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The Athletic Lab Way ............................................................................................. 15
Athletic Lab .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Athletic Lab History ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 15
Meet Mike Young .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 16
“The Athletic Lab Way” ................................................................................................................................................................................. 18
Athletic Lab Coaching Education .......................................................................................................................................................... 18
Mission Statement of Athletic Lab ...................................................................................................................................................... 19
Athletic Lab Partnership with ELITE Training............................................................................................................................... 19
The Athletic Lab Phase 1 Mentorship ................................................................................................................................................ 20
Biomechanics ................................................................................................................21
Fundamental Terms and Concepts .....................................................................................................................................................21
Force ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................21
Mass .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................21
Center of Mass ..............................................................................................................................................................................................21
Linear Motion and Angular Motion .............................................................................................................................................. 22
Kinematic Parameters ................................................................................................................................................................................. 22
Linear Kinematic Parameters .......................................................................................................................................................... 22
Angular Kinematic Parameters ...................................................................................................................................................... 23
Kinetic Parameters......................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Linear Kinetic Parameters .................................................................................................................................................................. 24
Angular Kinetic Parameters .............................................................................................................................................................. 25
Newton’s Laws .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 25
Linear Applications of Newton’s Laws ....................................................................................................................................... 25
Angular Applications of Newton’s Laws................................................................................................................................... 26
Momentum ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................27
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Transfer of Momentum ........................................................................................................................................................................27
The Hinged Moment ............................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Projectile Motion .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 28
Gravity ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Aerodynamics ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 28
Trajectory and Rotations in Flight................................................................................................................................................. 29
Flight and the Center of Mass ......................................................................................................................................................... 29
Special Considerations for Rotating Systems ............................................................................................................................ 29
Axes of Rotation ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 29
Relationship Between Angular and Curvilinear Velocity .............................................................................................. 30
Tangential and Axial Acceleration ................................................................................................................................................ 30
Conservation of Angular Momentum ........................................................................................................................................ 30
Transfers of Angular Momentum ..................................................................................................................................................31
Summations of Force ....................................................................................................................................................................................31
Proximal and Distal Joints ....................................................................................................................................................................31
Firing Orders ..................................................................................................................................................................................................31
Usage of all Available Joints ............................................................................................................................................................. 32
Posture and Stability .................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Stability ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 32
Dynamic Stability ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Posture ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 33
Postural Stability ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Postural Alignment ................................................................................................................................................................................. 33
Applied Physiology .................................................................................................. 34

Neuromuscular System ............................................................................................................................................................................. 34

Nervous System ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 34
Muscular System ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Contraction Process ................................................................................................................................................................................ 36
Motor Unit ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Energy Systems ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
ATP .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................37
Substrate .........................................................................................................................................................................................................37
Energy Systems ..........................................................................................................................................................................................37
Cardiorespiratory System ......................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Diffusion .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Heart .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 39
Lungs ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 39
Blood .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 40
Blood Vessels .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 40
Growth and Development ........................................................................................................................................................................ 40
Age ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................41
Growth and Maturation ..........................................................................................................................................................................41
Gender .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 42
Heredity ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Maturation ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Health Status ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Lifestyle Issues ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 42
Sleep .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 42
Nutrition ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Hydration ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 45
Training Theory.......................................................................................................... 46

The Concept of Periodization .................................................................................................................................................................. 46
Planning ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Record Keeping........................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Peaking ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 46
Fundamental Terms and Concepts ................................................................................................................................................... 46
Volume and Intensity............................................................................................................................................................................. 46
Age and Training Age..............................................................................................................................................................................47
Simple and Complex Training ...........................................................................................................................................................47
General and Specific Training ...........................................................................................................................................................47
Segments of Training ....................................................................................................................................................................................47
The Annual Plan .........................................................................................................................................................................................47
Periods of Training ................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Phases of Training.................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Other Segments of Training.............................................................................................................................................................. 49
Approach to Training .................................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Multilateral Training ............................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Multisystem Training .............................................................................................................................................................................50
Principles of Program Design ................................................................................................................................................................50
Needs Analysis ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 51
Overload ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Adaptation ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Volume and Intensity............................................................................................................................................................................. 53
Variety .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 53
Individualization ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Planning Training ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 54
Designing the Annual Plan ................................................................................................................................................................. 54

Designing the Mesocycle ..................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Planning the Microcycle ....................................................................................................................................................................... 55
Planning the Session .............................................................................................................................................................................. 55
Movement Screen and Assessments ........................................................................................................................................ 56
Strength Training Movement Techniques ............................................... 57

Movement Standards and Technique .............................................................................................................................................. 57
Key Elements of Movement.................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Scaling and Modification ............................................................................................................................................................................58
Squat ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................58
Execution ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 59
Variation ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................60
Hinge ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................60
Execution ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 61
Variation ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 61
Lunge ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 62
Execution ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 62
Variation .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Press......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Execution ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 63
Variation .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 64
Pull............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 64
Execution ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 65
Variation ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................65
Brace ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 66
Execution ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 66

Variation .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Biomotor Development ....................................................................................... 68

Physical Abilities .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 68
Speed .................................................................................................................................................................................................................68
Strength ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 69
Mobility ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 70
Endurance ........................................................................................................................................................................................................71
Coordination ..................................................................................................................................................................................................72
Balanced Biomotor Training .....................................................................................................................................................................73
Multilateral Training .......................................................................................................................................................................................74
Complementary and Compatible Training ....................................................................................................................................74
Fundamental Strength Development, Part 1......................................... 76

Muscle Fiber Types ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 76
Genetic Determinants ............................................................................................................................................................................. 77
Muscle Contraction Types ......................................................................................................................................................................... 77
Practical Implications ............................................................................................................................................................................. 78
Intensity ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 79
Volume ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................80
Quantifying Volume ................................................................................................................................................................................. 81
Density ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 81
Optimizing Prescription .............................................................................................................................................................................. 82
Strength Testing .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 82
Standards for Testing ............................................................................................................................................................................ 83
Traditional Strength Testing ............................................................................................................................................................. 83
Advanced Testing Methods ...............................................................................................................................................................85

Speed, Power & Change of Direction .......................................................... 86
Training Principles .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 86
Strength as a Foundation ................................................................................................................................................................... 87
Overload .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 87
Rest ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 87
Volume .............................................................................................................................................................................................................88
Specificity of Training.............................................................................................................................................................................88
Compatible and Complementary ..................................................................................................................................................88
Speed Training Guidelines......................................................................................................................................................................... 89
Acceleration ..................................................................................................................................................................................................90
Maximal Velocity ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 91
Change of Direction Training Guidelines ........................................................................................................................................ 93
Classifying Intensity ................................................................................................................................................................................ 94
Plyometric Training Guidelines ............................................................................................................................................................. 96
Classifying Intensity ................................................................................................................................................................................ 96
Other Considerations ...........................................................................................................................................................................100
Athletic Conditioning ............................................................................................ 102

Energy Systems ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 102
Physiological Effects of Conditioning ....................................................................................................................................... 103
Training Variables ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Exercise Duration .................................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Rest ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Intensity ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Volume ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 105
Density ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 105

Session Design ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 106
Aerobic Development .......................................................................................................................................................................... 106
Anaerobic Development .................................................................................................................................................................... 107
Demographic Considerations ............................................................................ 111

Age .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................111
Youth Population ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 111
Common Concerns About Youth Training ..............................................................................................................................112
Youth Training Guidelines ...................................................................................................................................................................113
Elderly Population ....................................................................................................................................................................................114
Gender.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 115
Hormonal Implications ........................................................................................................................................................................ 115
Size Differences ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 115
The Female Athlete Triad ...................................................................................................................................................................116
Pregnancy ......................................................................................................................................................................................................116
Injury History ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 118
Training Around Injuries...................................................................................................................................................................... 118
Training Through Injuries ................................................................................................................................................................... 118
Training Level Continuum .........................................................................................................................................................................119
Sedentary .......................................................................................................................................................................................................119
Fitness............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 120
Performance .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 120
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 120
Fundamental Strength Development, Part 2 ....................................... 121

Fundamental Principles .............................................................................................................................................................................121
Foundational Strength Qualities ....................................................................................................................................................121

Specificity and Transfer...................................................................................................................................................................... 122
The Force-Velocity Curve .................................................................................................................................................................. 122
Neural Factors ...........................................................................................................................................................................................123
Exercise Selection ..........................................................................................................................................................................................123
Strength Training Guidelines .................................................................................................................................................................124
Training for Hypertrophy .................................................................................................................................................................. 125
Training for Maximal Strength ...................................................................................................................................................... 126
Training for Power ..................................................................................................................................................................................127
Session Management .......................................................................................... 130

Managing Session Flow ............................................................................................................................................................................ 130
Planning Ahead ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 130
Time Management .........................................................................................................................................................................................131
Using a Timer..............................................................................................................................................................................................132
Pre-briefing Athletes .............................................................................................................................................................................132
Call Sets and Reps ...................................................................................................................................................................................132
Appropriate Use of Rest......................................................................................................................................................................133
Creating an Atmosphere of Urgency.........................................................................................................................................133
Handling Non-Homogenous Groups ................................................................................................................................................133
Age Differences .........................................................................................................................................................................................133
Gender .............................................................................................................................................................................................................134
Injuries .............................................................................................................................................................................................................134
Training History ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 135
Large Group Considerations.................................................................................................................................................................. 136
Vocalize...........................................................................................................................................................................................................137
Command Authority ..............................................................................................................................................................................137

Assistance .....................................................................................................................................................................................................137
Splitting Groups ........................................................................................................................................................................................137
Distributing Attention .......................................................................................................................................................................... 138
Teach Spotting Techniques.............................................................................................................................................................. 138
Space and Equipment Considerations ........................................................................................................................................... 138
Think on Your Feet................................................................................................................................................................................. 139
Safety First .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 139
Partner Up.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 139
Best Practices for Managing Sessions ........................................................................................................................................... 140
Critical First Sessions ........................................................................................................................................................................... 140
Best Practices ..............................................................................................................................................................................................141
Motor Learning & Control ..................................................................................142

Movement Strategies and Motor Control .....................................................................................................................................142
Two Generally Accepted Theories of Movement Organization: .............................................................................142
Factors When Movement Patterns are Affected .............................................................................................................142
Stages of Learning ........................................................................................................................................................................................144
Practice Environment ................................................................................................................................................................................ 145
Key Considerations for Constructing Practice Environment ................................................................................... 145
Overload Principle ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 146
Communication ...............................................................................................................................................................................................147
General Issues Concerning Communication ........................................................................................................................147
Coach to Athlete Communication ............................................................................................................................................... 148
Athlete to Coach Communication ............................................................................................................................................... 148
Guidelines for Feedback ........................................................................................................................................................................... 149
Classifications of Augmented Feedback ................................................................................................................................ 149

Providing Augmented Feedback .................................................................................................................................................. 150
Frequency of Feedback Issuance ................................................................................................................................................ 150
Typical Problems ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 151
Early Stage Failure to Progress .................................................................................................................................................... 151
Practice Regression ................................................................................................................................................................................ 151
Competition Regression ..................................................................................................................................................................... 152
The Choking Phenomenon ............................................................................................................................................................... 152
Fundamentals of Session Design................................................................ 153

Appropriate Session Pairings ............................................................................................................................................................... 153
Biomotor Abilities ................................................................................................................................................................................... 153
Effective Ordering of Training .............................................................................................................................................................. 155
Planning a Session ........................................................................................................................................................................................157
Components of a Training Session................................................................................................................................................... 158
Introduction................................................................................................................................................................................................. 158
Warmup ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 159
Main Body ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 160
Cooldown ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 163
Best Practices .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 163
Planning & Organization .................................................................................... 165

Periodization ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 165
Adaptation and Detraining Time Frames .................................................................................................................................... 165
Speed ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 165
Strength ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 166
Endurance .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 166
Flexibility ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 166

Coordination ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 166
Needs Analysis.................................................................................................................................................................................................167
Principles of Periodization .......................................................................................................................................................................167
General to Specific ..................................................................................................................................................................................167
Low Intensity to High Intensity ...................................................................................................................................................... 168
High Volume to Low Volume ......................................................................................................................................................... 168
Cyclic Nature of Periodization ........................................................................................................................................................ 169
Progressive Overload .......................................................................................................................................................................... 169
Program Organization ............................................................................................................................................................................... 170
Recovery and Adaptation .................................................................................................................................................................. 170
Undulating High and Low Intensity ............................................................................................................................................ 170
Biologically Dictated Periodization ............................................................................................................................................. 170
Macrocycle Organization ..................................................................................................................................................................... 171
Mesocycle Organization ....................................................................................................................................................................... 171
Microcycle Organization......................................................................................................................................................................172
Session Planning ......................................................................................................................................................................................173
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................174

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All rights reserved. This text or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in any manner
whatsoever without the express written permission of the publisher except for the use of brief
quotations in a publication.

The Athletic Lab Way
Athletic Lab
Athletic Lab is one of the premier sports performance training and research centers in the United
States. Based in Morrisville, North Carolina (NC, USA), Athletic Lab works with youth, developmental
through elite professional athletes, and general population fitness clients looking to get into the best
shape of their lives. We provide fitness and sports performance training to individuals, groups, and
teams. In sports performance, Athletic Lab boasts both an elite Track and Field team and a
weightlifting team. Both of these teams have qualified athletes for international competitions.
Additionally, Athletic Lab works with teams and team sport athletes in a variety of disciplines. Athletic
Lab is responsible for the fitness training and sports science of two professional soccer clubs and has
consulted for three collegiate athletic departments, two English Premier Football clubs, four National
Rugby squads, and five different National Governing bodies (USA Track and Field, USA Speed Skating,
Korean Weightlifting, Korean Handball, Chinese Track and Field).
Athletic Lab History
Athletic Lab was founded in 2009 in a small warehouse in North Carolina (USA) by Mike and Cate
Young. In the first year of business, Athletic Lab was chosen as the sports performance training
center of the Carolina Railhawks (2nd division Soccer club) who won the 2010 and 2011 NASL Regular
Season and Post Season Championships respectively. Additionally, in the first year of business, more
than a half dozen athletes trained by Coach Young qualified to compete in their respective national
championships in the sport of Track and Field. These early successes laid the groundwork for
exponential member growth and continued athletic success on the local, national and international
stage. To date, Athletic Lab athletes have made 16 Olympic Games appearances where they have won
three Olympic Gold medals and one Olympic Bronze medal. In professional sports, Athletic Lab
athletes have competed in practically every sport and won Super Bowls, World Championships, and
MLS Cup Championships. In 2010, the business moved to a newer facility and then expanded the
facility in 2012. Athletic Lab currently trains hundreds of athletes and general population fitness
clients at their main training center in Morrisville, NC. In the Fall of 2019, Athletic Lab moved into to
their new flagship facility.

