Fitting

Fitting is the process of assembling various parts manufactured in the machine

shop. Parts finished in machining operations often require hand operations to
obtain desired finish and fit.
The tools most commonly used in fitting practice may be classified into the
following groups.
1.Holding tools
2. Cutting tools
3. Striking tools
4. Marking and measuring tools
5.bench and other miscellaneous tools
Bench : The bench is regarded as fitter's head quarter. Its standard height is 0.8
m and width 0.75 m, the length may be selected depending on the number of
vices to be mounted. It must be strong, rigid and free from undue movement.
1.Holding tools :
In most of metal-removing operations considerable forces will be involve
necessary that the work must be securely gripped, so that it does not move
when subjected to the cutting forces. This prevents slipping of work during
cutting operations.
i) Bench vice (parallel jaw vice) :
It is a most commonly used tool for holding the work. It has two jaws one of
which is fixed to the bench and other slides with the aid of square screw and a
box nut arrangement. The sliding jaw moves close to the fixed jaw to hold the
work and the tightening force is exerted by further rotation of handle.
ii) Pipe vice : It is generally used in plumbing work for holding the hollow circular
sections such as pipes and round bars. It has two serrated jaws, one is fixed and
the other is moved by rotation of handle. It grips the round bars or pipes at four
points
iii) Hand vice : It is used for holding small objects for drilling, filing when
they are inconvenient to hold by the bench vice. It has two hardened steel
jaws and the jaw legs are hinged together at the bottom. A spring is
provided between these legs to keep them away. The work is held between
the serrated jaws by means of a wing nut and screw.
iv) Pin vice : It is used for holding very small parts such as wires, nails and pins. It
consists of three jaws self centring chuck. The work piece is held in chuck by
rotating the handle.

v) Tool maker's vice : It is a small vice used for holding small jobs which require
filing, drilling or tapping. It is used by tool and die makers and silversmiths to
hold small jobs.
vi) Leg vice : It is another type of vice and is generally used in forging shop. It
has one leg extending down which is anchored or fastened into the floor. It is
strong and can withstand hammer blows. A black smith's leg vice with jaws 100
to 125 mm wide is considered as an all purpose metal working vice.
 Cutting Tools
Cutting is the most important operation of removing excess material from the
blank to obtain desired finished part. The various cutting tools most commonly
used in fitting are described below
(a) Hand Hack Saw : Hack saw is the basic hand tool for cutting unwanted
materials. It is used for cutting metals and making recesses prior to filing or
chipping. It is also used to cutting slots and contours.
Parts of hand hack saw :
1. Metal frame
2. Blade
3. Handle
4. Wing nut
5. Screw
The metal frame : It is made in two forms
1.Solid (fixed) frame : In solid frame only a particular standard length of blade
can be fitted.

2. Adjustable (flexible) frame : An adjustable frame is most useful and different

standard lengths of blades can be fitted.
Hand Hack Saws Blades :
Hack saw blade is a thin, narrow steel strip with teeth on an edge and two pin
holes at the ends. The blades are made with tool steel, low tungsten alloy steel
or high speed steel.
The blades are made in two grades:
1.All hard blades : All hard blades are made with high speed steel and entire
blade is hardened. They are relatively expensive. They are very easily broken if
they are not used properly. For this reason, they are not suitable for beginners.

2. Flexible-back blades : However, they cut faster and more accuracy than
flexible blades .For flexible blades only teeth are hardened. The remainder of
blade is tough and capable of flexing. Because of this flexing, these blades are
useful for cutting
Power Hack Saw :
Power hack saw is used to cut materials that are larger than 15mm size. Based
on their design and operation, they are classified as:
1. Reciprocating saw
2. Circular saw and
3. Band saw
Power Hack Saw / Horizontal Reciprocating saw /Reciprocating saw :
In this machine the blade reciprocates in a horizontal direction. The blade cuts in
one stroke, and blade lifted clear of the cut during return stroke by means of
hydraulic device. The blade is fixed in moving frame such that its teeth points
towards the direction of cutting.
Down feed is applied during the cutting stroke. The saw feed is regulated by the
weight kept on the frame. For very light cuts it is necessary to remove the load
completely.
Constructional details :
Bed is a rigid box-like casting with a wider trough which collects coolants and swarf. It also houses the
motor and coolant pump. It is made up of cast iron.

