being unable to
digest their food.
On islands with permanent human settlements (Santa Cruz and Baltra), municipal waste incineration of
organic waste and plastics in open dump areas is a potential source of unintentionally-produced
persistent organic pollutants such as dioxins and furans. Over 50% of the currently used pesticides
applied in the agriculture zone were identified as endocrine-disrupting chemicals, underscoring
potential health effects in the endemic fauna (Alava et al. 2014). Widespread marine plastic debris and
micro-plastic pollution may be an emerging threat to Marine Iguanas and their food source.
Conservation Actions (see Appendix for additional information)

The entire distribution of Santa Cruz Marine Iguanas is included in three protected areas: Galápagos
National Park and National Marine Reserve, Galápagos Islands Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO),
and Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site. Because the Galápagos is a high tourism area, it has
attracted large numbers of migrants from the Ecuadorian mainland seeking tourist industry jobs. To curb
population increase, Ecuador enacted a new law (Ley Orgánica de Régimen Especial para la
Conservación y Desarrollo Sustentable de la Provincia de Galápagos: LOREG) requiring a special visa to
visit the Galápagos, and there are strict limits on who can move there permanently (Strahm and Patry
2010).
Several eradication programmes have occurred in the Galápagos, including feral goats (Capra hircus)
from Baltra and Plaza Sur, cats from Baltra, and rats from Seymour Norte (Phillips et al. 2012). Continued
efforts to eradicate or control cats, dogs, rats, and pigs to benefit all subpopulations of Santa Cruz
Marine Iguanas are sorely needed. The impact of rats is less well understood, however, it was
documented that more hatchlings than normal were observed following a nearly complete eradication
of Black Rats from Pinzón in 1988 (Cayot et al. 1994).
Conservation and research actions recommended for the species include an improved knowledge of
population size, trends, distribution, factors limiting population size, habitat trends, and invasive species
management. Research to understand the impact of warming waters (climate change and El Niño) on
individual algae species, along with other factors affecting algae community composition and iguana
foraging dynamics is recommended (Shepherd and Hawks 2005, Vinueza et al. 2006, Tomkins and Wolff
2017). An increased understanding of the effect of widespread oceanic pollution, including oil spills and
micro-plastics, on Santa Cruz Marine Iguanas and their micro-biota (which enable effective digestion) is
also needed. Plastic debris ranks as one of the most abundant and persistent solid wastes at sea and
shorelines, representing 25% of the total marine debris collected during beach cleanups in the
Galápagos (Alava et al. 2014). Improved biosecurity measures to prevent disease introductions, such as
West Nile Virus, avian malaria, and other are also recommended. Ongoing monitoring for introduced
pathogens in Galápagos reptiles and other fauna is needed (Bataille et al. 2009; Eastwood et al. 2013,
2014).
Credits
Assessor(s): MacLeod, A., Nelson, K. & Grant, T.D.
Reviewer(s): Perry, G.
Contributor(s): Steinfartz, S.
Authority/Authorities: IUCN SSC Iguana Specialist Group
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Citation
MacLeod, A., Nelson, K. & Grant, T.D. 2020. Amblyrhynchus cristatus ssp. hassi. The IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species 2020: e.T44175A2992874. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-
2.RLTS.T44175A2992874.en
Disclaimer
To make use of this information, please check the Terms of Use.
External Resources
For Supplementary Material, and for Images and External Links to Additional Information, please see the
Red List website.
Appendix
Habitats
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Major
Habitat Season Suitability
Importance?
3. Shrubland -> 3.5. Shrubland - Subtropical/Tropical Dry Breeding Suitable Yes

season
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.2. Marine Neritic - Subtidal Rock and Rocky Reefs Resident Suitable Yes
12. Marine Intertidal -> 12.1. Marine Intertidal - Rocky Shoreline Resident Suitable Yes
12. Marine Intertidal -> 12.2. Marine Intertidal - Sandy Shoreline and/or Breeding Suitable Yes
Beaches, Sand Bars, Spits, Etc season
12. Marine Intertidal -> 12.3. Marine Intertidal - Shingle and/or Pebble Resident Marginal -
Shoreline and/or Beaches
12. Marine Intertidal -> 12.4. Marine Intertidal - Mud Flats and Salt Flats Resident Marginal -
Use and Trade