Meet Mike Young
Mike is the founder and Director of Performance and Research at Athletic Lab. In this role, he serves
as the head strength and speed coach as well as the lead researcher for Athletic Lab. Mike directs all
programming at Athletic Lab, manages facility development and oversees staff education programs.
Mike brings together the unique qualities of being an internationally recognized researcher, coach,
and educator. His depth of knowledge and experience in the field of athletic development is evidenced
by his stays at all three U.S. Olympic Training Centers as an athlete (Lake Placid), sport scientist
(Colorado Springs and Chula Vista), and coach (Colorado Springs).
Mike has an undergraduate degree in Exercise Physiology, a Master of Science degree in Athletic
Administration and a PhD in Kinesiology with an emphasis in Biomechanics. He has studied
extensively in anatomy, physiology, sport psychology, motor learning, training theory and
biomechanics. Mike has earned NSCA’s Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist, is recognized by
USA Weightlifting as a Club and National Coach, a CrossFit Level 1 Certified Trainer, is one of less than
20 USA Track and Field (USATF) Level 3 coaches in the country and has a USATF Level 2 certification
in three event areas.
Mike is a world-renowned expert in the field of speed development and conditioning for sport. He is
also recognized for his work in coaching the Olympic Lifts and creating specialized strength, speed
and conditioning programs to help maximize the performance of any athlete. He has developed
training plans for sports ranging from dragon boating and soccer to swimming. He has also helped
prepare numerous players for the NFL combine and MLB. Mike has served as the Performance
Director for both North Carolina FC of the NASL and North Carolina Courage of the NWSL since 2016
and 2017, respectively. In 2017, the Courage won the NWSL Regular Season Shield and North Carolina
FC qualified for the playoffs for the first time in five years. In 2018 and 2019, the Courage established
themselves as the top women’s professional soccer club in North American soccer history with back
to back NWSL league titles and multiple team and individual records. Previously, he served as the
Fitness Coach for the Vancouver Whitecaps of the MLS for the 2012 and 2013 seasons. In 2012, the
Whitecaps were the first Canadian team to make the MLS Playoffs and in 2013, the team won the
coveted Cascadia Cup over rivals Portland Timbers and Seattle Sounders. Prior to that, Mike was the
sport performance coach for the two-time NASL Champion Carolina Railhawks. In the sport of Track
and Field, he has coached or assisted multiple Olympians, National Champions, Masters National and
World Champions and Collegiate National Champions. As the coach of the Athletic Lab Track and Field

Club (formerly HPC Elite), a team of internationally competitive track and field athletes, he has led the
group to seven USATF National Champions, one Masters World Champion and two Masters National
record holders. The team has placed over a dozen athletes in national championships or Olympic
trials since its inception in 2008. Previously, Mike served as a jumps and multi-events coach at Ohio
University where his athletes set two school records in one year. Following OU, Mike moved to Baton
Rouge where he mentored under legendary track and field coach, “Boo” Schexnayder for four years.
While at LSU, Mike was on the staff of six National Championship teams. Following his time at LSU,
Mike became the sprints, pole vault and multi-events coach for Army Track and Field. During his three
years at Army, Mike’s athletes rewrote the record books with nine school records, 54 All-Time Top
Ten performances, 24 Conference Championships, and achieved the three highest point totals ever
recorded in a single event at the conference championship. In 2012, Mike briefly served as the Sprint
Coach and Technical Director for the Track and Field team at NSCU. In the sport of weightlifting,
Mike is the head coach of Athletic Lab weightlifting club which has produced competitors at the
National and International stage at the Junior, Senior and Masters levels.
Mike is equally qualified as a sport scientist and coach educator. His research on sprinting, stretching,
balance and throwing activities have been published and presented in Regional, National, and
International journals and conferences. He is an invited editor for two of the top sports science
journals in the field, the Journal of Sports Sciences and Sports Biomechanics. He has been the
biomechanist for the USA’s men and women shot putters since 2001. They are consistently ranked
among the best in the world and have won numerous World Championship and Olympic Games
medals. In 2010, Mike also briefly served as the biomechanist for the American high jumpers.
As an educator, Mike has been an instructor or professor at Ohio University, Louisiana State
University, the University of North Carolina, and Lenoir-Rhyne University. He continues to guest lecture
in academic institutions around the world. He is one of the most sought-after speakers in the
world on athletic development. He has lectured for the Wales, United Kingdom and Scottish Rugby
World Cup teams, USA Speed Skating, the Chinese Olympic Coaches at the Beijing Sport University,
and the North Carolina Justice Academy where he has instructed the Physical Preparedness for Law
Enforcement Officers course. He is a Level 1, 2, and 3 Instructor for USATF and has served as the
Director of Technology, Biomechanics Chairperson, Sport Science Chairperson and Vertical Jumps
Chairperson for USATF’s Coaches’ Education division. He is only one of two people to be a Level 3
instructor in three different event disciplines (sprints, throws, and jumps). In his role as a USATF
Coaches Education instructor, Mike became the youngest Level 2 (at the age of 26) and Level 3 (at

28) instructor ever in the 30-year history of the program. He has also taught more Level 1 schools
than anyone in the history of the program. More recently, he has taken over as the sport science chair
and one of the lead instructors for the USTFCCCA’s Coaching Academy. Additionally, Mike is a prolific
author, having written two book chapters, two books, and over 20 articles published in nationally
distributed publications ranging from Maxim to Runner’s World. He is regularly featured on websites
as far ranging as ESPN, BBC, WebMD and Greatist.
“The Athletic Lab Way”
The Athletic Lab philosophy of training has been sought after by top teams and athletes from around
the world. Our method has been called the “Athletic Lab Way” because it is distinct from other
methods. This method is characterized by a systems-based approach grounded in training principles.

This allows us to deliver a similar training experience regardless of the coach. It also allows us to
successfully work with a broad spectrum of populations ranging from elite professional athletes to
middle aged weight-loss clients. Athletic Lab’s system is holistic, evidence-based and field-proven.
This means we address all aspects of human performance that are relevant to the client using
techniques and methods that have the support of peer-reviewed research, observational data, and
have been proven at the highest field of play. We focus on doing the fundamentals of training
exceptionally well and adding sport technology and advanced methods only when it is appropriate
and beneficial to the training experience. Because the “Athletic Lab Way” is based on the scientific
method, it is constantly evolving and improving as new information comes to light. You can be sure
that the “Athletic Lab Way” will always meet the most rigorous criterion for inclusion based on the
current information available.
Athletic Lab Coaching Education

We firmly believe that the best coaches in the world are the product of relentless pursuit of
knowledge combined with hands-on experience. Athletic Lab has a long history and commitment to
coaching education. Thousands of coaches from around the world have benefited from Athletic Lab
coaching education lectures and workshops. In particular, Coach Young lectures hundreds of hours
each year to coaches from around the globe. We actively seek to mentor coaches through our
intensive on-site coaching mentorship program which grooms young coaches to work in high
performance sport. Additionally, we host the High Performance Athletic Development conference

each summer. This conference is an annual conference that brings in speakers and attendees from
around the world.
Mission Statement of Athletic Lab
The mission of Athletic Lab is to improve lives and to help individuals achieve things they never
thought possible. Our promise, that is literally written on the wall of our training hall, is “Game
Changing. Life Changing.” We strive to deliver on this promise every day with our clients. Our goal is to
help individuals and teams maximize their performance through sound, logical, and evidence-based
training. We strive to offer the highest possible quality in a wide range of services to meet every
performance enhancement need.
Athletic Lab Partnership with ELITE Training

Athletic Lab and ELITE Training first joined forces in 2017 when Athletic Lab’s Mike Young spoke at the
First International High Performance Meeting in Sao Paulo. Shortly after, the two companies decided
to join forces to create the best coaches’ education course available. The resulting 3-phase course
was designed to bring the Athletic Lab philosophy, means, and methods of training to coaches of
Brazil and Portugal. While Athletic Lab had been heavily involved in coaching education for over a
decade, they had never created a formalized education course before the 3-phase program with
ELITE Training. Athletic Lab chose ELITE Training because of their experience and reputation of
delivering the absolute best in coaching education. This 3-phase mentorship is the product of
thousands of man hours of researching, writing, videoing and editing the content. The ELITE Training
team spent almost two months on-site at Athletic Lab learning the Athletic Lab methodology in a
manner that has never been done before. This was a truly immersive experience and allowed the
ELITE Training staff to participate in our coaching lecture series, observe and shadow training
sessions, participate in both general fitness and sports performance classes, and speak with and ask
questions of the Athletic Lab staff. After this rigorous education experience, Athletic Lab felt
supremely confident that the ELITE Training staff understood the Athletic Lab methodology as well as
our own coaches. We have joined forces to create a learning experience that is truly unique.

The Athletic Lab Phase 1 Mentorship
The Athletic Lab Phase 1 mentorship program is intended as a launch pad for coaches to understand
the Athletic Lab methodology. One of the objectives of the Phase 1 program is to put all coaches on
common ground so that they are speaking the same language and understand the fundamental
sport sciences that our methods are based upon. The Phase 1 program covers the major relevant
sports sciences in an introduction that emphasizes fundamentals in a manner that is applicable to

coaches. Furthermore, this Phase 1 mentorship is beneficial for personal trainers, CrossFit coaches,
Team fitness coaches and private sport performance coaches to learn the world-leading methods of
Athletic Lab.
After completing this course, you will have learned sports sciences in a manner that is applicable to
coaches and athletes, understand the theory and methods of our training philosophies, and gain
practical experience doing and teaching the methods you have been taught in the classroom.

Biomechanics
This section will examine the science of biomechanics. Biomechanics is the study of how physics
interplay with anatomy and physiology to affect human performance. An understanding of
biomechanics is important to success in coaching, since biomechanics provide rationale and reason
for the techniques taught. Much of the study of biomechanics is devoted to study of physics and the
laws of mechanics. The chapter begins by examining these studies, then progresses to examine how
interplay with the biological sciences takes place.
Fundamental Terms and Concepts
Force
Force is something that tends to cause a change in the state of motion of a body. Forces may tend to
move a body from rest, slow or stop a body that is moving, or accelerate a body that is already
moving. Forces are measured in Newtons metrically.
Mass
A body’s mass is the amount of matter it possesses. Mass and weight are not the same. Weight is the
force gravity exerts upon a body. A convenient way to clarify this concept is to think of an astronaut in
space. Removed from the influence of gravity, the astronaut’s weight changes, but the mass remains
the same. The gram is the unit most commonly used for measuring.
Center of Mass
The center of mass as it relates to the human body is the point where all of the mass of that body is
assumed to be located when examining that body’s behavior. The center of mass can be thought of
as the balancing point for the body and as the average location of a body. The following are the key
points regarding the center of mass:
• Rigid objects have a fixed location of the center of mass.
• In humans standing upright, the center of mass lies within the body in the vicinity of the
hips.

• Since a human is capable of changing body position, the center of mass can move if the
body is in contact with the ground. For example, from a standing position, lifting the arms
raises the center of mass.
• It is possible for the center of mass of the body to actually lie outside of the body itself. A
human can move the center of mass outside the body by assuming pike or reverse-pike
positions. This strategy is often employed by high jumpers and pole vaulters to facilitate
bar clearance.
Linear Motion and Angular Motion
In human movement, one seldom sees pure cases of linear or angular motion, because most
movement in athletics is a combination of the two. For the sake of simplicity, linear and angular
motion are studied separately, but every concept pertaining to linear motion has a corresponding
angular concept. The study of biomechanics can be greatly simplified by associating corresponding
linear and angular concepts.
Linear Motion
Linear motion is the motion of a body along a straight path.
Angular Motion
Angular motion is rotational in nature, meaning the path of the body is circular. The body or system
rotates around an axis.
Kinematic Parameters
The following section examines three key kinematic parameters: displacement, velocity, and
acceleration. Kinematic parameters describe the appearance of movement. The following will
examine these parameters in a linear sense, and then expand the same parameters in an angular
sense.
Linear Kinematic Parameters
Displacement
Displacement is defined as the change in position of a body with respect to a particular starting point
and direction. It can be thought of the straight line from the starting position and the ending position.

While distance and displacement are similar and often used interchangeably, they do differ. Distance
only takes in to account the magnitude covered but not the change in position between the start and
end. Displacement is measured in units of length, such as the foot and meter.
Velocity
Velocity is defined as displacement per unit of time with respect to a specified direction. It describes
the speed of a body. Velocity is measured in units expressing displacement / time, such as miles /
hour or meters / second.
Acceleration
Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity per unit of time with respect to a specified direction.
It describes the change in speed of a body. Increasing velocity constitutes a positive acceleration,
while slowing or decelerating constitutes a negative acceleration. Acceleration is measured in units

expressing velocity (displacement / time) over time. It is commonly expressed in mathematical
arrangement as displacement / time2. For example, acceleration may be expressed as meters /
second2, miles / hour2, etc.
Angular Kinematic Parameters
Angular Displacement
Angular displacement is defined as the change in position of a rotating body with respect to some
direction of rotation. In angular terms, the change is measured in position by the size of the angle or
number of revolutions it has rotated through. Angular displacement is measured in units of circular
measure, such as degrees or revolutions.
Angular Velocity
Angular velocity is defined as angular displacement per unit of time with respect to some direction of
rotation. It describes the speed of rotation of a body. Angular velocity is expressed in units of angular
displacement over time. Examples are degrees / second or revolutions / minute.
Angular Acceleration
Angular acceleration is defined as the change in angular velocity per unit of time with respect to
some direction of rotation. It describes the change in speed of rotation of a body. These changes may

be positive or negative. Angular acceleration is expressed in units of angular displacement / time2.
Examples are degrees / second2 or revolutions / second2.
Kinetic Parameters
Kinetic parameters are parameters that describe the forces involved in movement. This section
focuses on two key kinetic parameters, momentum and impulse. The parameters will be explained in
a linear sense, and then examined in an angular sense.
Linear Kinetic Parameters
Momentum
Momentum is the quantity of motion of a body, and can be expressed mathematically as the product
of mass and velocity. Momentum and velocity are related, but they are not the same. Proper
development of momentum is as important as development of velocity and is usually prerequisite to
it. Developing momentum is an important part of good technique in almost all sporting movements,
and failure to develop momentum properly leads to inefficiency of movement.
Impulse
Impulse is the momentum change produced in a body, and can be expressed mathematically as the
product of force and time. Thus, the two factors that determine impulse are the amount of force
applied and the time over which the force is applied. Momentum development then requires large
forces applied for longer periods of time. At the start of most movements, velocities are low, and
therefore the body has an opportunity to apply large forces over longer periods of time to produce
impulse and develop momentum that will help later in the movement. Later, when greater velocities
are achieved, the amount of time available for force production is limited. Therefore, impulse
generation and momentum development are of concern when acceleration is taking place, but less
so at high velocities. This relationship is readily seen at the start of a sprint acceleration or when
pulling a bar from the ground in a deadlift.

Angular Kinetic Parameters
Angular Momentum
Angular momentum is the quantity of motion imparted to a rotating body, and can be expressed
mathematically as the product of angular inertia and angular velocity. Angular momentum and
angular velocity are related, but they are not the same. Proper development of angular momentum is
as important as development of angular velocity and is usually prerequisite to it. Developing angular
momentum is an important part of good technique in all rotational movements, and failure to
develop angular momentum properly leads to numerous technical faults.
Angular Impulse
Angular impulse is the momentum change produced in a rotating body, and can be expressed
mathematically as the product of torque and time. Thus, the two factors that determine angular
impulse are the amount of torque applied, and the time over which that torque is applied. Angular
momentum development thus requires large torques applied for longer periods of time. In the initial
movements of rotational activities velocities are low, and therefore, the body has an opportunity to
apply large forces over a longer period of time to produce angular impulse and develop momentum
that will help later in the movement. Later, when maximal velocities are achieved, the amount of time
available for force production is limited. Therefore, angular impulse generation and angular
momentum development are of concern when acceleration is taking place, but not at high velocities.
Newton’s Laws
This section examines Newton’s Laws. Sir Isaac Newton postulated these laws in the 1600’s and they
form the basis for all movement. Newton’s Laws are a subset of kinetics and as above, the laws will
be covered in a linear sense, and then in an angular sense.
Linear Applications of Newton’s Laws
Newton’s First Law
Newton’s First Law states that an object will retain its state of motion until it is acted upon by some
outside force. In other words, an object at rest tends to stay at rest, and an object in motion tends to

stay in motion. A resting object’s tendency to remain at rest is called inertia. A moving object’s
tendency to remain moving is called momentum. Mass is an effective measure of a resting body’s
inertia, and has much to do with a moving object’s momentum values.
Newton’s Second Law
Newton’s Second Law describes the relationship between force, acceleration and mass. This law
states that a force applied to an object tends to accelerate it in the direction of the force, and that the
acceleration produced is proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the object’s mass.
Mathematically, we can express Newton’s Second Law as F = M x A, where, F represents the force
applied, M is the mass of the object, and A is the acceleration. This law is particularly important for
coaches to understand as it has large implications in everything from strength training, jumping and
sprinting.
Newton’s Third Law
Newton’s Third Law is commonly called the Law of Action and Reaction. More precisely, for every
force exerted, there is an equal force exerted in the opposite direction. In other words, all forces occur
in pairs. Downward forces produce upward reactive forces; backward forces produce forward reactive
forces, etc. A special example of Newton's Third Law is the ground reaction force. When force is
applied to the ground, the ground exerts force back. If this force is sufficient, displacement of the
body occurs.
Angular Applications of Newton’s Laws
Levers
A lever system is made up of three parts; an effort, a load, and an axis. In the human body, the effort
is provided by the muscle (the muscles point of application/insertion), the load is the weight of the
body and any additional resistance and the axis is the joint itself. Levers play an important role in
movement as the distance of the load away from the axis establishes what is known as a moment
arm. Greater moment arms effectively increase the load the individual experiences. This is why
carrying an object close to your body feels lighter than carrying that same object with your arms
extended in front of your body.