Saw frame & blade : Saw frame (saw bow) supports hacksaw blade. A prop is fitted to hold the saw
clear of the work while adjustments are being made. An adjustable work stop is attached to the table.
The stop is set and locked at a particular linear dimension. The work pieces of same linear dimensions
may be cut without measurement. Power hacksaw blades are made from high carbon steel or high
speed steel. Standard blade lengths range from 300 mm to 450 mm with 50 mm step.

Vice : The work piece is held in a vice. It has a fixed jaw and movable jaw. The movable may be
swivelled to 45° on either side to clamp the work of different sizes and at a desired inclination.
Clamping force is applied through movable jaw to hold the work piece securely against the face of the
fixed jaw.

coolant system : The work and blade are cooled by cutting fluids. Fluids also wash chips away from the
cut and increase the blade life. The motor is also coupled to the self-priming centrifugal pump which
supplies coolants insufficient quantity during operation
v)drive system and power source : The motor is housed in the body of the machine and transmits
power to crankshaft by means of V-belt drive. After completing the cut, the motor is automatically
stopped by cam which operates the 'cut-off switch. The motor is restarted by pressing 'on' switch that
restores the whole circuit.
Power Hack Saw / Horizontal Reciprocating saw /Reciprocating saw
File:
File is a cutting tool with multiple cutting edges (teeth) used for producing smooth surface.
The accuracy that can be achieved in filing varies from 0.2 to 0.05mm. File is made up a high
carbon steel, and after cutting teeth it is hardened and tempered.
The parts of a file are
Tang : Narrow and thin part of a file. It is soft and fits into the wooden handle
Tip or point : This is the end of the file opposite to tang.
Face or side : The broad part of a file with teeth cut on it. The face of the file is slightly convex
along its length. This is done to avoid contact of all teeth with work surface because it requires
too much pressure on file. All the teeth on a file point away from the handle, so that cutting
takes place only in forward direction.
Edge : The thin part of the file with or without teeth.
Heel : The broad part of the file without teeth.
Shoulder : The curved part of a file separating the tang from the body.
Handle : The part fitted to the tang to hold and use the file. It is generally made with wood.
Safe edge of a file : The edge of a file that has no teeth is called safe edge of a file. The edge
keeps one side of a workpiece safe while an adjacent surface is being filed.
File
Specification of a file : Files are specified according to their
-Length
-grade
-teeth pattern
-Shape
Length : The length of a file is measured from heel to point i.e., excluding tang. Hand files are available
from 100 to 450 mm in length. But files with100 mm, 150 mm, 200 mm, 250 mm and 300 mm lengths
are more commonly used. Large files (lengths over 300 mm) are used for heavier work.
Grade : The grade depends upon the length of the file. A short file will have more teeth per cm (i.e.
finer pitch) than a long file.
Depending on the finess or pitch of teeth, files are graded as follows.
(a) Rough : It has 8 teeth per cm., and is used for every rough work such as filing metal after chipping
(b) Bastard : It has 12 teeth per cm and is intended for rough work such as filing of metal after sawing.
It cuts smaller amounts of material than rough file.
(c) Second cut : It has 16 teeth per cm., and is used for general work. It gives better finish than bastard
cut, and removes smaller amounts of material.
(d) Smooth :It has 20 to 24 teeth per cm., and is used for providing the smooth surfaces.
(e) Dead smooth : It has 25 to 40 teeth per cm., and removes very less material. It is therefore used
for finishing works.
Teeth pattern :
The teeth are cut diagonally across the face. According to the pattern of teeth,
files are classified as
(a) Single cut files : it has teeth parallel to each other and inclined at an angle
of 45 to 60° with the edge. These files are used for soft materials, such as lead,
tin, aluminium etc, and provide better surface finish. Single cut files are also
used for sharpening saws and knives.