End Use Local National International
Pets/display animals, horticulture Yes Yes No
Threats
Threat Timing Scope Severity Impact Score
1. Residential & commercial development -> 1.1. Ongoing Majority (50- Causing/could Medium
Housing & urban areas 90%) cause fluctuations impact: 6
Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation

1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.3. Indirect ecosystem effects
2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
6. Human intrusions & disturbance -> 6.1. Ongoing Majority (50- Causing/could Medium
Recreational activities 90%) cause fluctuations impact: 6
Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.2. Species disturbance

2. Species Stresses -> 2.3. Indirect species effects
8. Invasive and other problematic species, genes & Ongoing Minority (50%) Slow, significant Low impact: 5
diseases -> 8.1. Invasive non-native/alien declines
species/diseases -> 8.1.2. Named species (Sus

domesticus)
Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
8. Invasive and other problematic species, genes & Ongoing Minority (50%) Rapid declines Medium
diseases -> 8.1. Invasive non-native/alien impact: 6
species/diseases -> 8.1.2. Named species (Canis

familiaris)
8. Invasive and other problematic species, genes & Ongoing Minority (50%) Rapid declines Medium
diseases -> 8.1. Invasive non-native/alien impact: 6
species/diseases -> 8.1.2. Named species (Felis catus)

8. Invasive and other problematic species, genes & Ongoing Majority (50- Slow, significant Medium
diseases -> 8.1. Invasive non-native/alien 90%) declines impact: 6
species/diseases -> 8.1.2. Named species (Rattus

rattus)
8. Invasive and other problematic species, genes & Ongoing Minority (50%) Slow, significant Low impact: 5
diseases -> 8.1. Invasive non-native/alien declines
species/diseases -> 8.1.2. Named species (Rattus

norvegicus)
9. Pollution -> 9.2. Industrial & military effluents -> Past, likely Majority (50- Causing/could Past impact
9.2.1. Oil spills to return 90%) cause fluctuations

9. Pollution -> 9.4. Garbage & solid waste Ongoing Majority (50- Unknown Unknown
90%)
11. Climate change & severe weather -> 11.1. Habitat Future Majority (50- Causing/could Low impact: 4
shifting & alteration 90%) cause fluctuations
Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.3. Indirect ecosystem effects

11. Climate change & severe weather -> 11.3. Ongoing Majority (50- Causing/could Medium
Temperature extremes 90%) cause fluctuations impact: 6
Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.3. Indirect ecosystem effects

11. Climate change & severe weather -> 11.4. Storms Past, likely Majority (50- Causing/could Past impact
& flooding to return 90%) cause fluctuations

12. Other options -> 12.1. Other threat Future Whole (>90%) Unknown Unknown

Conservation Actions in Place
Conservation Action in Place

In-place research and monitoring
Action Recovery Plan: No
Systematic monitoring scheme: No
In-place land/water protection
Conservation sites identified: No
Percentage of population protected by PAs: 91-100
Area based regional management plan: No
Occurs in at least one protected area: Yes
Invasive species control or prevention: Yes
In-place species management
Harvest management plan: No
Successfully reintroduced or introduced benignly: No
Subject to ex-situ conservation: No
In-place education
Subject to recent education and awareness programmes: No
Included in international legislation: Yes
Subject to any international management / trade controls: Yes
Conservation Actions Needed

Conservation Action Needed

1. Land/water protection -> 1.2. Resource & habitat protection
2. Land/water management -> 2.2. Invasive/problematic species control
5. Law & policy -> 5.1. Legislation -> 5.1.3. Sub-national level
Research Needed
Research Needed
1. Research -> 1.2. Population size, distribution & trends
Research Needed
1. Research -> 1.3. Life history & ecology
1. Research -> 1.5. Threats
2. Conservation Planning -> 2.2. Area-based Management Plan
3. Monitoring -> 3.1. Population trends
3. Monitoring -> 3.4. Habitat trends
Additional Data Fields