Newton’s First Law
In an angular sense, Newton’s First Law states that a rotating system will retain its state of motion
until it is acted upon by some outside force. An object’s tendency to resist rotation is called angular
inertia. A rotating object’s tendency to remain in rotation is called angular momentum. Factors
determining angular inertia and momentum values will be discussed in a later section.
Newton’s Second Law
In an angular sense, Newton’s Second Law expresses the relationship between force, acceleration and
mass in rotating bodies. The law states that a rotation producing force (called a torque) applied to an
object tends to accelerate the object into rotation in the direction of the torque, and that the angular
acceleration produced is proportional to the torque and inversely proportional to the angular inertia
of the object.
Newton’s Third Law
In an angular sense, Newton’s third law states that for every torque exerted, there is an equal torque
exerted in the opposite direction. Rotational forces occur in pairs, conserving equilibrium. Clockwise
forces yield counterclockwise reaction forces and vice versa.
Momentum
This section examines certain situations that arise when motion is stopped and applications as it
pertains to athletics.
Transfer of Momentum
Transfers of momentum are instances when momentum of a system is imparted to a part of that
system. These situations require stopping a part of the system. Transfers of momentum can be used
to impart momentum to a part of the system. For example, abruptly stopping a car can cause an
object to be thrown from the seat. The momentum of the object is conserved in spite of the car’s
stopping. In the same way, when the horizontal movement is stopped in a throwing movement, the
momentum is passed on to the implement. There are also situations in which the momentum of
parts of the system is conveyed to the entire system. For example, when a swinging limb’s upward

movement is stopped in a jump, the momentum of the segment is transferred to the entire system,
enhancing the lift achieved at takeoff.
The Hinged Moment
When a body is in linear motion and one end of the body is stopped, the other end continues to move,
rotating about the axis formed at the stopped end. This occurrence is called a hinged moment. When
a hinged moment occurs, the uppermost points in the body accelerate into rotation, while the lower
points decelerate. Humans are subjected to hinged moments anytime the foot is planted in a jump or
throw. Another example would be a thrower who ‘blocks’ their non-throwing side, pulling the non-
throwing arm in close to the body just prior to release. This stops the rotation of the non-throwing
side, and effectively accelerates the throwing side. The hinged moment can aid acceleration of the
implement in a throw or it may harm performance in any movement by introducing excessive

forward rotation.
Projectile Motion
Projectile motion is an important part of athletic movement. Projectile motion is of concern any time
an object or body is in flight without ground support. This is seen when something is thrown into the
air, when a person jumps into the air, or during the flight phase of running. This section will examine
the special circumstances an object or body is subject to during flight.
Gravity
When a body is in flight, gravity serves as a force to accelerate it toward the ground. Gravity acts
upon every object in proportion to its mass, so all objects (barring special aerodynamic situations) fall
at the same rate. The rate of gravitational acceleration is labeled g and is valued at 9.81 meters /
second2. The acceleration due to gravity is nearly the same all over the world, varying only slightly
because of differences in elevation.
Aerodynamics
Certain objects, because of shape and rotation in flight, are able to stay airborne longer than other
objects of comparable mass. This is because, through the principles of fluid dynamics, they are
buoyed by the flow of air around themselves. The javelin and discus are two such objects. A complete

discussion of aerodynamics is beyond the scope of this text, but proper rotations and release angles
for these two implements are important to using their aerodynamic qualities to improve
performance.
Trajectory and Rotations in Flight
The center of mass of any object that is projected into flight (again barring special aerodynamic
situations) uses some parabolic curve as a path. This flight path is predetermined and unalterable.
Also, any rotations of the body (desired or undesired) that are present in flight are predetermined as
well. This path and these rotations are produced by forces prior to flight. Obviously, all of the flight
characteristics of an implement are established during the throw. In a jump, all of the flight
characteristics are established during approach and takeoff. As such, the majority of coaching time
should be devoted to events that happen while still on the ground.
Flight and the Center of Mass
Since the path of the center of mass in flight is predetermined, the location of the center of mass in
flight is fixed at any instant. Yet, changing body positions can change the relative location of the
body’s center of mass. This permits an athlete to rearrange their body into different positions about
that fixed location of the center of mass in flight. For this reason, athletes who jump high into the air
often manipulate the position of their limbs to achieve more beneficial and safer landing positions.
Special Considerations for Rotating Systems

Rotation is of particular importance in human movement. Rotation occurs at every joint during
movement as well as in a variety of movements and exercises. This section will examine special
circumstances of an object or system in rotation.
Axes of Rotation
Rotation occurs about an imaginary line called an axis. If rotation is to be stable and continued, the
axis of rotation must pass though the body’s center of mass. When a body experiences flight and
rotation simultaneously, the axis of rotation always passes through the center of mass. This is true
for each plane in which rotation occurs.

Relationship Between Angular and Curvilinear Velocity
All parts of a rigid rotating body have the same angular velocity, since they rotate through the same
angle in a given period of time. However, all points on a rotating body do not exhibit the same velocity
in a curvilinear sense. Velocity is measured as displacement covered per unit of time, and the points
further away from the axis actually cover more distance in a given period of time than points closer
to the axis. For this reason, discus throwers attempt to keep the implement away from their bodies.
This effectively results in a higher linear velocity at release without increasing angular velocity.
Tangential and Axial Acceleration
Systems in rotation are in a constant state of acceleration. Consider a hammer thrower. Once
released, the hammer does not continue on its circular path. Rather, it travels in a straight line
tangent to the curve. The tendency of the ball to leave the curve and travel in a straight line is the
result of tangential acceleration. At the same time, the hands are constantly pulling on the handle.
This constitutes a force directed toward the axis of rotation. This force produces an axial acceleration.
The constant interplay of these tangential and axial accelerations keeps the hammer on its circular
path. Similar interplay of tangential and axial accelerations exists in curvilinear running.
Conservation of Angular Momentum
The two factors that determine the amount of momentum a rotating system possesses are the
radius of the system and the angular velocity of the system. The Law of Conservation of Angular
Momentum states that a rotating system’s angular momentum values remain constant unless acted
upon by an outside force. Any internal alteration of the system will produce another compensating
alteration. A decrease in radius will cause a system to spin faster, and a radius increase will cause it
to spin slower, keeping momentum values constant in both cases. Similarly, changes in angular
velocity produce changes in the radius of the system.
An example is a spinning figure skater. When the skater pulls their arms in close to their body, radius
of rotation decreases the speed of rotation increases. On the other hand, extending the arms slows
the speed of rotation. It becomes clear that we can use body positions to manipulate the radius of a
rotating body to slow or speed rotation. There are numerous examples where radii are decreased by
joint flexion to increase angular velocity. For example, the knee flexion observed during the recovery
phase of each running stride effectively shortens the leg so that it can move forward more quickly. A

diver who wishes to speed rotation may pull the arms and legs in closer to the body. There are just as
many examples of athletes extending limbs to slow rotation. Long jumpers extend their limbs in flight
in the hang style to slow forward rotation and achieve better landing positions. Throwing and striking
(baseball, tennis, badminton) often use extended free arms and legs at times to maintain high
momentum values without high angular velocities.
Transfers of Angular Momentum
A body experiencing rotation may slow, stop, or even reverse that rotation by rotating its body parts
in the same direction. These secondary axes of rotation give the body a tool to absorb the rotation of
the entire body. An example is the rotation of the arms to maintain balance when walking on a
balance beam. It also occurs in the hitchkick style of the long jump. In both cases, the arms and / or
legs rotate in the opposite direction of the body’s rotation in an attempt to counter the rotation of the
body.
Summations of Force
This section examines various aspects of force production in athletic performance, and how the
application of force can be improved.
Proximal and Distal Joints
Proximal is a term that means close to the center of the body. Distal is a term that means away from
the core of the body. Every joint in the body is constructed differently. Since bone, muscle, and
connective tissue arrangements differ, they differ in their ability to produce force and in the speeds at
which they can produce this force. Generally speaking, proximal joints are heavily muscled, capable of
producing large forces, but operate somewhat slowly. Distal joints tend to be less heavily muscled,
are poorer at force production, yet operate more quickly.
Firing Orders
To produce large forces, joints must be used in the correct order and at the appropriate time. A
particular sequence of joint usage is called a firing order. The characteristics of each joint determine
the best point for that joint to contribute to the entire motion. Large muscles contribute early to
overcome inertia, and smaller, yet faster muscles contribute later, after inertia is overcome. Generally

speaking, one should use proximal-to-distal firing orders in performance to accomplish this
arrangement. In throwing movements, the athlete employs the large muscles of the trunk to
overcome inertia, then the shoulder, then the elbow, and finally the wrist. In running and jumping the
athlete uses the hip first, then the knee, then finally the ankle. Of course, in this arrangement, a joint
does not complete its action before the next joint acts. There is some overlap of joint actions.
Usage of all Available Joints
In athletics, the body should generally attempt to produce as much force as possible in the time
available. Since every joint is capable of producing some force, it is logical that all the joints capable of
producing force should be used in the intended direction. Faulty techniques may put joints in positions
where they cannot contribute.
Posture and Stability

This section will examine the mechanics of stability, issues related to human posture in performance,
and the relationships between them.
Stability
The stability of an object is its degree of resistance to toppling over. There are two factors that affect
the stability of an object. The first is the height of the object’s center of mass. The higher the center of
mass is located, the less stability the object exhibits and the more likely it is to topple. The second
factor is the horizontal distance between the center of mass and the base of support. The closer the
center of mass is to the edge of the base of support, the more likely the object is to topple. A body
cannot be stable when the center of mass lies outside the base of support.
Dynamic Stability
In humans, the feet provide our base of support. In double support situations, both feet are in contact
with the ground, so the base of support is effectively wide and instability is not great. At other times,
in single support situations, only one foot contacts the ground, so instability increases. Humans move
by repeatedly losing and regaining stability. This condition is called dynamic stability. While humans
must experience some instability in order to move, excessive instability may lead to technical
breakdowns and errors.

Posture
Posture is the functional state of the core of the body. It is one of the most important, yet most
neglected variables in athletic performance. In all athletic events, proper posture is a prerequisite to
efficiency, high performance, stability, and elastic energy production. Posture can be considered in
these two realms:
Postural Stability
Athletes constantly apply force during performance, in order to receive reaction forces that create
displacement. If the core of the body is not stable, distortion and angular movements occur in the
body as these forces are absorbed and wasted. Forces must be applied from a stable base if they are
to produce efficient displacements.
Postural Alignment
Alignment of the core of the body, particularly the head and pelvis, is equally import. Improper
alignment of the head can impair function of the shoulders and arms, hinder balance, and prevent
relaxation. Pelvic misalignment harms efficient function of the legs, prevents rotation where rotation
is desired, and reduces elastic energy production.

Applied Physiology
Physiology is the study of the chemical processes that take place in the body. An understanding of
physiology is important to success in coaching, since physiology provides rationale and reason for the
training programs developed. The following will study these processes by examining the function of
body systems important to performance. The next section discusses the neuromuscular system, the
stretch-shortening cycle, the energy systems, and the cardiorespiratory system. Then, human growth
and development and its affects on training are examined. The remaining material will cover the
affect of lifestyle related issues such as nutrition, hydration, and sleep on the athlete’s health and
ability to perform.
Neuromuscular System
The neuromuscular system is composed of the components of the nervous system responsible for
controlling skeletal muscle activity, and muscle tissue involved in force production during
performance. The effectiveness of the neuromuscular system is possibly the greatest single factor in
performance in the speed and power events, and training this system may be the most important
goal of training for these events. This section investigates neuromuscular function.
Nervous System
The nervous system is the system primarily responsible for control of movement. This section
examines topics involving the anatomy and function of the nervous system.
Neurons
The function of a neuron (nerve cell) is to conduct a neural impulse to muscle tissue, or to another
neuron. The nerve cell is composed of a soma (cell body), axon, and a dendrite. The dendrite conducts
the neural impulse toward the cell body, while the axon conducts the impulse away from the cell
body.
Motor Neurons
A motor neuron is a type of neuron that innervates muscle tissue. A motor neuron is capable of
activating muscle fiber, effecting motor activity.

Neural Impulse
The neural impulse itself is basically composed of electrical signals. If a neuron receives the signal,
and it is of sufficient magnitude, the affected neuron is stimulated to conduct the impulse. There are
no degrees of partial conduction. This is referred to the all or none principle.
Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems
The nervous system is composed of a Central Nervous System (CNS) and a Peripheral Nervous
System. The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system consists of
the branch nerves and the neuromuscular junctions.
Muscular System
The muscular system is made up of the structures responsible for producing movement via
contraction. This section examines topics involving the anatomy and function of the contractile
mechanisms.
Sarcomere
The sarcomere is the smallest individual unit of contractile tissue. Many sarcomeres combine to form
muscle fibers and entire muscles. The sarcomere consists of non-contractile proteins (proteins not
involved in the contraction process) that provide structure to the muscle tissue, and contractile
proteins (proteins involved in contraction).
Contractile Proteins
There are two types of contractile protein filaments, thick and thin. The thin filaments are primarily
composed of the protein actin. They are attached to the ends of the sarcomere, and extend toward
the middle of the sarcomere. Thick filaments are composed of the protein myosin. They are found in
the middle of the sarcomere and lie between the thin filaments.
Crossbridges
Each thick filament possesses many crossbridges, which extend toward (but normally do not bind)
the thin filaments. There is a head at the end of each crossbridge, capable of holding an ATP
molecule.

Contraction Process
Actin and Myosin have a chemical affinity for each other, but in this situation, they cannot bond
because the bonding sites are blocked. When contraction is signaled for by a neural impulse to the
neuromuscular junction, the filaments attach and slide against each other, causing movement. Steps
of this process are as follows:
1. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine is released at the neuromuscular junction.
2. Acetylcholine triggers the release of calcium ions into the sarcomere.
3. The calcium ions make actin bonding sites available to the myosin crossbridge heads.
4. The crossbridge heads bind to the thin filaments and swivel, causing movement.
5. If ATP is present, the bond is then broken, and the process may repeat, if calcium ions
are still present. ATP is required to form the bond, and to break the bond.
Motor Unit
A motor unit consists of a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates. This particular group
of fibers is called a pool of fibers and is normally scattered throughout a muscle. There are different
types of motor units. These vary in their force producing capabilities, speeds of contraction, and
methods of fueling. Motor units may function in these two ways:
1. Volitional: In this type of operation, cognitive activity sends the impulses to the motor
neuron, which then activates its pool of fibers. In effect, one consciously decides to
create movement.
2. Reflexive: In this type of operation, sometimes referred to as reflex arc function, a

signal generated by some sensory organ is sent to the motor neuron, activating it and
causing contraction in its pool of fibers. The brain is left out of the loop, as no
conscious decision is made to effect movement. This type of function is used in all
reflex actions.
Energy Systems
The energy systems are responsible for providing ATP, an energy rich compound to fuel the work and
recovery of cells. This section examines function of the energy systems.

ATP
ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, is the basic fuel of muscle contraction. The purpose of all energy
systems is to produce ATP from various substrates. ATP produces energy from the breaking of a
chemical bond, separating ATP into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganic phosphorus (Pi).
Substrate
Regardless of the energy system employed, energy is created by the chemical breakdown of some
fuel source. These fuel sources are called substrate. The most important substrates are glucose,
glycogen, and fatty acids. The intensity of effort generally dictates the substrate(s) employed.
Glucose
Glucose is a form of sugar. Normally certain levels of glucose are found in the bloodstream. Glucose
plays a critical role in the body’s chemical processes.
Glycogen
Glycogen is a sugar stored in muscles tissue and the liver. It can be converted to glucose and moved
into the bloodstream, and then used as fuel.
Fatty Acids
Fatty acids are mobilized fats that circulate in the bloodstream. They are basically building blocks for
fat molecules. Exercise at certain levels causes the body’s stored fat to be mobilized for use in this
way.
Energy Systems
There are three energy systems:
1. Anaerobic Alactic system
2. Anaerobic Glycolytic system
3. Aerobic system
The Anaerobic Alactic system and the Anaerobic Glycolytic system operate anaerobically, which
means they are capable of operating without the presence of oxygen. The Aerobic system operates

aerobically, which means it operates with the presence and consumption of oxygen. The Anaerobic
Glycolytic and Aerobic systems require some type of substrate.
Anaerobic Alactic Energy System
The Anaerobic Alactic energy system is so called because it fails to produce lactic acid as a by-
product like the other anaerobic system does. It uses ATP available in muscle for immediate energy. It
synthesizes additional ATP from ADP and Pi present in the cell in the form of Creatine Phosphate. This
system requires no substrate, but at intense workloads it can provide energy for only approximately
10 seconds.
Anaerobic Glycolytic Energy System
This anaerobic energy system makes ATP available for muscle contraction and other purposes using
glucose and glycogen as a substrate. The anaerobic system can provide energy for very intense work
for an extended period of time. However, lactic acid and hydrogen ions are released as by-products,
eventually producing an acidic state that prevents performance. The anaerobic system enables us to
produce energy at a rate greater than our ability to consume oxygen. This produces an oxygen debt
that must be repaid by increased oxygen consumption when work is completed. This system
becomes involved at high work intensities once the Anaerobic Alactic energy system becomes
depleted. These two systems can fuel high intensity work up to 90 seconds in duration.
Aerobic Energy System
The Aerobic Energy System makes ATP available for muscle contraction and other purposes using fat
and / or glucose and glycogen as a substrate. The aerobic system uses oxygen while producing this
ATP. The aerobic system is very efficient at producing energy, but it cannot keep up with the demand
for ATP when the body is operating at high intensity. Increasing exercise intensity beyond some
threshold value causes activation of the anaerobic systems.
Cardiorespiratory System
The cardiorespiratory system is responsible for extracting oxygen from the air, and delivering it, along
with other needed materials, to tissues throughout the body. While there are numerous organs that
comprise this system, the following will concentrate on the heart, the lungs, the blood, and the blood

vessels. While the circulatory system delivers numerous materials to the tissues, delivery of oxygen
and substrate is described below in further detail.
Diffusion
Diffusion is a key term in our discussion of cardiorespiratory function. It refers to the random
movement of molecules across a tissue membrane. This process is driven when a gas, such as
oxygen, is highly concentrated on one side of the membrane and scarce on the other. Molecules of
the gas tend to move across the membrane from the side with the higher concentration to the side
with the lower concentration.
Heart
The heart serves as a pump, pumping blood throughout the body and creating an effective delivery
system for oxygen and other materials needed by the tissues. The heart actually operates as two
pumps. Parts of the heart pump blood into the lungs for oxygenation. After oxygenation, the blood
returns to the heart, where other parts pump the oxygen rich blood throughout the body. Following
are key points pertinent to the heart’s function during exercise:
• Heart Rate: The frequency of the heartbeats, or pumping cycles. Increased oxygen
demand by the tissues requires the heart to work harder and to beat faster. Therefore,
heart rate is a good indicator of the level of demands being placed on the energy
systems.
• Stroke Volume: Refers to the amount of blood the heart is capable of pumping in a single
beat.
• Cardiac Output: Refers to the amount of blood the heart pumps per unit of time.
Mathematically it can be expressed as the product of heart rate and stroke volume.
Lungs
The lungs take in air and extract oxygen from it, allowing it to diffuse into the blood stream for
circulation and distribution throughout the body. Diffusion occurs in the lungs as oxygen moves from
lung tissues called alveoli into the capillaries and blood for transport.