(b) Double cut files : in double cut file additional set of teeth are cut across the
first at an angle of70° to 80° from the opposite edge. These files are used for
steel, cast iron and other harder materials.
Shape :Files of different cross-section are needed to suit the various jobs. Files
with different shapes (cross-section)
(a) Flat file : Flat file is generally used for heavy filing. This file is parallel to about
two third of length, then tapers in both width and thickness. It has double cut
teeth on faces and single cut on It is used for filing flat surfaces. It produce a
comparatively rough finish. It is available in lengths ranging from 150 mm to 450
mm.
(b) Hand file : It is most commonly used for filing flat surfaces. It has rectangular
cross-section with parallel edges throughout, but thickness is tapered towards
point. It has double cut teeth on faces and single cut teeth on only one edge
i.e., other edge safe. Hence, it is useful where the flat file is not suitable.

(c) Square file : It is used for filing square and rectangular holes, for finishing the
bottom narrow slots. It has a square cross section with double cut teeth on all
faces. The sides are tapered towards point. Its length varies from 100 mm to 400
mm.
(d) Round file : It is used for filing circular holes, curved face and finishing fillets.
It has a circular cross section, usually tapered towards point, such a file is called
rat-tail file. It is available in lengths from 100 mm to 400 mm.

(e) Half round file : It is used for filing curved surfaces. Its cross section tapers
towards the point. It has double cut teeth on flat surface and single cut teeth on
curved surface. Its length varies from 150 mm to 400 mm.

(f)Triangular file : It is used for filing grooves, slots, holes and sharp corners. It
has triangular cross section with double cut on all faces. It is often referred as
three square file. It is also used for sharpening wood saws. It is available in 100 to
400 mm lengths.
(g) Knife edge file : It is used for filing narrow slots, grooves and sharp corners. Its
width and thickness are tapered towards point, in the form of knife and the
included angle of the sharp edge being approximately 10°. It had double cut teeth
on faces and single cut teeth on edges. Its length varies from 150 mm to 300 mm.

(h) Warding file : It is used for filing narrow slots. It has rectangular cross section,
parallel in thickness throughout but width is tapered towards point as in Fig. 1.82
(9)Its teeth pattern is similar to flat file, but it is thinner in cross section. Its length
varies from 100 mm to 300 mm.
(i)Pillar file : It is used for filing narrow slots and key ways. It is a rectangular
cross-section, may be parallel or tapered towards point. Its teeth pattern is similar
to hand file, but it is thinner in cross section. It is available in lengths of from 150
mm to 400 mm.
(j) Needle file : It is used in instrument work and watch making industry for filing
very thin and delicate parts. This type of file is also used by tool and die makers. It
has parallel tang with different cross sections to suit particular jobs. These files
are available in lengths of 100 mm, 140 mm and 160 mm.
Files
Chisels : A cold chisel is an important cutting tool used in fitting. It is used for cutting
thin sheets and to remove excess material from large surface. In this case the surface
finish and accuracy are usually poor.
Parts of Chisels : Chisels are made from high carbon steel or chrome vanadium steel.
It consists of the following parts
1.Head
2. Body or shank
3. Point or cutting edge
The cross section of the shank is usually hexagonal or octagonal and the head is
tapered towards the top. The head and shank is made tough to withstand hammer
blows. The cutting edge is hardened and tempered, and ground to specified angle. The
hardening followed by tempering make the chisel to maintain its sharp cutting edge
and to reduce the brittleness so that the cutting edge is less liable to fracture Cutting
angles for cold chisel. The point angle varies from 30° to 70°. The larger angle sare
usually provided for cutting harder materials.
The chisel is specified by the width of cutting edge. The following information
may also be stated in specification of the chisel. Length type, and cross section
of the shank. The length of chisels ranges from 100 mm to 400 mm. The width of
the cutting edge varies according to the type of work. The width of the cutting
edge for flat chisel varies from 16 mm to 32 mm. Types of Chisels :Chisels are
made in a variety of sizes with different forms of cutting edges.
The most commonly used chisels are :
1.Flat chisel
2. Cross-cut chisel (cape chisel)
3. Half-round chisel
4. Diamond point chisel
5. Side chisel.
(a)Flat chisel : It is the most common chisel and can be adapted for different
materials by changing the cutting angle. It is used for chipping large surfaces and
cutting thin sheets. It is also used to part off metal after chain drilling. Its cutting
edges is about 25 mm wide and is slightly rounded to avoid the damage to the
corners. The length of flat chisel varies from 100 mm to 400 mm.
(b) Cross cut chisel : Cross cut chisel (cape chisel) is used for cutting channels on
large surfaces. It is also used for cutting grooves and key ways in shafts and
pulleys. Its cutting edge is about 6 mm and tapers slightly towards shank to
provide clearance. The length of the chisel varies from 100 mm to 400 mm.
(c) Half-round chisel : It is used for trimming fillet corners, and for cutting curved
grooves. The length varies from 150 mm to250 mm and width from 2 mm to 16
mm.
(d) Diamond point chisel : It is used for cutting V-grooves and sharp corners. Its
cutting edge is in the form of diamond. The length of this chisel varies from100
mm to 400 and width of cutting edge from 6 to 16 mm.
(e) Side chisel : It is used to remove excess metal in rectangular slots, having
been drilled and also from the castings.