Distribution
Estimated area of occupancy (AOO) (km²): 580
Continuing decline in area of occupancy (AOO): Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in area of occupancy (AOO): Unknown
Estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) (km²): 1439
Continuing decline in extent of occurrence (EOO): Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in extent of occurrence (EOO): Unknown
Number of Locations: 2-3
Continuing decline in number of locations: Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in the number of locations: Unknown
Lower elevation limit (m): 0
Upper elevation limit (m): 400
Lower depth limit (m): 30
Upper depth limit (m): 0
Population
Number of mature individuals: 1,200-7,800
Continuing decline of mature individuals: Yes
Extreme fluctuations: Yes
Population severely fragmented: No
Continuing decline in subpopulations: Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in subpopulations: Unknown
All individuals in one subpopulation: No
Habitats and Ecology
Continuing decline in area, extent and/or quality of habitat: Yes
Generation Length (years): 6-8
Movement patterns: Not a Migrant
The IUCN Red List Partnership
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ is produced and managed by the IUCN Global Species
Programme, the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) and The IUCN Red List Partnership.
The IUCN Red List Partners are: Arizona State University; BirdLife International; Botanic Gardens
Conservation International; Conservation International; NatureServe; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew;
Sapienza University of Rome; Texas A&M University; and Zoological Society of London.
THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™

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The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™

ISSN 2307-8235 (online)

Amblyrhynchus cristatus ssp. hassi, Santa Cruz Marine

Assessment by: MacLeod, A., Nelson, K. & Grant, T.D.

THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™

Animalia Chordata Reptilia Squamata Iguanidae

Scientific Name: Amblyrhynchus cristatus ssp. hassi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962

Parent Species: See Amblyrhynchus cristatus

Year Published: 2020

Date Assessed: December 1, 2019

Previously Published Red List Assessments

FAO Marine Fishing Areas:

Habitat and Ecology (see Appendix for additional information)

Use and Trade

Threats (see Appendix for additional information)

Conservation Actions (see Appendix for additional information)

Authority/Authorities: IUCN SSC Iguana Specialist Group

Laurie, A. 1983. Marine iguanas in the Galápagos. Oryx 17: 18-25.

3. Shrubland -> 3.5. Shrubland - Subtropical/Tropical Dry Breeding Suitable Yes

Use and Trade

End Use Local National International

Pets/display animals, horticulture Yes Yes No

Threat Timing Scope Severity Impact Score

Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation

Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.2. Species disturbance

species/diseases -> 8.1.2. Named species (Sus

species/diseases -> 8.1.2. Named species (Canis

species/diseases -> 8.1.2. Named species (Felis catus)

species/diseases -> 8.1.2. Named species (Rattus

species/diseases -> 8.1.2. Named species (Rattus

Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation

Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.3. Indirect ecosystem effects

Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.3. Indirect ecosystem effects

Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation

Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality

Conservation Action in Place

Action Recovery Plan: No

Systematic monitoring scheme: No

In-place land/water protection

Conservation sites identified: No

Percentage of population protected by PAs: 91-100

Area based regional management plan: No

Occurs in at least one protected area: Yes

Invasive species control or prevention: Yes

In-place species management

Harvest management plan: No

Successfully reintroduced or introduced benignly: No

Subject to ex-situ conservation: No

Subject to recent education and awareness programmes: No

Included in international legislation: Yes

Subject to any international management / trade controls: Yes

Conservation Actions Needed

Conservation Action Needed

2. Land/water management -> 2.2. Invasive/problematic species control

1. Research -> 1.5. Threats

2. Conservation Planning -> 2.2. Area-based Management Plan

3. Monitoring -> 3.1. Population trends

3. Monitoring -> 3.4. Habitat trends

Additional Data Fields

Continuing decline in area of occupancy (AOO): Unknown

Extreme fluctuations in area of occupancy (AOO): Unknown

Estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) (km²): 1439

Continuing decline in extent of occurrence (EOO): Unknown