Blood
Blood is a liquid circulated throughout the body for the purpose of delivering oxygen and other
needed materials to the cells. Following are key points pertinent to the blood’s function during
exercise:
Oxygen Transport
Oxygen is transported in the blood plasma and by a substance called hemoglobin found in red blood
cells.
AVO2 Difference
AVO2 difference is an important concept in study of the cardiovascular system. AVO2 difference is a
shortened form of the term arteriovenal oxygen difference. This refers to the difference in the
amount of oxygen being carried by the blood after it leaves the lungs and before being distributed to
the tissues, and the amount of oxygen being carried in the blood after oxygen is extracted by the
tissues. AVO2 difference is an effective measure of the efficiency of oxygen extraction by the tissues.
Blood Vessels
There are three types of blood vessels. These are detailed below:
1. Arteries: Transport oxygen rich blood to tissues throughout the body.
2. Veins: Return oxygen depleted blood to the heart.
3. Capillaries: Small vessels found between arteries and veins. Capillaries allow oxygen
to be extracted by the tissues. Diffusion occurs as oxygen moves from the capillaries
across the membrane into the cells.
Growth and Development
To best assist young athletes in their physical development, it is important to understand the natural
process of an adolescent’s growth and development. The training program for the young athlete
must be designed to work in concert with the natural maturation process. This section examines
some of the factors that vary as maturation takes place, factors that affect the maturation process,
and factors to consider when designing training.

Age
Age may be the most important variable to consider when determining the appropriateness of
training activities.
Athletes in late childhood (6-10 years) should be taught only very basic skills, be subjected to interest
awakening activities, and allowed to play and have fun. Energy system fitness should not be stressed,
as the body does not respond to such training at these ages.
Athletes in early adolescence (11-14 years) should be subjected to a variety of activities, taught a
variety of skills, and prepared for an increase in training in the years to come. Energy system fitness
training can be introduced at this time, particularly aerobic training and limited interval work. Team
oriented activities are important due to the social nature of children at these ages, and are the best
way to train fitness.
Athletes in late adolescence (age 15-19) are ready for more specific and demanding training, as well as
higher training volumes. Boys and girls are both developing quickly at these ages, and are capable of
performing more complex activities. More advanced anaerobic training can be done at these ages.
Growth and Maturation
Late Childhood (6-10 years)
Boys and girls grow at about the same rate. Typically, they grow 5-7 cm and gain 1-3 kg per year.
Early Adolescence (11-14 years)
Puberty brings on hormonal changes that cause rapid growth and gains in body fat. This is normal
and helps the body meet caloric needs to fuel growth. Both genders will experience a spurt of rapid
growth. Girls will experience this spurt between the ages of 11-12, while boys experience it between
the ages of 13-14.
Late Adolescence (15-19)
Growth continues, often rapidly. The growth process typically continues longer for boys than it does
for girls.

Gender
There is little difference between age appropriate training for young male and female athletes.
However, as puberty approaches, there are great social differences that affect their motivation for
participation. The coach should provide equal opportunities for both genders to participate and be
sensitive to these differences.
Heredity
Genetics can influence a variety of the physical features of children and adolescents. Those who are
more talented, provided they have an aptitude for the activity chosen, will respond and progress
better with training.
Maturation
Young athletes mature at different rates, so it is wise for the coach to ascertain the degree of
readiness of each athlete to undertake each type of activity. This is important to prevent injuries and
the mental fatigue or burnout often seen in young athletes who are trained at very high levels.
Health Status
The primary goal for any coach is to keep the athlete healthy and injury free. Coaches should err on
the side of caution, and adapt training programs when illness or injury exists. With young athletes, the
coach should be especially careful to avoid and prevent overuse injuries.
Lifestyle Issues
This section examines how lifestyle issues impact the training program, and consider guidelines for
improving these aspects of life.
Sleep
Good sleep habits are crucial to the success of the training plan. Adequate sleep (8-10 hours per day)
is essential to permit regeneration. Also, adequate sleep, especially the hours before midnight, is
necessary to allow recovery from exercise.

Nutrition
The following examines some general guidelines for athlete’s nutritive needs. A proper nutritional
plan is essential to the success of the training program. Athletes should eat a variety of nutritious
foods and avoid unhealthy choices. The coach should have a general understanding of the following
essential nutrients:
Proteins
Proteins are compounds that build and repair body tissues. They are also involved in many of the
body’s chemical processes. Proteins are made of smaller units called amino acids. Some of these
amino acids cannot be made by the body in sufficient quantities to maintain health. These amino
acids are considered essential and must be obtained from food. Animal derived proteins (from eggs,
dairy products, and meats) are considered complete, containing all the essential amino acids. Plant
derived proteins come from nuts, grains, and legumes. These all lack one or more of the essential
amino acids.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are energy providing organic compounds. Carbohydrates are broken down by the body
to produce glucose. This glucose may be immediately used as fuel, or it may make its way to the liver
and muscles (where it is stored as glycogen), and to fat cells (where it is stored as fat). Starches and
sugars are the major carbohydrates. Foods such as grains, legumes, vegetables, and fruits that
contain starches and naturally occurring sugars are referred to as complex carbohydrates, because
their molecular complexity requires our bodies to break them down into a simpler form to obtain
glucose. In contrast, simple sugars, refined from naturally occurring sugars and added to processed
foods, require little digestion and are quickly absorbed by the body, with unhealthy results.
Fats
Fats consist of fatty acids attached to a substance called glycerol. Fats are the most concentrated of
the energy producing nutrients. Fats also play an important role in the body’s chemical processes.
Dietary fats are classified as saturated, monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated according to the

structure of their fatty acids. Animal derived fats are high in saturated fats. Plant derived fats are rich
in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat. High intake of saturated fats is considered unhealthy.

Minerals
Minerals are minute amounts of elements that are vital for the healthy growth of teeth and bones.
They also help the body’s chemical processes to occur. Mineral nutrients are classified as major
elements (calcium, chlorine, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and sulfur) and trace
elements (chromium, copper, fluoride, iodine, iron, selenium, and zinc).
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic substances needed for normal metabolism that cannot be synthesized by the
body in adequate amounts. Vitamins are classified as fat soluble or water soluble. Fat soluble
vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K), are absorbed with the help of foods that contain fat. Because these
vitamins can be stored in the body, they do not need to be consumed every day to meet the body’s
needs. Water-soluble vitamins (C, B1, B2, B3, B6, B12, and folic acid) cannot be stored and need to be
eaten daily to replenish the body’s needs.
In addition to these, the intake of fiber and water are also essential. Although fiber provides no energy
or building material, they are vital to good health. Fiber intake is needed for proper digestive function
and the elimination of harmful substances. Water and hydration will be examined in detail later.
The nutritional status of the athlete greatly determines the effectiveness of the training and the
ability to handle training loads. Athletes and those looking to improve fitness should adhere to the
following general suggestions:
• Weight loss or gain should only be undertaken carefully after much examination and
planning, and with extreme patience and expert guidance.
• Choosing from and balancing the traditional four food groups (fruits and vegetables,
dairy, meats, and grains) is a simple, effective way to plan for general nutrition needs.
• Highly processed and refined foods (such as sugars, oils, and flours) should be avoided in
excess. They are not recognized by the body as foods, and are difficult for the body to
process.
• The diet should be fairly low in fats and simple carbohydrates. It should be rich in
vitamins, minerals, complex carbohydrates, and protein.
• Sufficient protein should be present in meals to prevent extreme insulin fluctuations due
to the rapid digestion of carbohydrates.
• Simply cooked meals or raw foods are nutritionally superior to complex preparations.

• Ideally, several small meals scattered throughout the day are most effective for the
athlete.
• Breakfast is extremely important, and should contain some protein rich food.
• Eating a variety of foods increases nutritive value of the diet, and enhances immune
system function.
Hydration
Sufficient water intake is crucial to maintaining efficiency in nearly all body functions. It is equally
important to adaptations from training. Following are some basic guidelines for athlete’s hydration
needs.
• Athletes should drink approximately 1 gallon of water a day as a minimum.
• This water is best taken in small servings scattered throughout the day.
• Limit sweetened drinks including juices.
• Increased water intake may be necessary during hot or dry weather, especially when
windy.
• Air travel tends to dehydrate the body quickly, so increasing water intake prior to such
trips is advised.

Training Theory
This section examines the science of Training Theory. Training Theory is the study of the applications
of sports science to the design of training. Terminology, concepts, and guidelines for developing
effective training programs will be covered.
The Concept of Periodization

Periodization is defined as the process of planning training in order to produce high levels of
performance at designated times. There are three major concepts associated with the process of
periodization.
Planning
Planning is perhaps the most important step in ensuring the effectiveness of the training program.
Planning enables a coach to control training variables and parameters in a manner that guarantees
the best chance for success.
Record Keeping
Record keeping is another crucial part of the periodization process. This enables the coach to monitor
training loads accurately, and to modify training from cycle to cycle and year to year.
Peaking
Peaking refers to the designed training that allows the best performances to come at the most
crucial competitions.
Fundamental Terms and Concepts
Volume and Intensity
Volume is total the amount of training done over a period of time. Intensity is the difficulty and
degree of demand of the training. Volume is usually measured in sets, reps, distance or duration.

Intensity is generally quantified by the load, speed, power or perceived level of effort. Much of training
design involves manipulation of these two parameters of training.
Age and Training Age
Training must be at an appropriate level for every athlete and perhaps the most important
considerations when designing appropriate training are the age and training age of the athlete. These
terms differ. While age refers to chronological age, training age refers to the total amount of time an
athlete has spent training for one particular sport. Older athletes may have young training ages and
be unable to handle certain levels of training, and vice versa.
Simple and Complex Training
Training activities can be classified as simple or complex. Simple activities have low technical demand
and are relatively safe. Complex activities have high technical demand and may involve more risk.
General and Specific Training
Training activities can be classified as general or specific. General training consists of activities that do
not pertain directly to or resemble the event. Specific training consists of activities that directly
pertain to or resemble the event.
Segments of Training
This section examines terminology applied to the various segments of training used in the
periodization process.
The Annual Plan
The annual plan is an organized plan of training for one calendar year. Gross considerations
associated with the general plan follow.

The Macrocycle
A Macrocycle is a segment of training consisting the entire period of time from the onset of training
to the crucial competition. A macrocycle normally is associated with one peaking period and one
group of major competitions.
Single and Double Periodization Models
Most macrocycles use single or double periodization models. Single models feature one macrocycle
per year, while double models feature two macrocycles per year. To accommodate two peaking
periods in double periodization models, normally the second macrocycle involves a return to activities
done earlier in the training year. Double periodization models usually sacrifice the quality of the peaks
to some extent.
Periods of Training
Each macrocycle is comprised of three periods.
1. The Preparatory Period is the time spent in training prior to the competitive season.
2. The Competition Period is time spent in training during the competitive season.
3. The Transition Period is the time dedicated to rest and recovery at the completion of
the competition period. Normally the transition period contains no formal training.
Phases of Training
The preparatory and competition periods are divided into two phases each.
• The General Preparation Phase (GPP) comprises the first part of the preparation period,
and is characterized by general training activities.
• The Specific Preparation Phase (SPP) comprises the second part of the preparation
period, and is characterized by specific training activities.
• The Pre-Competition Phase comprises the first part of the competition period, and is
characterized by competitions considered developmental or less important.
• The Competition Phase comprises the second part of the competition period, and is
characterized by competitions considered crucial.

Other Segments of Training
The training process can be further segmented into smaller sub-divisions. The following are the most
commonly used sub-divisions:
• The Mesocycle: A 2-6 week cycle of training. Each phase is normally comprised of one or
more mesocycles.
• The Microcycle: A 7-10 day cycle of training. Each mesocycle is normally comprised of 2-
6 microcycles.
• The Session: Refers to one actual training occurrence or practice. Sessions usually occur
on a daily basis.
• The Unit: Refers to one section of the session, normally consisting of training activities
that are alike or similar. For example, the warmup may be one unit, weight training
another, etc.
Approach to Training
Multilateral Training
The biomotor training components are qualities essential to high performance in athletics. The five
primary biomotor abilities are as follows:
1. Strength: the ability to produce force.
2. Speed: the ability to move the body and body parts rapidly.
3. Endurance: the ability to withstand fatigue.
4. Mobility: the ability to move a joint through a range of motion.
5. Coordination: the ability to accomplish a task efficiently.
The Multilateral Training Philosophy: all of these biomotor components contribute in some way to
performance, so all should be developed through training in order to improve performance. These
components are also interdependent upon each other, so great development of any of these systems
is impossible without parallel improvements in others. The basic premise of a philosophy of
multilateral training is that we must, over time, address all of these biomotor components in some

planned balance, and that the balance of development levels of these components is as crucial as the
absolute development level of any one system.
Multisystem Training
The body systems are physiological systems essential to performance in fitness and sport.
Development of these systems is essential to performance improvement. The most important body
systems related to fitness and performance are:
• Neuromuscular System: Composed of parts of the nervous system and the muscular
system. The effectiveness of the nervous system is possibly the greatest single factor in
performance in speed and power activities as it impacts the magnitude and rate of force
production. The muscular system is made up of the contractile tissue and support
structures such as bone, fascia, and connective tissue.
• Cardiorespiratory System: Composed of the respiratory and cardiac system. This system
is responsible for supplying oxygen to working muscles and organs and removing waste
products such as CO2.
• Energy Systems: Responsible for providing an energy rich compound called Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP) to fuel muscle work and recovery. This ATP is produced from
substrates such as fat and glycogen through various processes. The effectiveness of the
energy systems is possibly the greatest single factor in performance in the endurance
events.
The Multisystem Training Philosophy
All of these systems contribute in some way to performance, so all should be trained to improve
their ability to make some specific contribution to performance. These systems are also
interdependent upon each other, so great development of any of these systems is impossible without
parallel improvements in others. The basic premise of a philosophy of multisystem training is that
over time all of these body systems should be addressed in some planned balance. The balance of
development levels of these systems is as crucial as the absolute development level of any one
system.
Principles of Program Design

The next section covers several of the basic premises and principles of training theory with special
attention to implications for training design.

Needs Analysis
Before beginning any training program, it is very important to assess what is needed by the athlete or
client. A needs analysis should be performed to determine the best course of action with training.
Without understanding the needs of the athlete, it is impossible to design the best possible training
plan. The needs analysis should take into account the chronological age, developmental age, training
and injury history, sport, position, and goals of the individual. Ideally, preliminary testing should be
performed to not only establish a baseline in performance, but also to guide the development of
training. Appropriate preliminary tests should be chosen based on the individual’s goals.
Overload
Overload is a key concept in the development of all training programs. Key principles associated with
overload are the following:
The Principle of Overload states that if adaptation is desired from training, the training stimulus must
be greater than that to which the body is accustomed. Increases in fitness levels must be preceded by
overload. Overload should not be achieved indiscriminately, but through a planned, progressive
process.
The Principle of Reversibility means that if the training stimulus falls below that which the body is
accustomed, a negative adaptation occurs and fitness is lost.
The Principle of Rest and Recovery states that rest and recovery opportunity is necessary to the
adaptive process, and that these must be included in the training program in a planned fashion. The
inclusion of rest and recovery should not be left to chance, and a skilled coach knows how to rest
certain body systems while training others so that time spent in non-training status is minimized. In
its simplest form, all training design is balancing overload and rest and recovery.
Adaptation
Adaptation is the goal of every training program. Adaptation means that the body will change itself
when stress is placed upon it in a manner that will enable it to better handle subsequent stress of the
same type. The adaptation process exhibits the following characteristics:
Specificity of Adaptation means that adaptation is specific to the stress or stimulus placed upon the
body. The body will adapt in a manner that enables it to better cope with similar stress in the future,

but the ability to deal with differing stresses remains unchanged or may diminish. For this reason, it is
crucial that the training stimulus send a clear message to the body as to what type of adaptation is
desired. If stimuli serve conflicting messages, positive adaptation will occur by chance only.
Time Frames for Adaptation have a great effect on how we design training. Adaptation to a stimulus
is delayed, requires time, and is specific to the type of stimulus and the volume and frequency of
exposure. Additionally, not all systems of the body adapt at the same rate. Changes in training should
occur periodically in accordance with adaptation time frames for continued progress.
Matveyev’s Model is a graphic representation of the body’s response to an exercise stimulus. When a
training stimulus is applied, the stress results in an immediate decrease in fitness. After this initial
decrease, as the body recovers and adapts, the fitness level increases. This continues to a state where
the previous level of fitness is surpassed called supercompensation. Over time, if the body is not
stressed again, it eventually regresses to its previous level of fitness. Excessive stimuli may depress
the fitness level too much, compromising the quality of the supercompensation. If the stimulus is
insufficient, fitness may stagnate or even regress.
Figure 1: Matveyev’s model
Matveyev’s Model is what is known as the single factor model of adaptation as it only looks at the
outcome of training on performance. The Fitness-Fatigue Model is known as the dual factor model of
adaptation. It provides further insight into the adaptation process. This model suggests that
performance (from Matveyev’s Model) is actually the outcome of fitness and fatigue. The imposition
of a training stimulus results in an increase in fatigue and fitness. The onset of fatigue is very rapid
but reduces quickly. Improvements in fitness are much slower as they are underpinned by
physiological changes. This model explains why the initial response to training a reduction in
performance and why positive adaptations are often delayed.