Care of chisel : Proper maintenance of the chisel head is important for safety
operation. The head of the chisel must be kept clean and in shape. If it is allowed
to become mushroomed, it can inflict a nastily flesh wound or scratch on the
operator. Thus the use of chisel with mushroom head is dangerous.
Chisels
Drills: Drills are cutting tools used for making holes on workpieces. A drill does
not produce accurate hole.
Parts of drill: Drill (twist drill) are made of carbon tool steels, chromium steel and
high-speed steels.
1.Body
2. Neck
3. Shank
4. Tang
Body is the portion between the cutting point and neck. Spiral grooves, called
flutes are formed along the length of the body. It has two cutting edges set at an
angle with the axis.
Neck is the portion between the body and shank. It carries the marking (size)of
the drill.
Shank is the driving end of the drill which is fitted in the machine spindle drill
chuck. They are of two types.1. Parallel shank, and2. Taper shank
Drills with parallel or straight shanks are made in small size (0.2 mm to 12
mm)and the diameter of shank has the same diameter as the flutes. They are
held in drill chuck which fits into the machine spindle.
Taper shank drills are fitted into the spindle taper directly or through the taper
sleeve. They are generally made in sizes from 3 mm diameter up to 50 mm
diameter. The tang is the part that fits into the slot of the machine spindle. It is
provided for taper shank drills. It prevents the drill from angular displacement
in the spindle and does not allow the drill to come out from the spindle bore
during the operation.
Specification of drill :Drill is specified by the diameter. In metric series it is given
in milli meters. They range from 0.35 mm to 50 mm. The drill size is marked on
the neck. However, the smaller size drills are not marked generally and their size
is determined with the aid of drill gauge.
Types of drills:
1.Flat drill
2. Straight fluted drill
3. Twist drill.
(1) Flat drill :It is a simple drill used for production holes in softer materials like
wood and plastics. It is made of high carbon steel and has two cutting edges
(2) Straight fluted drill : It has two cutting edges and two straight flutes. It is
used for drilling brass and non-ferrous materials.
(3) Twist drill :Twist drill is most commonly used in workshop. It has two cutting
edges and two helical grooves (flutes). These flutes admit coolants and
allows the chips to escape during the drilling. These are made of high speed
steel. For drilling harder materials, drill is often made with cemented
carbides.
Taps : Taps are hardened precision tools used for the production of Internal threads. It has a shank and
a round body with two or more flutes that may be straight or helical. They are made of high carbon
steel or high speed steel.
Specification : The tap is specified by major diameter (nominal diameter) which is the outside
diameter of the tool, over the thread crest at the first full thread behind the chamfer i.e., taper lead.
The tolerance range, pitch and tap materials are also generally furnished in the specification.

Taps are classified as

1.Machine taps : Machine taps must be designed to withstand the torque required to thread a hole
and must be able to remove the chips from the flutes.
2. Hand taps : Hand taps are available in sets containing the following three taps.
a) Taper or first tap (rough tap) : The taper tap is used for easy starting and has provided with taper
end for a length of 6 threads. The purpose of taper is to ensure that the tap enters the hole and
maintains the correct alignment.
b) Plug or second tap (semi-finish tap) : The plug tap has a tapered end for a length about 3 to 4
threads and is used after the taper tap. The taper and plug taps may be used for through holes.

c) Bottoming tap (finish tap) : The bottoming tap is used, along with taper and plug taps for threading
blind hole to the very bottom of the hole.
 Dies : The die is a cutting tool used to cut external threads on cylindrical parts.
It is circular disc of hardened tool steel having a threaded hole and flutes which
forms cutting edges.
Specification : Threading die is specified by nominal diameter and pitch of the
thread to be cut. The size of the die is marked on the face of the die.
Types of dies :
1. Solid die : Solid die is used for recutting damaged threads and may be driven
by suitable wrench or die stock. It has a fixed size and cannot adjustable for
different sizes.
2. Adjustable split die : It has a split through one side and the slight adjustment
is possible with the help of set screw.
3. Adjustable two-plate die : The adjustable two plate die consists of two die
halves fitted in a special die stock. It provides greater adjustment than split die.
The size can be adjusted by means of set screw.
Striking Tools : Hand hammers are striking tool used to strike tool or work. It is used for
striking purposes like punching, chipping, marking, bending, straightening and riveting.
They are available in various sizes ranging from 0.1 to 0.9 kg. The smaller sizes are
generally used for centre punching and light works, and heavy hammers.
Hammers are made of medium carbon steel and forged to various shapes. The main
parts of hammer are :
1.Head : The head is forged to shape, and the wooden handle capable of absorbing
shock is fitted to the head. The head comprises :
➢Face : is the striking portion. A slight convexity is given to avoid digging of the edge
and to improve the effectiveness of blow.
➢Peen : is the other end of the head and is made into different shapes to suite various
operations such as riveting and bending.
➢Cheek : Cheek is the middle portion of the hammer head.
➢eye hole : Eye-hole is made in the middle of the head for fixing the handle. The
handle is tightened with the help of wedge.

2. Handle : Handle id made up of wood.

Types of hammers :Depending on the shape of peen, hand hammers are
classified as
1. Ball peen hammer : It has a flat striking face and a ball shaped peen. The peen
and face are heat treated(hardened and tempered), while the body is relatively
soft and tough. The handle is of elliptical cross-section, made of hardwood. It is
used for riveting, chipping (i.e. striking the chisel) and other similar hand
operations. The size of ball peen hammer varies from 0.11 kg to 0.91.
2. Cross peen hammer : Cross-peen hammer :The cross-peen hammer is shown
in Fig. 1.98.1 (b). It has a flat striking face and a wedge shaped peen across the
eye. It is generally used for bending. The weight of cross peen hammer varies
from 0.22 kg to 0.91 kg.
3. Straight peen hammer : It is similar to cross-peen hammer except that the
peen in this case is parallel to the eye. It is used for stretching the work. Its
weight varies from 0.11 kg to 0.91 kg.
Soft hammers : Soft hammers are used when the work surface must not be
damaged. The heads of this hammer are made from soft material such as hard
rubber, wood or copper.
Types of hammers
Marking Tools : Marking is the process of layout of sizes on workpiece. The
following tools are used in marking out operations.
a. Scriber
b. Divider
c. Jenny calliper
d. Scribing block
e. Angle plate
f. V-block
h. Try square
i. Surface plate
j. Straight edge.
a. Scriber : Scriber is used for marking straight line on metal surface with the aid
of steel rule, try square and templates. It is made of tool steel with hardened
and tempered points, and knurled on the body to provide grip.
Scribers are available in two varieties1. Single point scribers, and 2. Double point
scribers.

b. Divider :The dividers are used for transferring dimensions, and scribing circles
and arcs on work surfaces. They are also used for transferring the dimensions
from rule to work surface and dividing straight and curved lines.
c. Hermaphrodite (Jenny or Odd leg) calliper :Jenny callipers are used for
marking and layout work. These are also used for locating the centres of round
bar and marking lines parallel to the edge of the work.
d. scribing block :The scribing block or surface gauge is an instrument used for
scribing lines on vertical surface or transferring heights from one job to another.
It consists a cast iron base and an upright spindle to which a scriber is clamped.
Types : Scribing blocks are available in two forms
1. Simple scribing block, and 2. Universal scribing block.
Angle plate :An angle plate is made of cast iron or hardened steel. The faces of
an angle plate are at right angle and may have holes and slots to hold the work
pieces. It is used for holding the work at right angles to the surface plate.
V- Blocks :V-Blocks are made of cast iron or hardened steel. They are provided
with V-grooves on the top and bottom, and rectangle slots on two sides for
location of clamps. The size of V-block is given by its length, width and height.
The length varies from 50 mm to 250 mm width and height from50 mm to 100
mm.
g. Punch: A punch is a marking tool widely used in fitting. It is made of tool steel.
The point and head is hardened and tempered. The shank is knurled to provide
grip.
(i) Prick Punch
(ii) Centre Punch
(iii) number punch
(iv) letter punch.
h. Try square :It is made of steel and consists of a blade and a stock accurately
set at right angles to each other. It is used to test trueness of mutually
perpendicular surfaces and for marking straight lines at right angles to a given
edge. It is also used to check flatness of a surface.