Figure 2: Fitness-Fatigue model
Volume and Intensity
Either volume or intensity increases can be used to attain overload. Generally, in most training
programs, throughout the course of the macrocycle, volume of training decreases while intensity of
training increases. At certain times, there may be periods of constant volume while intensity
increases or vice versa, but simultaneous increases in volume and intensity are risky.
Variety
Variety in Training is a necessary characteristic. Planned variances in training should be employed
throughout the course of the training program. Variance is a characteristic of effective training for
several reasons.
Variance enhances adaptation by increasing the complexity of the training stimulus. This forces the
body to adapt in different ways, making it inherently better at adaptation. Variance in the training
program also helps to prevent injuries by avoiding repetitive stresses. It also alleviates the monotony
of training to some degree.
Perfection is an important goal. While variety is important, at no time should the correct execution of
the activities be sacrificed.
Individualization
Individualization of training is necessary, as no particular level of training stimulus is effective for all
athletes. Each athlete needs a certain level of training stress sufficient to foster adaptation, yet not so
excessive as to hinder adaptation and invite injury. Training of lower intensity is safe for groups, but
training of higher intensity must be individualized. Individualization may take many forms, such as

varying distances run, numbers of sets, numbers of repetitions, amount of weight lifted, altering
hurdle or box height, or exercise choice.
Planning Training
Designing the Annual Plan
The following are guidelines for implementing the principles of training theory into the design of the
annual plan of training:
• Working Back: Training should be planned by identifying the date(s) of the most crucial
competition, then working back to the onset of training as the actual training process
progresses.
• Logical Sequencing of Training: Training themes and emphases should be arranged in

some logical sequence. Certain types of training have prerequisites that must be met,
and sequencing should meet these prerequisites. Following are some general
considerations for the logical sequencing of training themes over the course of the
macrocycle.
• General to Specific Progression: Generally speaking, over the course of the macrocycle,
training should progress from general activities to specific activities. The general
activities should serve to address some prerequisite for specific training. If a general
training activity is not addressing some prerequisite for specific training, it should
possibly be eliminated from the program.
• Simple to Complex Progression: Generally speaking, over the course of the macrocycle,
training should progress from simple activities to complex activities. This provides a safe
form of intensity increase.
• Volume to Intensity Progression: Generally speaking, over the course of the macrocycle,
training should progress from high volumes and low intensities to lower volumes and
higher intensities. Increasing volume and intensity simultaneously is risky.
• Rest and Recovery: Opportunities for rest and recovery should be planned, and not
scheduled haphazardly or left to chance.
Designing the Mesocycle
Following are guidelines for implementing the principles of training theory into the design of a
mesocycle of training.

• Training Themes: Each mesocycle should have one or two themes that reflect the
primary goals for that mesocycle. That does not mean that other types of work are not
done, but that the primary focus of the mesocycle is the identified theme.
• Training Cycles: Training should be cyclical in nature, meaning that it constantly evolves
and changes. There should be some shift in themes as we move from mesocycle to
mesocycle.
• Rest and Recovery: There should be at least one extended rest and recovery opportunity
per mesocycle. This normally takes the form of an easier microcyle during the
mesocycle.
Planning the Microcycle
The following are guidelines for implementing the principles of training theory into the design of a
microcycle of training:
• Session Themes: Each session should have some type of theme. Activities grouped into a
training session should have one or more common traits. For example, a session may
emphasize explosive speed activities. Another may emphasize energy system fitness, etc.
• Alternating Emphases and Contrasting Training: Throughout the microcycle, various body
systems should be rested while others ones are being trained. Each succeeding session
should have a differing theme than the preceding one, ensuring contrast in day-to-day
training.
• Rest and Recovery: Including rest and recovery is another part of microcycle training
design. In this way, further rest is provided, while inactivity is minimized. Each microcycle
should include one extended planned rest and recovery opportunity, and possibly more
for difficult microcycles. Most microcycles also include a secondary rest opportunity.
These often take the form of a day off from training or an easier training session.
Planning the Session
Following are special considerations for planning an effective training session:
• Warmup and Cooldown: Each session should have a warmup and cooldown. The purpose
of the warmup is to prepare the body for more intense activity. The cooldown’s purpose
is to return the body slowly to a resting state. The warmup should be specific to the
demands of the day’s activities, and progress to intensities near those anticipated in the
session. Typical warmups last 15-45 minutes in length, depending on the level of the
athlete. The cooldown should be some activity that progressively bridges the gap
between work and rest.

• Session Themes: As previously stated, the session should be designed around some type
of theme. Activities grouped into a training session should have one or more common
traits:
• Sequencing Training Units: Training Units should be logically sequenced. Following is a

suggested order for sequencing the units in any given session. Keep in mind that all of
these may not be included in any one session:
1. Warmup Activities
2. Technical Work
3. Speed and Power Activities
4. Strength and Endurance Activities
5. Cooldown Activities
• Rest and Recovery: Rest and recovery should be a part of the session as well. This may
take the form of breaks between units and/or repetitions of work. While training
endurance may demand incomplete recoveries between repetitions at times, the
majority of training activities require quality effort to be valuable, and this rest
guarantees that high quality of work can be accomplished.
• Pedagogical Soundness: The session should be sound from a pedagogical standpoint. It

should sequence skills in a logical learning order, and provide a learning atmosphere that
is appropriate for that time of year.
Movement Screen and Assessments
While movement screens and assessments may be part of the initial needs analysis and subsequent
testing, it should be noted that no movement screen exists that has been proven to be either
predictive of injury likelihood or performance. It is recommended that coaches become astute
observers of basic movement patterns of their athletes on a day-to-day basis to determine whether
there are any asymmetries or inefficiencies. Observing basic movements such as running, skipping,
jumping, and mobility activities will provide greater insight in to the functional capacity of an
individual than current popular movement screens. Current popular movement screens are not
supported by research literature and while they may provide additional insight, most coaches can
gain more insight on the athlete’s ability to move efficiently by watching them perform basic training
activities.

Strength Training Movement Techniques
Strength training is simply a way of developing the force producing capability of the musculature of
the body. While the methods for doing so are vast, the goal here is to expose what is at the base of it
all. This section will define the six fundamental movement patterns to be squat, hinge, lunge, press,
pull, and brace. What makes these patterns fundamental is their presence as building blocks to more
advanced exercises. It is these six patterns that should be mastered by the beginner in strength
training before attempting to progress toward more complex skills. What is also important about the
six fundamentals is that they are incredibly effective tools for use by any level of athlete or individual.
While a beginner may spend the majority of their efforts coordinating the basic movements and their
variants, an advanced lifter will find the very same patterns useful in pushing the boundaries of their
physical capacity.
Movement Standards and Technique

It is often said that using the wrong exercise is like picking the wrong tool for the job. In this analogy,
doing an exercise incorrectly may be like using a hammer to sink a screw. You may accomplish the
task, but the purpose of using a screw is that it binds to the wood through the grooves it creates and
pounding it in will negate the benefit of its design. Similarly, doing an exercise incorrectly is both
ineffective and inefficient in obtaining the physical benefit of the exercise chosen. Incorrect technique
may also put an individual at risk for injury, as the intended distribution of load on the body is now
compromised. Further, when there is not a standard for proper execution of an exercise, it becomes
impossible to measure progress in strength, relative to individual achievements or comparison to

normative data, because measured improvement may be caused by movement variability rather than
a true increase in output. For these reasons, proper movement execution is paramount to getting the
most out of any training plan, short term and long term.
Key Elements of Movement

Regardless of movement, coaches should concern themselves with several key factors in the
instruction process:

• Grip: The grip is concerned with the manner in which the athlete holds the external load
or point of contact (for exercises like pullups). Of particular concern are the width of the
grip, whether it is supinated / neutral / pronated / alternating, and in some cases, the
position relative to other body parts.
• Stance: This point is concerned with the positioning of the feet during the movement.
Specifically, the width of the stance, whether there is internal / neutral / external rotation,
whether the movement is unilateral or bilateral, and whether there is a staggered
position or not.
• Posture: This point is concerned with the alignment and positioning of the core of the
body. Specifically, the relation of the head, neck, spine, and pelvis to both each other and
the limbs.
• Execution: The final point is concerned with how the movement is performed. This
includes but is not limited to the sequencing of joint actions, the alignment of joints, and
the positions of limbs with respect to each other and the trunk.
Scaling and Modification

While it is necessary to create movement standards and always strive for good technique, there will
certainly be cases where an individual cannot execute an exercise as requested. Possible causes may
be injury, lack of mobility or presence of physical deformity, lack of coordination, or non-ideal body
length. Each of these cases requires a slightly different approach in moving the individual toward
proper movement execution. Regressions and progressions for each fundamental movement pattern
will be discussed in further detail later, but the general philosophy should be that every exercise is
scalable and modifiable in situations where the variables cannot be changed (e.g. physical deformity),
and that attempts be made to identify and affect the variables that can be (e.g. mobility).
Squat
The squat is a compound, multi-joint exercise that primarily targets the muscles of the lower body. In
the context of fitness and sport, the squat is widely and effectively used to develop bilateral strength
and explosive power. It tends to be a well-balanced position for handling heavy loads and producing
large amounts of force.

Execution
A typical squat will begin standing upright with feet placed at about shoulder width or slightly wider.
Generally, the feet will tend to rotate outward slightly with relatively wider stances. With weight
equally distributed through the whole foot, the squat begins by bending at the hips and reaching
slightly backward. From there, the knees and hips flex at equal rates while keeping the torso erect. As
the degree of flexion at the knee and hip increase, the torso tends to lean forward to counter the
weight of the hips shifting backward. When appropriate depth is reached, the body rises as a
synchronous unit in the opposite pattern of descent. It is common for movement educators to
demand that the knees not travel forward past the toes at the bottom of the squat, but because each
body has proportionately different lengths, individualization is necessary. For example, someone with
long femurs will need more forward translation of the knees to accommodate appropriate depth
without compromising a relatively upright torso angle. For this reason, it is a better screen to look at
the balance of pressure through the foot. Weight should be evenly distributed throughout the
movement to maintain a solid base to push from.
The depth at the bottom of the squat may be somewhat variable depending on the training goal, but,
as a standard of movement, the expectation is that the hip crease be at least below the top of the
knee for a full repetition. The squat should end with the hips and knees fully extended and the
individual standing tall.
A movement pattern with multiple contributing joints like the squat has potential for error
throughout that may cause inefficiency or even injury. A common mishap during a squat is allowing
the knees to cave inward toward the midline of the body, either during the descent or ascent. The
knees should ideally track outward in line with the orientation of the foot. This issue is often seen in
weak or inexperienced squatters and can be caused by a lack of coordination or strength in the
external rotators of the hip. Even experienced individuals may present this as a learned habit from
previous incorrectly performed repetitions. Another common error is a weight shift forward onto the
ball of the foot toward the bottom of the squat, which is frequently coupled with an inability to keep
the torso out of excessive forward lean. There may be a number of possible causes to these issues,
but typically a lack of pelvic or ankle mobility, or too narrow of a stance is the culprit. Other common
errors are lumbar flexion at full depth when the individual lacks mobility and right / left asymmetry.

Variation
The squat is most simply performed as a bodyweight exercise. While there is benefit to this as a
fundamental movement pattern, muscular strength is more effectively gained through the addition
of external load. Typically, the first progression is some form of a Goblet Squat, where a weight is
held in the hands in front of the body at the level of the chest. This exercise acts as a nice teaching
tool for inexperienced lifters, as the weight forces the torso to an upright position and keeps balance
throughout the movement. Likely the most commonly used variation is the Back Squat, during which
a barbell is held along the back of the shoulders and load is directly supported by the strength of the
torso. This tends to be the type of squat that allows for the greatest loading, as seen with impressive
world records of over 500 kgs! Another variant with specific purpose is the Front Squat, where the
bar is held on the front of the shoulders with the hands on the bar and the elbows pointed forward.
The front squat is a necessary component of Olympic Weightlifting, acting as the receiving position of
the first half of the Clean and Jerk. Other types of squat include Overhead Squat, Zercher Squat, Box
Squat, Split Squat, among many more. Each variation holds its own value, and the main difference
between each comes down to how the load is held by the body. This can have effect on joint position
relative to a balanced distribution of mass. Because each individual has differences in body length and
mobility, knowing how each squat variation changes the movement pattern may be helpful in finding
what is most effective and appropriate. If a bodyweight squat to the standardized depth is not
possible, consider identifying and improving mobility deficits of the hips, knees, or ankles.
Hinge
The hip-hinge is a fundamental movement pattern present in nearly all lower body exercises. It’s
defining characteristic is forward flexion at the junction of the femur and pelvis. The hip-hinge can
occur bilaterally or unilaterally, and has the ability to stress all of the immediate musculature of the
hip, as well as the spinal erectors and the flexors of the knee. By nature, a hinge at the hip changes
the torso angle such that the shoulders are in front of the hips and the body’s center of mass shifts
anteriorly. Because of this, exercise variations that involve hip-hinge are effective in developing the
musculature of the posterior chain.

Execution
A hinging motion can occur while the body is in many different positions, but here the assumed
starting position is standing upright. If, from this start position, the only proceeding movement is hip
flexion, a hip-hinge has occurred. This ‘unlocking’ of the hips was noted earlier as the first step in
performing a squat and will be the necessary first step to many other exercises. As the hip joint
continues to flex, or close, there are two muscle groups essentially fighting for the position of the
pelvis. The hamstrings group wants to resist length and pull the pelvis into posterior tilt, while the
spinal erectors fight to keep anterior tilt. It is the balance between the two that gives the sharp-angle
look of a correctly executed hip-hinge. During the movement, the lumbar spine, in relation to the
pelvis, should remain neutral.
While there is not a particular standard for completion of a hip-hinge, there are certain things to look
for. When purposefully performing a hinge motion, the area between the mid-thigh and mid-back
should act as two levers rotating about one axis. The reality of the anatomy is that the spine has
many articulations within this area, but to make effective use of the pattern and direct tension to
appropriate musculature, the spine needs to remain neutral and act as a unit while the movement is
isolated to the hip joint. This promotes postural tension in the spinal erectors and lengthening and
loading of the hamstrings and hip extensors like the Gluteus Maximus.
A common breakdown of this process is seen when an individual attempts to perform a hip-hinge, but
instead of flexing at the hip, they flex at the lumbar spine. This could be a result of a lack of
coordination or awareness of pelvic position. A less likely but possible cause is a severe lack of
mobility in the hamstring group to allow anterior pelvic tilt or a lack of lower back strength in
resisting posterior pelvic tilt. What may help this issue is to begin the hinge with a slight knee bend
and a slightly tense lumbar arch.
Variation
Exercises that involve primarily hinging motion include variations of the popular Romanian Deadlift
(RDL). The bilateral version begins by standing upright with weight held in the hands at the front of
the hips. The knees will bend slightly as the hip-hinge is initiated, and the entire spine should remain
neutral. The external load is ideally kept as close to the legs as possible during the descent,
necessitating a shift backward of the hips. Appropriate depth is dependent upon individual hamstring
flexibility and strength, but a rule of thumb is to get the hands below the knees but no lower than

about mid-shin. The unilateral Single Leg RDL is executed very similarly, but with only one leg in
support. During descent, the free leg remains straight and rises up behind the stance leg, keeping a
straight line from the heel up to the shoulders. As with the squat, variation of the hinge often comes
down to where the body supports the external load. The Good Morning is an exercise performed
exactly the same as the bilateral RDL, but with weight either held on the back across the shoulders, or
in the hands at chest level. The change in support position lengthens the lever between the axis and
the load, resulting in greater stress on the posterior chain, specifically at the postural muscles of the
lumbar spine and hamstrings. A more dynamic hip-hinging exercise is the Kettlebell Swing. Here, the
hinge is performed with a faster descent and a more forceful hip extension. The dynamic nature of
the Kettlebell Swing is necessitated by the external load falling with gravity through an arcing path
created by extended arms, from around eye-level to between the legs. This exercise is useful in
creating a faster eccentric overload of the hip extensors followed by a rhythmic but rapid return to
concentric action.
While progressing hinging movements can be as simple as increasing load, increasing speed of
execution, or moving the load further from the axis (hips), finding exercises for regression often
involves separate patterns altogether. One effective strategy is isolated practice on alternating
between anterior and posterior pelvic tilt. This can be achieved in a quadruped position, or lying
supine with knees bent. Gaining awareness and control of this pelvic tilting can be translated to the
initiation of the hip-hinge.
Lunge
The lunge is a movement pattern that requires balance and coordination, and has broad application in
athletics as well as strength training. While commonly thought of as unilateral, the lunge is actually
an asymmetric bilateral pattern, meaning that both legs are in support at the same time, but the
position and necessary force production of each is different. The double leg support gives it a higher
capacity for loading than true single-leg exercises, and the asymmetrical force production allows for
a more focused training emphasis than a bilateral squat.
Execution
Lunges may take place in any direction, but all will follow a common theme. The start position is
standing tall with feet together. The movement is initiated by shifting weight to the support leg while

the free leg swings away from the body. By reaching out, the free leg comes into contact with the
ground to create a new double-leg support, and the knees bend to lower the body. To finish the
movement, what was initially the free leg will drive through the ground, pushing the body back up to
the standing start position. The standard for completion depends on which variation is used, but in
general the back knee should come within two centimeters of the ground, or the hips should drop to
parallel with the knee of the moving leg. It is also ideal for the front knee to be relatively in line with
the foot resulting in a near vertically aligned shin, but this is dependent upon limb length and
mobility. Errors in the lunge often occur as insufficient depth, instability of the knee, or allowing the
front foot’s heel to come off the ground.
Variation
The most common variations are the Forward Lunge, where the free leg steps in front of the body,
the Backward Lunge, where the free leg steps behind the body, and the Lateral Lunge, where the free
leg steps out to the side. As was mentioned, lunges can be performed in any direction relative to the
start position, each accomplishing a slightly different task in terms of muscular activation and angle
of load. Regardless, the defining characteristic is a step with one leg away from the body followed by
a rising back up to the feet-together start position. A simple regression from a lunge is to perform the
rise and fall of the center of mass without moving from the split-leg support position. While this is
technically a form of a split stance squat and not a lunging pattern, it works well to replicate the
movement with less required balance.
Press
The press is a category of upper extremity exercises. The movement tends to be a strong pattern for
moving load. This discussion will focus on commonly chosen pressing exercises as well as
consideration for categorizing movements as a press.
Execution
The press can be defined as a pattern in which the concentric muscle action moves the limbs away
from the body. Pressing can be done as an open kinetic chain exercise, where the body is fixed in
space and the limbs move, or a closed kinetic chain exercise, where the limbs are fixed and the body
moves in space. Each variation of pressing exercise may have a slightly different standard for

movement. Typically, a complete pattern will begin with the limbs as close to the torso as possible
with appropriate posture, and end with the joints at full extension, or limbs as far away from the torso
as possible. A potential error during pressing exercises arises when failing to move through a
complete range of motion, leaving vulnerability to weakness and instability within the neglected
ranges. Another consideration for error is improper positioning the limbs relative to the body, in a
way that is inefficient or puts the moving joints at risk of injury.
Variation
Pressing variants can be broken down categorically into either vertical or horizontal presses. Vertical
and horizontal categorizations refer to the direction of force relative to the body if it were standing
upright in anatomical position, not it’s orientation with gravity during the exercise. For example, a
horizontal upper body pressing variation could be a barbell Chest Press. This popular movement
develops the large pectoralis muscles as the body lays supine with the barbell moving away from the
torso from its start position at the chest, or sternum. An upper body exercise with a vertical force
vector would include some form of a standing overhead press. Here, load can be held at the
shoulders either in front, behind, or to the side of the head. The primary targeted musculature will be
the deltoid group and the upper Trapezius.
Open chain exercises, such as those described above, allow for free-moving limbs to support things
like dumbbells or barbells, where load and intensity can be easily manipulated. During closed chain
movements, however, the weight of the body acts as the resistance, so modifying intensity is limited
to attaching load to the body, manipulating mechanical advantage, or using accommodated
resistance or assistance like a band. For example, the execution of a pushup can be limited by the
individual’s ability to move his or her own body weight, but they may have success at a Chest Press
using light dumbbells. Another individual may choose the barbell Chest Press in order to train with a
larger load than would be possible by adding resistance to a pushup.
Pull
Pulling is a category of upper body exercises that involve some of the largest muscle groups of the
body. They tend to be more mechanically challenging than pressing exercises.

Execution
The pull is defined as a movement whose concentric contraction moves the limbs closer to the body.
Pulling, similar to the press, can also take place as an open or closed kinetic chain exercise. In open
chain, free weight variations it can be logistically challenging to create leverage for a strong pull
because of the position the rest of the body has to be in to overcome the load being pulled. Put more
simply, a heavy load wants to pull the body toward it unless the body is sufficiently anchored. In
pressing movements, it is easier to lay the body against an object like a bench to create a solid base
for force production. Because of this, multi-joint pulling often encompasses active postural support.
Movement standards for pulling exercises are, again, similar to pressing in that the recommendation
is typically moving from full joint extension to as close to the body as possible. Faults in execution
also relate to neglected ranges of motion as well as improper positioning of the joints.
Variation
Common pulling variations include mainly upper body exercises, with many ways to perform each
one. For example, a dumbbell horizontal Row can be done one arm at a time, supported by kneeling
on a bench or with a standing, hinged forward posture. It can also be performed with two arms at the
same time and supported by lying prone on an elevated bench or standing with a hinged forward
posture. A vertical pulling variation could be either a Pullup or a Lat Pulldown. The Pullup, performed
while hanging from a fixed bar, is the closed chain equivalent to the open chain Lat Pulldown, which is
typically done on a machine with a fixed body position. Both exercises begin with arms extended
overhead and finishing with hands at the level of the shoulder. Each of the above pulling variations
aim to develop the muscles of the mid to upper back.
Modifying the intensity of pulling exercises follows the same guidelines as pressing. Manipulating
exercise selection toward open or closed chain movements can be beneficial both in progressing and
regressing a particular pattern. Otherwise, the load being moved, the amount of mechanical
advantage, and the presence of external resistance or assistance are the primary ways to add or
reduce intensity. Typically for both pulling and pressing exercises, movement proficiency can be
handled by reducing the load sufficiently and will not commonly need a technical regression.

Brace
While bracing is not necessarily a movement pattern, it does involve specific effort and contraction of
the body’s musculature. The act of bracing is meant to resist movement and forces, which are
typically imparted on the body by external sources. While bracing, the entire body may be involved
depending on what movement is being resisted, but the main source of the body’s tension is what is
known as the core, or the musculature surrounding the torso. The postural muscles of the core
during a bracing effort act nearly isometrically to support the spine, radiate tension, and transfer
forces through the body and to the limbs. Bracing, as a training tool, is an effective way of developing
postural stability, core strength, and the capacity to absorb external loads in scenarios like athletics.
Execution
A bracing effort requires a coordinated effort of all of the muscles of the mid-section. However,
instead of trying to articulate a contraction of each separate muscle, it is a more effective strategy to
feel a global radiation of tension through the abdomen. Focusing on breathing through the
diaphragm can also help to keep intra-abdominal pressure during a longer static hold. Depending on
how the external force is being applied to the body, the feet may need to be planted with a solid base
so that the strong muscles of the hips can be used for added stability. The upper body may also need
to display coordinated tension at the thoracic spine and shoulders, as these tend to be areas with a
lot of otherwise-allowable ranges of motion.
Variation
Bracing can be performed in many different positions in resistance to many types of external force.
Common exercises with the purpose of training the ability to coordinate a bracing effort as well as
improve the capacity to resist loads include many variations of static core exercises. A Plank, for
example, is a popular exercise where the body is erect in a prone orientation, supported by the feet
and elbows. Gravity wants to pull the hips down toward the ground, and the musculature of the core
and hips contract to resist movement and maintain a slight posterior pelvic tilt. Endless variations of
the Plank exercise are great tools for learning and training bracing efforts and postural stability.
Bracing can also happen as a static resistance to movement in one part of the body while another
part is moving. In a Barbell Back Squat, the joints of the hip, knees, and ankles are moving, but the
torso should remain as erect as possible to protect the spine. Another type of bracing effort

commonly seen in athletics is that which occurs during or preceding a dynamic absorption of forces.
For example, during a tackle in American Football or Rugby, an athlete will need to aggressively brace
in order to efficiently transmit forces through their own body and absorb the impact forces from their
opponent.
Checking for appropriate postures while unloaded should always precede the training of bracing
exercises. Progressions should begin with different forms of static bracing, initially without load. Next
could be bracing during movement with a constant load, which may graduate to rhythmic bracing
during alternating periods of resistance and non-resistance, also known as perturbation. The most
intense form of bracing is that which occurs in anticipation of, or in response to, high levels of rapidly
applied forces such as collision.

Biomotor Development
To improve human performance in both sport and life, it is important for the coach to have a good
understanding of what the athlete is trying to develop. The coach can improve performance by
manipulating the training, consequently changing the biology of the individual, which eventually yields
improvements in performance. Physical capacity can be simplified by thinking of it in several different
domains. These various domains are what we refer to as biomotor abilities. Biomotor Development
refers to the improvement of each of these physical capacities with the intent to improve
performance, fitness and health.
Physical Abilities
Biomotor abilities are the key elements of athletic success. They include: speed, strength, mobility,
endurance and coordination. Within each of these physical abilities there are subcategories. For
example, power or speed endurance. Understanding these abilities can assist in the training process,
as they should guide the needs analysis, and thus the planning of training.
Speed
Speed is one of the most important physical abilities that most athletes in field or court sports will
benefit from improving. This physical ability is not limited to locomotion. Speed is relative to the
performance the athlete is looking to improve. For example, speed could encompass limb speed,
sprint speed, bar speed, or deceleration. Speed is defined by how rapidly an object or body moves
over a given distance. In most instances, it can be used synonymously with velocity. Performance of
this ability is related to an individual’s capacity to produce a net force, resulting in acceleration.
Producing force at a faster rate will produce a greater acceleration, thus increasing speed.
Most athletes of field and court sports will benefit from improving linear sprint speed, deceleration,
and acceleration. All of these performances fall under an umbrella term of “speed.” To improve any of
the aforementioned subsets of speed, the athlete should practice that specific skill. For example, a
sprinter looking to improve a 100 meter sprint time should practice sprinting during training. This is in
line with the training principle or specificity. This could also apply to a swimmer looking to improve
upon a 50 meter freestyle time. The individual should practice the stroke under appropriate
intensities to improve his or her performance. Performances resulting in the acceleration of body

mass over ground or water are closely linked to their ability to produce force. Faster, more explosive
athletes are able to produce force faster, and in the right direction, better than their lesser peers. To
do this, they not only need to develop appropriate mechanics, but they also need to develop the
neuromuscular system and connective tissue. Speed is slightly different than strength, in that there is
a premium on the time the individual has to produce force. A good way to conceptualize this is to
envision the difference between a powerlifter and a weightlifter. A weightlifter performing a snatch
must accelerate the barbell overhead by producing enough force to allow the barbell to become
weightless for a brief instance in which the lifter has time to jump underneath the weight of the bar.
In contrast, a powerlifter performing a squat must produce enough force to accelerate both body
weight and the barbell from low position to standing. While it may benefit an athlete to try standing
up as fast as possible, this has no bearing on the scoring of the event. However, a weightlifter will not
be able to complete the snatch if he or she is unable to jump underneath the weight.
Improving speed can be very difficult, because speed is very sensitive to fatigue. That being said, it
must be addressed very frequently. Speed can be developed through improving upon the
neuromuscular system, elasticity, and mechanics. Speed is not a mutually exclusive physical ability.
Many of the physical abilities are inter-related. For instance, speed is related to the strength, mobility,
and coordination of an individual.
Strength
Strength is the ability of an individual to produce force over a given range of motion. Maximum
strength refers to the most force that an athlete can produce. This is further subdivided into absolute
strength and relative strength. Absolute strength refers to the total amount of force an individual can
produce, regardless of their body weight. Relative strength takes an individual’s body weight into
account. Depending on the sport, improving either max or relative strength may have different
benefits. A lineman in American Football will benefit both from having a higher body mass and higher
absolute strength. As such, they tend to be much larger. In contrast, a high jumper will benefit from
being very strong relative to his or her body weight and tend to be much lighter.
Unlike speed, there is no time constraint related to strength over which the individual must produce
force. However, an individual may be stronger when producing force faster or slower, depending on
the type of muscular contraction. The force-velocity curve indicates that individuals are very good at

producing force fast during eccentric muscle actions. Likewise, the same individual is better at
producing force slowly during concentric muscle actions.
Increasing strength has been shown to reduce the likelihood of injury, increase power output, and
improve related performance measures. It is important to remember that strength is relative to the
musculature the individual is using. Therefore, a good understanding of human anatomy is required
to fully understand how improving strength could improve other performances.
Power is a very important physical quality that is related to both speed and strength. Power refers to
the amount of work performed over a given period of time . Since work is the product of force and
distance, increasing an individual’s ability to generate force will likely improve their ability to express
power. This is particularly true in younger and / or weaker individuals.
Increasing strength can be done a number of ways. Strength is traditionally improved best through
resistance training. Understanding how to perform a variety of movements is useful, however, it is
important to remember that addressing pushing, pulling, hinging, squatting, weightlifting, and other
multi-joint high force exercises are critical to improve the max strength of an individual.
Mobility
For the sake of this discussion we will refer to mobility and flexibility as one biomotor ability. In reality
they are related but not interchangeable. Mobility refers to the ability of a joint to move through a
specific range of motion. Meanwhile, flexibility refers to a specific muscle’s ability to lengthen.
Tendons, fascia, and ligaments are not mutually exclusive units and will impact flexibility. Similarly,
the positioning of a joint with respect to the torso or other joints can change its range of motion. For
example, an individual touching his or her toes will feel a significant change in their range of motion if
they fully extend their knees and flex their toes upwards due to the soft tissue connections.
In regards to performing an activity, it is paramount that the individual has a requisite mobility for
their activity. A lack of flexibility will likely result in compensations of movement that lead to poor
mechanics, and likely a decrease in performance and increase in the risk of injury. For example, a
javelin thrower who lacks shoulder rotation may compensate by hyperextending the back, and thus
increase his or her risk of injury, whilst simultaneously decreasing his or her performance in the
event. Therefore, an individual should strive for an increase in mobility to improve his or her
performance in the event while decreasing the risk of injury.

It is also important to consider how an individual is developing the flexibility needed to improve
performance. It is possible to develop flexibility through long holds or through more ballistic
movements such as dynamic flexibility. However, dynamic flexibility appears to be superior for speed-
power athletes. This is likely due to the pre-fatiguing associated with static stretching that results in
an acute decrement in power output.
Lastly, over-stretching may result in a decrease in tendon and muscle stiffness and impede the
athlete’s ability to perform well in activities involving the stretch-shortening cycle. Individuals
spending a great deal of their training time stretching tissues that may not need to be stretched or if
there are no current issues achieving a given range of motion, the athlete may find value in spending
more time performing other activities that will directly improve performance. If an individual lacks
mobility in a given task, then he or she should spend time improving their ability to achieve a given
range of motion.
Endurance
Endurance is the ability to sustain an output over an extended period of time. It is intimately related to
efficiency, economy, and energy system fitness. There are a number of endurance types, most of
which are specific to the activity at hand. For example, a distance runner requires a different type of
endurance than a 100 meter dash sprinter. A runner needs to efficiently transfer oxygen from the red
blood cells to the working muscles. A sprinter, who is working in an anaerobic capacity, requires a
different type of endurance that is more closely related to Anaerobic Glycolytic and the Anaerobic
Alactic Energy System.
The duration and intensity of a given task will be the primary determinants of the sustainability of the
output. These factors will determine the energy system contributions. The Anaerobic Alactic and the
Anaerobic Glycolytic energy systems have relatively limited capacities for sustained high output
activities. In contrast, the Aerobic Energy system by way of oxidative phosphorylation is capable of
meeting the energetic demands of activities beyond two minutes as long as the intensity does not
become too great. The energy systems are recruited according to the immediate need for energy, and
the intensity of the activity. If the activity is very intense, the most readily available source of energy
would be ATP-PC via the Anaerobic pathways, and would supply the majority of the energy; whereas
activities lasting longer durations would rely heavily on oxidative phosphorylation to meet energy
demands.