Surface plate :The surface plate is made of cast iron. It provides a true flat
surface for lay outwork and reference surface on which work may be mounted
for inspection.
j. Straight edge :The straight edge is made of cast iron or carbon steel and
finished to ahigh degree of accuracy. It is used to check the straightness and
flatness of plane surfaces. It is also used for testing alignment of machines.
 Gauges
Gauges are inspection tools used in production work to control the size and
shape of the component. Gauges generally do not indicate actual dimension,
but they check whether the part has been made within the specified limits of
size.

A high degree of uniformity is essential in any production which promotes

interchangeability of parts. Due to various reasons, no two components can be
made exactly same. Therefore, limits of permissible errors must be laid down for
each division. The permissible error in dimension is called tolerance.

These are made of either high carbon steel or alloy steel hardened and
accurately finished.
Types :
Feeler gauges : Feeler gauges are thin steel blades hardened and ground to
various sizes. These are used for checking the clearance between two mating
parts. Each blade is marked with its thickness which varies from 0.03 mm
Plug gauge : Plug gauge is used for checking diameter of a hole. Standard type is
used to check one size only. It is used to test limits of size of a hole. 'Go' end will
enter the hole if it is not made less than lower limit. 'No go' end will not enter
the hole, when the hole is made up to the highest limit.
Ring gauge : Ring gauge is used to check the outside diameter of cylindrical
parts.

Taper gauge : It is used to test the size of a hole and accuracy of taper.
Snap gauges : Snap gauges are used for checking external dimensions such as
diameter and thickness of part. It is particularly adapted for checking diameter
of shafts.
Screw pitch gauge : Screw pitch gauge is used to check the pitch of the screw. A
set of gauges are pivoted in a holder, and one of which is in mesh with screw to
be tested. The pitch of the screw is read directly on the gauge.
Thread gauges : Thread gauges are used for checking pitch diameter of threads.
Plug and ring thread gauges are available to check internal and external threads
respectively.
Plate gauge : Plate gauge (Standard Wire Gauge) is used to measure thickness of
sheets. It is a circular metal plate having slots of different thickness along its
periphery.