The energy pathway that predominates the activity will dictate how much time should be allocated to
training that respective type of endurance. One difficulty coaches may have when developing
endurance for speed-power athletes is attempting to accumulate volume without interfering with the
ability of that athlete to display power. This can be achieved by the implementation of medicine ball
work, body building circuits, and other general strength activities. Endurance can also be addressed
through a thorough warmup protocol.
Coordination
Coordination is the ability of an individual to accomplish a task efficiently. It is often assessed by

movement efficiency and is closely related to the inter-and intra muscular coordination of muscles.
Flexibility, strength, speed, and endurance are all intimately interrelated to this single biomotor ability.
Without coordination, an individual would not be able to turn muscles on and off in the correct order,
and therefore, would not be able to perform stretching, running, sprinting, jumping, cutting, lifting, and
the like.
Inter and intramuscular coordination is a function of the Central Nervous System, Peripheral Nervous
System, and reflexive pathways. Coordination is how the body produces muscular contractions that
move our complex lever system. These actions ultimately produce movement.
To improve coordination, an individual must perform the task at hand. If a sprinter wants to improve
their sprinting, he or she needs to practice sprinting. The coaching process involves taking advantage
of motor learning principles that maximize an athlete’s learning, and furthermore, performance.
Because most complex movement patterns involve rapid turning on and off of numerous muscles,
improving coordination can take a great deal of time. Initially, most athletes will not see an instant
performance improvement with a change to technique. This is due to the fact that the athlete is likely
cognitively aware of the task that they are trying to improve and the process has not yet been made
automatic. With time and practice, the movement can become automatic and performance
improvements will follow.
Strength is a function of the contractile force of muscle, which depends on the amount of electrical
activity from nervous system, linking coordination and strength. The speed at which a movement is
completed is related to how fast that force is generated, implicating coordination further.
Flexibility is also related to coordination. In some cases, the muscle is inhibited from lengthening due
to an increase in muscle tonicity. The is demonstrated by the implementation of Proprioceptive

Neural Facilitation (PNF) stretching techniques, where a muscle is maximally contracted for a period
of time, eliciting the Golgi Tendon Organ to respond by decreasing tension in an agonist through
autogenic inhibition, thus improving range of motion after the muscle relaxes.
Endurance can be defined by the efficiency of firing motor units in the correct sequence and amount,
once again, relying heavily on the coordination of the individual. While it can be somewhat difficult to
measure the interrelationship of coordination to the other abilities, one can simply watch a complex
movement task, such as a tennis serve, and appreciate the amount of gross and fine motor skill that
is required to not only hit the ball forcefully, but accurately.
Balanced Biomotor Training

It is important to consider that while different sports require more of less of a given biomotor ability,
there is benefit in developing all of the biomotor abilities to some degree. Each biomotor ability
should be prioritized and developed through an in-depth needs analysis and periodized plan. Because
training moves from general to specific, less specific biomotor abilities should be developed earlier in
the program to ensure the athlete is not leaving any training benefits “on the table.” For example, a
sprinter should prioritize speed. However, the sprinter may lack mobility in their hips and may benefit
from more static stretching earlier in the year to develop flexibility to a great degree. It is also
important to remember that each biomotor ability should be addressed in some manner every
training session. This may come as a surprise to some coaches initially, as it is hard to conceptualize
how this could be achieved through a single training session; however, coaches should realize that
developing a biomotor ability can be addressed in varying degrees. For example, a coach looking to
address endurance in a weightlifter everyday, may complete a full warmup, several sets of Power
Cleans, or some Pushups after their training session. A soccer player looking to address strength in a
session, may have done so through a couple sets of body weight squats or lunges after practice.
By addressing each biomotor ability to some degree, the coach and athlete can ensure that they have
left no stone unturned, and can be confident that their training is as effective as possible. There are a
number of ways to do this, but as stated above, the athlete should strive to address each ability to
some degree throughout their session. The warmup is a great time to address less important
biomotor abilities of the athlete. This may mean performing a variety of skips, sprint drills, dynamic
flexibility or hurdle mobility. All of these tools can be used to address coordination, flexibility,

strength, speed, and endurance. The focus of the session should be defined by the developmental
level of the athlete, time of year, context of the training plan, and skill of the athlete.
Multilateral Training
When referring to multilateral training, it is important to develop the athlete holistically. To do so, the
athlete should be able to perform a number of proficiencies that increase sport specificity and skill as
they develop. This includes squatting, pushing, pulling, gymnastic movements, striking, running,
jumping, and a number of other general movement proficiencies. If the athlete spends all of their
time performing a specific sporting skill, they will likely burn out, develop overuse injuries at a young
age, or miss out on other important fundamentals.
That being said, it is imperative that the athlete strive for long-term athletic development through
multilateral training, meaning they develop all of the biomotor abilities in a variety of ways at a young
age, and specialize as they progress in their sport. This doesn’t mean that they only perform a given
biomotor ability as they progress in age and ability. There is still great value in maintaining and
further developing all of the biomotor abilities as a means to pushing the biological milieu and
adaptive process forward. This could be the benefit of having increased adaptive reserves, greater
work ability, moving appropriately, strong tendons and bones, adequate coordination in running and
jumping, and other general benefits. Once again, each biomotor ability should be developed to a great
degree, but the athlete will specialize as they progress in age, skill, and get closer to the competitive
cycle in the training year.
Complementary and Compatible Training
There is considerable crossover between the biomotor abilities. Because coordination underpins all of
the biomotor abilities, training one physical ability assists in the development of another physical
ability. That being said, abilities should be trained in a complementary and compatible way. For
example, training sprint speed requires the firing of high threshold motor units, high muscular
tension, and high volitional effort. This is very similar to strength training, and therefore, should be
trained on the same days. In contrast, developing aerobic power relies on the ability to generate
muscular force over long bouts, and therefore should be developed at a different time than sprint
speed and max strength. In fact, training aerobic power on the same day as sprint speed may

interfere with the adaptive process, as the two are not complementary and compatible. Compatible
training refers to the likeness of things such as direction of force vectors, speed of ground contact,
and energy system demand. Complementary methods are those that enhance the development of
each other.
It is important to note that each physical ability is going to be relatively more or less complementary
and compatible. It should be viewed on a continuum of specificity. Abilities that are more similar
should be developed on the same training day. In many cases, it is a matter of knowing what not to
pair together as it is knowing what to pair together. There are scenarios in which these splits may not
be as clean cut, but creating a frame work for when these abilities should be developed is important
to remember when writing a training plan.
Generally speaking, strength and speed should be developed on the same days, while flexibility and
endurance tend to be more similar. Coordination can be developed everyday, but in regard to
technical components, the nature of the activity will dictate which abilities will be more
complementary and compatible. For example, a soccer player in the off-season would benefit from
developing their speed and strength on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, while their endurance and
flexibility could be focus areas on Tuesday and Thursday.
Coaches must also recognize that achieving complementary and compatible training is not
contradictory to balanced biomotor development. Coaches should not do everything in their power to
mince out each piece of training in an attempt to make the sessions perfectly clean. Having elements
of endurance, coordination, and flexibility training on a typical speed and strength day is necessary to
maintain and further develop all of the skills concurrently. These skills are developed in varying
degrees on different days through appropriate implementation of training means and methods.

Fundamental Strength Development, Part 1
Strength is simply defined as the ability to produce and exert force. It is one of the primary biomotor
abilities and has applications and implications for nearly all other physical qualities. Improvements in
strength can lead to improvements in speed, power, agility, coordination, flexibility, endurance, and
posture. Fundamentally, strength development affects the soft tissues of the body in both a
mechanical and physiological way. These effects lead to greater efficiency in function and higher
quality structures in the body. Because of this, increases in strength also have the ability to mitigate
the prevalence and severity of injuries. There are many different aspects of muscular strength and
countless methods at disposal, so context is very important when creating a training plan for the
development of strength.
Part 1 of the Fundamental Strength Development will describe the scientific and practical constructs
that are foundational to the understanding of both basic and advanced methods of strength training.
Muscle Fiber Types
Each muscle is made up of many smaller components. Individual muscle cells, more commonly
known as muscle fibers, are made up of smaller myofibrils and grouped together in bunches called
fascicles. Many fasciculi then make up the muscle belly, which is the larger structure that owns a
commonly known name such as rectus femoris. Each of the fibers of a muscle is of a specific type
that is associated with its structure and physiological function. Muscle fibers can be either Type 1 or
Type 2, with Type 2 having the subgroups Type 2a and Type 2x.
Type 1 muscle fibers, also known as slow twitch, take longer to activate, develop force, and also to
relax. These fibers are smaller and have a low potential output, but because of this, they are very
fatigue resistant, meaning they can sustain activity for long periods of time. Athletes with a higher
distribution of Type 1 fibers will tend to excel at endurance-based sports or may need to find ways to
use endurance to their advantage in more intermittent explosive sports.
Type 2 muscle fibers are commonly known as fast twitch, as they activate, develop force, and relax
very rapidly. These fibers have a high potential for output but can only sustain short bursts of activity
because they fatigue quickly. Athletes who have primarily Type 2 fiber distribution are wired for

explosive activity. There are, however, two subgroups of Type 2 muscle fibers. Type 2a fibers, the
more intermediate subgroup, meaning their expression is closer to Type 1 with slightly more fatigue
resistance and slightly less potential for force and power output. Type 2x fibers are the fastest,
largest, and most powerful of the fiber types.
Genetic Determinants
Within a muscle, there is a certain distribution of fiber types. No muscle contains all of one or another
specific fiber. Everybody is similar in that certain muscles will have a higher or lower distribution of
Type 1 to Type 2 fibers. For example, muscles acting in locomotion, such as walking and running, will
always have a relatively high amount of Type 2 fibers compared to muscles whose main purpose is
postural support. The specific distribution in a particular muscle of one individual compared to
another is largely dependent upon genetics. Each individual is born with a relatively set distribution of
Type 1 to Type 2 fibers, and only slight changes may occur in young athletes who train in such a way
that intermediate fibers may shift in expression toward one end or the other. Because of this, it may
be beneficial for young athletes who care to partake in speed-power related sports to attempt to shift
those fibers in that direction with speed and power related activities. In a mature athlete, there will be
little, if any, shifting in expression of fiber types. The best thing a mature athlete can do is to train with
specific regard to their sport and develop the capacities of the fibers they have to their maximal
potential. This is generally accomplished through proper sport development without much concern
for which fiber type is being trained, but it is important to understand what underlies an athlete’s
potential for expression as it relates to the nature of their sport. If an athlete with a high distribution
of Type 1 muscle fiber wants to be a sprinter, they may be limited in their potential to produce power
outputs necessary to succeed.
Muscle Contraction Types

Contraction refers to the act of producing tension along the muscle above what is present in a rested
state. Under normal biological conditions, there is always a resting level of contraction at the muscle,
which is involuntary and controlled by the nervous system. This is often referred to as muscle tone
and is a byproduct of the need to create movement instantaneously. Beyond muscular tone, muscle
contractions can be of three types: concentric, isometric, and eccentric. It is commonly thought that
the shortening or lengthening of a muscle while under tension determines the contraction type.

However, it is more appropriate to define contraction types by the relationship between the
attachment points of the muscle or by joint angle. This will eliminate a misunderstanding in how
contraction occurs, as the word itself refers to a shortening of the myofibrils within a muscle fiber. A
concentric contraction would then occur when the attachment points move toward one another,
while an eccentric contraction would occur when the attachment points move away from one
another, and an isometric contraction occurs when the attachment points do not move relative to one
another.
Concentric muscle actions produce force to overcome a load or resistance. The work being done
during a concentric contraction is referred to as positive, as it acts to accelerate or move the body.
Eccentric muscle actions produce force that yields to a load or resistance and is referred to as
negative work. Eccentric contractions act to decelerate the movement of the body or yield to the
forces that are applied by external load. Isometric muscle actions produce force that is equal to the
load or resistance being applied such that no external movement occurs. A simple way to think about
the differences in contraction types is by the balance of external and internal forces. Concentric
contractions produce more force than is being applied, eccentric contractions produce less force than
is being applied, and isometric contractions produce force equal to the forces applied.
Practical Implications
With a biomechanical understanding of how the different contraction types work, the information can
be used in the context of training to have a greater effect on strength development. It is possible to
identify an athlete’s specific strength deficits relative to the production of force through different
contraction types. In a back squat, for example, the tension required to lower the weight is much less
than what is required to stand up with it. Therefore, the maximal load that can be lifted is limited by
the concentric phase. This is true for nearly all exercises with both an eccentric and concentric muscle
action. In some cases, it may be beneficial to remove the concentric phase and overload the eccentric.
For example, an athlete who struggles to perform pullups can improve muscular strength and
hypertrophy by starting at the top of the movement and slowly lowering through the eccentric phase
without worrying about lifting themselves back up to the bar. In the case of the back squat, far more
load can be added to the body if the athlete only has to yield to the load as opposed to overcoming it.
Other exercises, such as the deadlift, do not require an eccentric muscle action because the load
could be dropped at the top or allowed to free fall. Exercises like this may be effective in targeting
concentric contraction specifically.

From a practical standpoint, training to target a particular contraction type can be an important step
in the process of progression. Identifying the needs of the athlete will expose potential applications,
but most athletes will benefit from a balanced training experience that encompasses each of the
three main muscle actions.
Intensity
Intensity is one of the main drivers of adaptation of all forms, especially for strength development.
Quantifying intensity can be accomplished in various ways depending on the context of training as
well as the level of experience of the athlete. In order to set up a properly progressive training plan, it
is necessary to understand the ways in which intensity can be manipulated and accurately calculated.
Some primary variables that can be used to quantify intensity of strength exercises are load, velocity,
and perceived exertion.
Load, or the magnitude of resistance, is the most common variable for quantifying intensity in
strength development because it is specific to weight training. It is a simple and objective
measurement of the work being performed and can be used strategically in combination with other
variables. Load for strength exercises is typically prescribed as a percentage of a maximal effort lift.
The higher the percentage, the closer to maximal effort the lift becomes and therefore the more
intense it becomes. When lifting at submaximal percentages, intensity can be further manipulated by
performing more or less repetitions. For example, one repetition performed at 75% of max is much
less intense than six repetitions performed at the same load. This is an example of how load may
need to be combined with other training variables to ensure accurate quantification of intensity.
Velocity is an important factor in determining intensity for athletic development because of the
implications it has on power output. In strength development, higher movement velocities at a given
weight will increase power, require more coordinated effort from the musculature, and are more
demanding on the Central Nervous System. Performing exercises at submaximal loads with higher
velocities can elicit greater improvements in strength gains than lower velocities with the same load.
Velocity can be difficult to quantify during traditional strength exercises without specific
measurement technology, but the intent to move the load with maximal velocity can still increase the
intensity experienced by the athlete. Other exercises such as Olympic weightlifting variations can be
more objective in assessing velocity because a properly performed repetition necessitates high

velocity for completion. Aside from selecting exercises that inherently involve faster movement,
manipulating velocity for the sake of progression is a more advanced method of planning.
Another important aspect of the intensity of an exercise is the level of exertion that is perceived by
the athlete. The commonly used Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale is a tool that can be used to
obtain a subjective intensity value from the athlete. A simple version of the scale uses values from 1-
10, with one being very light exertion, and 10 being maximal exertion. This is a valid assessment tool
that can be used with any level of athlete, as it does not require any technologies and there is no
need to have a tested 1 Repetition Maximal (1RM) load for a particular exercise. RPE values can also
give coaches information about how well individual athletes are adapting to training, and how well
they are able to handle a particular load on a given day. It is unlikely that 70% of a tested maximal
load will always require 70% effort from the athlete, or that two athletes with the same tested max
will perceive the same exertion from each prescribed load. However, RPE is a subjective assessment
of intensity, and for that reason it may be best used in combination with other quantifying variables.
While young or inexperienced athletes may be well suited for the use of the RPE scale due to absence
of tested maximal loads, they may also be less able to accurately assess their level of exertion,
especially if they lack a frame of reference for what a true maximal effort feels like. Still, RPE remains
a useful tool for replicating the measurement of intensity through other variables.
Volume
Volume refers to the total amount of work being done, or the total workload administered to the
athlete. Volume is a significant factor in the process of planned progression in strength training, as it
can be a relatively simple measure of workload, however, it is important to understand how to

manipulate volume to achieve specific goals in the training plan, and how it relates to other training
variables.
Volume typically follows an inverse relationship with intensity. Exercises performed at a high
intensity will need to be done with less volume. This balance is important to ensure progression and
overload occurs without overtraining. In a General Preparatory Period (GPP), when strength training is
the primary stimulus, it may be appropriate to train with both high volume and intensity, but these
periods should not be long lasting for the sake of the safety and development of the athlete. It is
common to follow series of undulation between volume and intensity throughout the training cycle.