Wire gauge : Wire gauge is used to check the diameter of wires from 0.1 mm to
10 mm.
Radius and fillet gauges : These Work are the thin plates with curved end of
different radii, and are hinged to ends of holder. These are used to check the
radii of curvature of convex and concave surfaces.
Template gauge : These are form or profile gauges made from sheet metal
(steel), and used for checking the profiles of the component.
Telescopic gauge : Telescopic gauge is used to measure the size of holes or slots.
The gauge consists two rods or plungers which are attached to one end of a
handle at right angles. One rod can slide into the other fixed rod, and can be
locked by locking screw, provided at the other end of the handle.
 Measuring tools
Depth Gauge :
It is used to measure the depth of blind holes, slots, recesses, and height of
projections. A sliding head is clamped at right angle to the rule and can be
secured firmly at any position by a knurled nut. The measurement is made
between the face of head and end face of the rule.
Vernier Calliper : The vernier calliper is a precision tool used to measure up to
an accuracy of 0.02 mm. It consists of a stationary beam with main scale
graduations. It is integrated with fixed measuring jaw. The other part is a sliding
unit incorporating movable jaw, vernier scale with lock nuts and the fine
adjustment nut. The vernier slide is moved along the beam until both jaws
contact the work being measured, the lock nut over the fine adjustment nut is
tightened. The adjustment nut is turned until the jaws engage the work firmly to
give precise reading. After locking the nut over the vernier plate, the calliper is
removed to measure the size.
Principle : The main scale is accurately graduated in steps of 0.5 mm while the
vernier scale has 25 graduations equally spaced over a length of 12mm.
Therefore, each division on vernier scale is 12/25 = 0.48. The difference between
1 M.S.D. and 1 V.S.D. is 0.5-0.48 = 0.02 mm. This difference is called the least
count.
To read the vernier calliper the following procedure may be adapted.
1. Note the full graduations on the main scale that coincident with 'zero’ on the
vernier scale.
2. Find the line on vernier scale which coincides with a line on main scale.
Multiply this number by 0.02.
3. The sum of main scale reading and vernier scale reading give the size of the
component.
Example : If least count is 0.02, what measurement does it represents?
Solution :Main scale reading = 77 mm
Vernier scale reading = 20 0.02 = 0.40 mm
(20th line of vernier scale coinciding)
Measurement = 77.40 mm.
Vernier Height Gauge :
The vernier height gauge is used to measure the height of a component to an
accuracy of 0.02 mm. It consists of an upright steel beam attached to the steel
base. A movable jaw with vernier scale is attached to this beam. The movable
jaw can be positioned and firmly fixed to the beam with the help of clamping
screws.
Before using vernier height gauge, it should be adjusted for the zero reading.
Zero line of vernier should coincide with that of the scale. Now move the slide to
required position. It can also be used to mark at specified height by inserting
scriber in the lower face of the jaw.
Vernier Height Gauge
 Vernier Depth Gauge :
The vernier depth gauge is designed for measuring the depth of blind holes,
slots, grooves and the height of projections. It consists a hardened steel head
equipped with a vernier scale. A narrow, graduated steel rule slides through the
head for making measurements. The reading is taken in the same way as in a
vernier.
Gear Tooth Vernier :
The measurement of gear tooth elements is important to ensure accurate
running of the gears in service. The gear tooth vernier calliper is used for
measuring chordal thickness (tooth thickness at a pitch circle). The setting of
gear tooth vernier calliper to measure chordal thickness.
Micrometre :
Micrometre is a precision tool used to measure up to an accuracy of 0.01 mm. Its
operation depends upon the principle that the distance moved by the nut along the
screw is proportional to the number of revolutions made by the nut. The various types
of micrometres are described below.

1. Outside micrometre

2. Inside Micrometre

3. Screw Thread Micrometre

4. Depth Micrometre

5. Stick Micrometre
Outside micrometre : It is a precision tool used to measure external sizes such as
outside diameter and thickness of a work piece. It can measure up to an
accuracy of 0.01 mm.
The U-frame consists of a anvil at one end. On the opposite side it has the
spindle, the barrel or sleeve, and the thimble. The spindle is secured to the
thimble revolves in a fixed nut located within the barrel. It is operated by a screw
having a pitch of 0.5 mm.
The bevelled edge of thimble has 50 equal divisions on its circumference. The
barrel or sleeve is graduated with 0.5 mm steps. One complete revolution of the
thimble causes the spindle to move by 0.5 mm. Therefore, the rotation of
thimble through one division causes the spindle to move 0.5 / 50 = 0.01 mm.
Outside micrometre
MICROMETER READING
To measure the size, the component is placed between the anvil and the
spindle. The thimble is rotated until the spindle touches the component.

To read the micrometre the following procedure may be adapted.

1. Note the number of divisions visible on the barrel and multiply by 0.5.

2. Note the division line on thimble which coincides with barrel mark. Multiply
this number with 0.01.

3. Add these two values to get the size of a component.

Inside Micrometre: It is used for measuring the diameter of holes and other
internal dimensions to an accuracy of 0.01 mm. It consists of measuring unit, a
number of interchangeable extension rods and a handle. The measuring unit
(micrometre unit) has a barrel and thimble graduated in the same manner as
outside micrometre, but its total adjustment is limited to 13 mm i.e., when a
screw is turned in the barrel, the distance between measuring faces can vary
from 50 to 63 mm. But, a basic internal micrometre covers a measuring range of
50 mm to 200 mm by using extension rods. The extension rods are commonly
arranged in 25 mm increments. The measurement is read in the same manner as
that of outside micrometre.
Inside Micrometre
 Screw Thread Micrometre : It is used to measure the pitch diameter of screw to
an accuracy of 0.01 mm. It has the same parts as an outside micrometre, but its
spindle is pointed and the anvil is made in the same form as the screw thread
that is to be measured. The principle of measurement is similar to that of an
external micrometre.
Stick Micrometre : The stick micrometre can be used for accurate measurement
of large internal linear dimensions. This instrument is similar in principle to an
ordinary internal micrometre, and consists of a micrometre head to which
various lengths of extension bars can be attached. Each bar is fitted with an
insulating sleeve to minimise the effect of temperature variation. The
micrometre head is fitted with micrometre of 25 mm range with a series of
extension bars to permit continuous range of measurements up to maximum
length required. Throughout the range, an accuracy of + 0.005 mm can be
maintained.
Depth Micrometre: It is used to measure the depth of blind holes up to an
accuracy of 0.01 consists of a micrometre head attached to a sleeve. The
screwed spindle moves and does the actual measurement. In principle, it is
similar to an outside(external) micrometre, but depth increases as the spindle
extends from the face Therefore, the sleeve graduations are numbered in
opposite direction. Each micrometre is provided with three interchangeable
spindles insteps of 25 mm to give a wide measuring range.
To read depth micrometre:
1. Note the number of divisions not visible (i.e. covered by thimble) and multiply
by 0.5.
2. Note the division line on thimble which coincides with barrel (sleeve) mark.
Multiply this number with 0.01.
3. Add these two values to get the size.
Depth Micrometre
Angle Gauges : Angle gauges are used to measure or to set any angle within the
accuracy of 3 seconds. These are made of hardened steel and angular faces are
lapped to a high degrees of accuracy.
The angle blocks can be wrung together as in slip gauges. A set of angle gauges
consists of 12 separate gauges and are used in conjunction with precision square
block to set up any angle between 0 to 360°in steps of 6 seconds.
These gauges are available in 3 series.1. degree series, 10, 30, 99, 270, and 4102.
minute series 1 min, 3 min, 9 min, and 27 min.3. fraction of minute series 0.1
min, 0.3 min and 0.5 min.
Adjustable Bevel :It consists of two blades which can be set and clamped to any
desired angle by a locking screw. It is used to check and transferring angles. To
obtain actual reading it is used with some other angular measuring devices.
Bevel Protractor :The bevel protractor consists a protractor graduated in whole
degrees from0 to 180° and a movable blade. It is used for measuring angles.
 Universal Protractor :
An universal bevel protractor or vernier bevel protractor is used to check angles
up to an accuracy of 1/12° i.e. 5 minutes. It consists of a 'protractor disc' carrying
degrees, reading from 0 to 90° on either side of an arc.
It is free to rotate about fulcrum, and can be clamped at a desired angle with a
nut. The vernier scale on the disc has 12 equal divisions over a space of 23° on
the main scale.
Therefore, one division of vernier scale is equal to 23/12.
The difference between two divisions of main scale and one division of vernier
scale is
2- 23/12 = 1/12° or 5 minutes.
To read the instrument, note the whole degrees between zero of main scale and
zero on vernier scale. In the same direction, note the division line of vernier scale
which coincides with any division line of main scale. Multiply this number by 5 to
give number of minutes to be added to whole degrees
Universal Protractor
Combination Set :

It consists of a rule, a square, a centre head and a protractor. Each part is

provided with a knurled nut for locking it on the rule. The protractor and square
head are provided with spirit level to help in levelling the work or setting it at an
angle.
The rule is graduated in milli meters and half milli meters. Some times it may be
used separately as a straight edge or measuring rule.
Square head is used for checking 45° and 90° angles. It can also be used as a
depth gauge.
The centre head is used to locate the centres of round objects. The protractor is
used for measuring angles.
Combination Set
Combination Square :
The square head and rule is called a combination square. Its square head has a
face at 45° angle, in addition to the 90° face.
It also contains spirt level for checking levelness of a workpiece. It is used for
checking squareness and 45° angles. It can also be used as marking gauge and
depth gauge.
Gauge Block ( slip gauges ) :
Gauge blocks or slip gauges are rectangular blocks made of alloy steel. They are
hardened and finished to a high degree of accuracy. The two measuring surfaces
are made flat and parallel to one another with a high degree of accuracy. The
distance between opposite faces determine the size of a gauge, and the size is
stamped on one of its surfaces. They are used to check the accuracy of gauges,
to set comparators, sine bars and to make machine tool setups.