Quantifying Volume
Tracking the number of sets, repetitions, and exercises being performed is the most common way to
quantify volume in the context of strength training. This method is especially effective for tracking the
volume of bodyweight exercises like pushups or pullups. Because the load is relatively constant for a
given athlete during these exercises, volume becomes the primary factor for planning progression.
For exercises that involve the addition of external resistance, load needs to be accounted for. Volume
load is a term that refers to the combination of the sets, repetitions, and load prescribed for a
particular exercise. This gives a more complete view of the total amount of work being done because
it now accounts for the resistance to movement and therefore the intensity of the exercise. Volume
load can be quantified by multiplying the number of sets by repetitions and load. For example, three
sets of six repetitions at 75 kgs would yield an arbitrary value of 1350. If, during the following session,
the same load was used for a greater number of sets or repetitions the volume load would increase.
While it is easy to understand that the addition of load equates to more work being done, the volume
load will account for changes in load throughout the sets for an accurate depiction of how much
more work is being done. Table 1 shows an example in which an athlete only changes the number of
repetitions performed on the third set during Session 2, resulting in a five percent higher volume load.
Manipulations such as this can be useful when it is beneficial to plan progressions with precision.
Set 1 Set 2 Set 3 Total Volume Load % Change

Session 1 75 kg x 6 75 kg x 6 75 kg x 6 1350 -
Session 2 75 kg x 6 75 kg x 6 75 kg x 7 1425 5%
Table 1: Example of volume load calculation
Density
Another factor in quantifying volume load as it relates to intensity is the density of the prescribed
workload of an exercise. Density refers to the way in which the sets and repetitions are distributed to
achieve a desired effect. For example, five sets of two repetitions is a less dense prescription than two
sets of five because the total number of repetitions is broken up to allow more rest throughout. A
higher density can increase both perceived exertion and fatigue. Note that because high-density
sessions increase fatigue, it is not suitable if the goal is to maximize power outputs. Table 2 depicts a
scenario in which an athlete experiences a much more intense workload during Session 2, even with
the same total volume load. Although rest periods are not included in table 2, even if the rest in

session 1 was as short as 30 seconds, that is still considerably more rest than in session 2 when all 10
reps are completed in one set. Furthermore, in session 1, lowering the density further by increasing
the rest period to two to three minutes will allow the athlete to maximize their power output for each
single rep.
Sets / Reps Load Volume Load Exertion

Session 1 10 x 1 75 kg 750 Low
Session 2 1 x 10 75 kg 750 High
Table 2: Example of training density
It is also possible to manipulate density by changing the rest between sets. For example, density of a
session can be increased by performing the same number of sets and reps with less rest between
each set.
Optimizing Prescription
With the aforementioned information, it is necessary to understand how much volume is appropriate
for a given load or intensity. Table 3 is a rendering of A.S. Prilepin’s Table for Strength Development,
which describes ranges for repetitions per set and an optimal number of repetitions for a given
intensity. This information can be used merely as a guide, as it is based on information gathered from
elite athletes and primarily relevant to maximal strength development. Part 2 of the Fundamental
Concepts of Strength Development will discuss further the intricacies of training for different strength
qualities.
Load (% of 1RM) Reps per Set Optimal Total Reps Range of Total Reps
55-65% 3-6 24 18-30
70-80% 3-6 18 12-24
80-90% 2-4 15 10-20
>90% 1-2 4 1-10
Table 3: Prelipin’s volume-intensity table
Strength Testing
Testing is a necessary component of training for any physical capacity. It is a way to track the
progress of the athlete and an opportunity to reflect on the success of training plan. Without testing,
there would be no way to objectively know whether the training has had the desired effect on the
athlete. Good testing results give positive feedback to an athlete to increase their confidence in the

program and in themselves, as well as improve the level of arousal associated with training. Poor
testing results are also beneficial learning opportunities for both the coach and athlete. The coach
should use this time to reflect on their training plan and decide if they are employing effective
methodology, while the athlete can reflect on their performance as a way to learn what it takes to be
successful during competition. No matter the outcome, testing provides objective feedback that can
be used to adjust the training process and continue to drive adaptation and improvement. Strength
tests, specifically, can also be used to prescribe intensities based on the achievement of new maximal
performances. Frequent strength testing allows for the use of the most current and accurate
capacities when prescribing percentage-based loads.
Standards for Testing
In order for a test to be useful to the subsequent training process, it must be valid, reliable, and as
accurate as possible. Validity in testing refers to the accuracy of an assessment, or the ability of a test
to measure what it is meant to measure. For example, a maximum repetition pushup test is likely not
a valid test of maximal force production of the upper body because it is a test of repetition and
muscular endurance. A 1RM effort bench press would be a more valid test of maximal force
production. Reliability refers to the extent to which assessments are consistent, or the repeatability of
a measurement. Most strength tests are reliable because the outcome is dependent upon physical
capacities that are relatively unchanged in the short-term. However, reliability without validity, or
repeatability without accuracy, is not sufficient to be considered a useful test. Accuracy refers to the
degree of precision of results from a test. Automatic laser timing is a more accurate assessment of
sprint performance than hand timing with a stopwatch.
A final consideration for testing is the objectiveness of the test. Objective measures are those that
have the power to assess without bias. A rating of perceived exertion as an assessment of
physiological fatigue after a session is not an objective measure because the athlete is biased in how
they felt during the training. A more objective measure of physiological fatigue could be lactate
accumulation or heart rate variability.
Traditional Strength Testing
The most common way to measure strength in weighted exercises is determination of a 1RM. This
method involves determining the maximum load that can be performed for a single repetition for a

given exercise. 1RM testing is typically used for compound, multi-joint exercises that have a high
potential for loading and the ability to produce large amounts of force. These exercises test strength
through the interdependent working of multiple muscle groups, which means they can be dependent
upon coordination of the specific movement to express their force generating capacity. For this
reason, 1RM testing may not be appropriate for younger and inexperienced athletes who are limited
by their skill of the movement instead of strength capacity. This type of testing may also have
limitations in more advanced athletes, depending on their distribution of fiber type and their potential
for contraction velocity. 1RM tests require the athlete to move loads that result in very slow
movement velocities. Explosive athletes may struggle with this type of test more than a strength-
based athlete. Another similar option for testing that has greater benefit in certain situations is
repetition max testing. This is characterized by performing an exercise at the highest load possible for
a given number of repetitions. Typical repetition maxes are intended for three or five repetitions,
referred to as 3RM and 5RM respectively. This type of test can be appropriate for athletes who may
not be physically developed enough for 1RM loads, or those who excel with higher movement
velocities at submaximal loads during strength exercises. Repetition maxes can be used to estimate a
1RM for the sake of record keeping and prescribing percentages for training. The more repetitions
performed in the RM test, the less accurate it becomes in predicting a 1RM load. Equations have been
formulated for this prediction. Table 4 illustrates an example of a common prediction equation.
Test Result Prediction Calculation

1RM Load = [RM Load x Reps x .033] + RM Load
3RM = 100 kg 1RM = [100 x 3 x .033] + 100
1RM = 109.9 kg
Table 4: Example of 3RM to 1RM prediction calculation
Non-weighted exercises may be tested as maximal repetitions (in contrast to repetition max), or as
maximal time for an isometric hold. For example, a pushup with no external load added could be
tested for the maximal amount of repetitions to failure. A time-based test might be used for an
exercise such as a plank, where the static position is held as long as possible before failure or loss of
technical standard. These tests are effective for bodyweight exercises, and assess muscular strength
and endurance.

Advanced Testing Methods
In this section, advanced testing methods will be only briefly discussed, as they often require
expensive technology or clinical based settings.
Assessments using movement velocity as a predictor of strength capacity are becoming more
popular with advancements in affordable technologies. This type of testing protocol is based on the
concept of failure velocity, or the lowest velocity that can be achieved before there is a lack of
concentric force to overcome the resistance. As load increases toward maximal potential, movement
velocity decreases toward this failure velocity, which is individual for athletes depending on their
strength profile. The benefit of this type of testing is that it gives insight to the quality of different
types of strength within an athlete, and it can also give predictions of 1RM based on submaximal
loads. Movement velocity can also be measured to test power output as an outcome. For certain
explosive exercises, it may be more appropriate to determine the maximum power output as
opposed to maximum weight lifted. Load can be standardized with the intent to improve velocity of
movement, or both variables can be manipulated to achieve the highest power output possible. Both
types of velocity-based tests give information that can help to create a force-velocity profile for an
athlete. This is useful in making informed decisions on what training methods will be most effective
to optimize development.
Another advanced testing method that is widely seen in research is the use of force plates. These
pieces of equipment are able to accurately measure the relationship between the forces applied by
the athlete and the ground (or force plate). There are many exercises and protocols that can be done
and many outcome variables that can be measured. Force plates can measure the intricacies and
changes in applied forces through the entire range of motion of an exercise and at each phase of
contraction. A commonly used test of strength and rate of force development using force platforms
is the Isometric Mid-Thigh Pull (often referred to as IMTP). The advanced metrics obtained by force
platforms can be used to help describe and effect things such as the stretch shortening cycle,
bilateral asymmetries, and rate of force development.

Speed, Power & Change of Direction
Effective training for the development of speed, power, and change of direction ability has significant
implications on athletic performance. Nearly all types of athletes will need to display these qualities
in some capacity during their competition. Even endurance athletes will benefit from the effects of
speed and power development, as their improved outputs will allow them to work at a higher
intensity relative to their previous capacities. In most team sports, the nature of competition is of
intermittent high-intensity effort, where explosive acceleration, changes of direction, or jumping

ability often determine the outcome. This section will outline the fundamental concepts underlying
the development of these physical qualities, as well as provide a framework for optimizing training.
First, it is necessary to briefly define each quality and understand their inter-relatedness. Speed, as
defined in physics, is simply a ratio of a distance traveled to the amount of time taken to do so. For
this discussion, speed will refer to the physical ability of an athlete to accelerate and reach his or her
maximal velocity during one-directional linear running. Power is a term used to describe the forces
that are applied over a given distance with respect to time. In other words, power refers to how fast a
force can be applied. While power is a component to many athletic qualities, its description here will
be related to its development by use of plyometric activities. Change of direction ability is
encompassed by the presence of the previous two physical qualities, as well as coordination and skill.
It refers to the act of redirecting the body’s momentum and can be thought of, in terms of its
development, as multi-directional or non-linear running. It is important to realize the crossover

between speed, power, and change of direction ability, as the development of one likely has effect on
the others. In some ways this is beneficial for the coach and the athlete, but it necessitates an
understanding of the variables at play when formulating a training plan that aims to develop each
quality concurrently.
Training Principles
The physical qualities outlined in this section are each trained through different methods but share
common training themes. They are all high-intensity activities that require prerequisite strength and
coordination, and therefore, careful consideration to progression and load management must be
made. The following topics will provide a basis for understanding how to optimize the development of
the speed-power abilities.

Strength as a Foundation
The underlying factor to nearly all athletic qualities is the presence of muscular strength. It is the
foundation for which more advanced and complex capacities can build upon, and one of few qualities
that, by itself, can improve performance in nearly all others. For example, a novice athlete who begins
basic strength training may likely see improvements in speed, jumping ability, change of direction
ability, and coordination without training any of them specifically. As the athlete matures and
strength training becomes less of a novel stimulus, it remains the necessary denominator for raising
the capacity of power related physical qualities. The general principle is that a muscle that has more
potential for producing force also has more potential for producing force rapidly. While specific
training methods are necessary for strength to transfer to what is known as the rate of force
development, the point is that force production is a prerequisite to rapid force production.
Improvements in strength also benefit the efficiency of the stretch shortening cycle, which couples
rapid eccentric contraction with elastic energy storage at the tendon for use in powerful concentric
propulsion. This relationship is known as reactive strength, and carries large implications in the
expression of speed, power, and change of direction ability. This expression, however, would not be
possible without strong and stable joints to effectively transmit forces. Specific strength of postural
muscles and stabilizers of the hip, knee, and ankle ensure that the body maintains an alignment that
is mechanically efficient and safe during high-speed activity.
Overload
In order to bring about a positive training response, overload must occur. Adaptation to training only
takes place if the load exceeds what the athlete is accustomed to. Increasing load can come in the
form of manipulating intensity, volume, or exercise selection. Even for a novice athlete, an unchanged
training load will eventually fail to elicit an adaptation. In the context of this section, overload will
happen primarily through the progression of exercise or volume, as the intensity is assumed to be
maximal or near maximal to begin with.
Rest
When training for the development of speed and power, maximal intent must be given during each
session and on each repetition. For this reason, athletes must be allowed adequate rest both between
and within workouts. Because of the high demand on the Central Nervous System during maximal

effort sprints, jumps, and changes of direction, adequate rest is an absolute necessity to maintain
neuromuscular efficiency and output. These types of explosive efforts are also very taxing on
connective tissues like tendons, so their response to training must also be taken into consideration
when planning rest periods and training cycles. Failure to allow sufficient rest during explosive
activity often leads to a decrement in output that can be detrimental to the effectiveness of the
training session.
Volume
With any type of training, it is important to balance the total volume of work with the intensity of the
load. Both linear and multi-directional sprinting are inherently high-intensity and volumes must be
gradually progressed. For plyometric jumping exercises, the general recommendation is that when
intensity is low, volume can be relatively high and when intensity is high, volume should be low. This
balance will ensure an adequate training stimulus without overtraining.
Specificity of Training
Training specificity is necessary as a training cycle moves toward a competition period. While most
training methods will begin quite general to focus on developing capacities, a shift toward specificity
is important to actualize training for transfer to the activities of the sport. In terms of speed, power,
and change of direction development, specificity may refer to sprint distance and rest intervals, type
and speed of ground contact, or reactive versus scripted change of direction drills.
Compatible and Complementary
Keeping training methods both compatible and complementary during a session is especially
important when putting together a training plan that involves speed, plyometric, and change of
direction activities concurrently. Compatible training refers to the likeness of things such as direction
of force vectors, speed of ground contact, and energy system demand. Complementary methods are
those that enhance the development of each other. For example, short linear accelerations have an
emphasis on horizontal force application and longer ground contacts and may be paired with
plyometric activities like standing the long jump, which has similar emphasis and supports the
development of force production specific to acceleration mechanics.

Speed Training Guidelines
Sprinting requires applying as much force into the ground as possible, in the appropriate direction in
as short a period of time as possible. While sprinting fast is a skill that requires incredible
neuromuscular coordination, it relies on the expression of the body’s physical capacities. In order to
sprint with maximum output, an athlete will need to develop concentric, isometric, and eccentric
strength, tendon and muscular stiffness, neuromuscular efficiency, and postural integrity.
Strength through all three types of contraction is necessary, as each plays a different role in the
sprint stride. Eccentric contraction acts as a means of absorbing forces upon ground contact.
Isometric contraction “stiffens” the musculature, allowing tendons to store and release energy
elastically. When this energy is released, it assists in propulsion along with concentric contraction.
Proper posture should not be overlooked in optimizing sprint performance. The integrity of the pelvis
and torso is paramount in absorbing and transferring ground reaction forces through the body.
Proper posture also creates an efficient system in terms of allowing adequate stride length and
keeping balance during single-leg ground contacts, which incur up to seven times bodyweight of
force. General guidance on appropriate posture includes a neutral head position with gaze fixed
straight ahead, neutral spine to allow rotation during the stride, and a neutral or slightly posteriorly
tilted pelvis that promotes front-side mechanics and allows adequate stride length. Deviation often
results in loss of transfer of ground reaction forces into propulsion.
There may be many different modalities used to develop the qualities listed, but still the most
effective way to develop speed is to train sprinting itself. Not only will this help learn proper
mechanics and hone the skill of running fast, but sprinting is also a high intensity activity that acts to
enhance the power and strength qualities that it requires. For training purposes, speed development
can be broken down into two main categories: Acceleration and Maximum Velocity. Acceleration
refers to the building of momentum through mostly horizontal propulsion, while maximum velocity
sprinting deals with maintaining momentum with primarily vertical propulsion. Training methods for
each can be overlapping, but also quite different. For this reason, each comes with its own set of
training guidelines.

Acceleration
Sprint acceleration is a gradual process that happens as a result of very abrupt contacts with the
ground. At no point is the expectation to reach maximal velocity at once, as acceleration is a time for
building momentum. In the context of track and field, this phase of sprinting can be thought of,
relative to posture and mechanics, as a necessary precursor to achieving maximal velocity. In team
sports, however, maximal velocity is a rarity and short accelerations are often the determinant of
successful outcome, therefore it becomes much more of a primary concern. Acceleration is

characterized by relatively long ground contacts, which allow sufficient time for the musculature of
the hip and lower leg to produce large amounts of propulsive force. These forces are largely attained
through concentric muscular contraction, although the stretch shortening cycle is an ever-present
mechanism of sprinting, with emphasis on horizontal propulsion due to the forward angle of the
torso relative to the ground. As the athlete’s speed increases, the orientation of the body gradually
becomes more upright until near vertical.
Training parameters for acceleration will follow general guidelines, as the context of the training plan
is important in deciding exact prescription. There are, however, minimum recommended amounts of
acceleration volume and distance. Below these recommended amounts, there might not be adequate
stimulus for improvement. Likewise, upper limits are recommended for keeping quality high and
ensuring the focus is on acceleration development. Repetitions for training acceleration should be
kept within 10-40 meters, or about 2-6 seconds, with work to rest ratios of 1:20 to 1:40. This would
mean that a five second sprint, covering about 30-40 meters requires a rest period in the range of at
least two to three minutes. Session volume generally falls between 8-20 repetitions, totaling 240-
300 meters or 24-40 seconds of sprinting. It should be reiterated that maximal intent and minimal
speed decrement is imperative throughout the session and that rest periods are very long for this
reason. Speed development should not mimic conditioning, as the goal of each is very different.

Distance Time
10-40 meters / rep 2-6” / rep
8-20 repetitions -
24-50” / session
240-300 meters / session
Variable depending on speed
1’ rest / 10 meters 1:20-40 work to rest
Example acceleration session

6 x 20 meters with 2:00 rest
+ 5 x 30 meters with 3:00 rest
= 270 meters total volume
Table 1: Acceleration training guidelines
Maximal Velocity
When acceleration can no longer occur, an athlete is considered to be at maximal velocity. Typically, it
is not possible to maintain this velocity for very long before deceleration occurs. Elite sprinters are
able to maintain maximum velocity for approximately three seconds or 30 meters, but less
specialized athletes can typically only maintain for a fraction of that. In the context of a 100 meter
sprint, it is important to not only have a high maximal velocity, but also to be able to maintain it as
closely as possible for as long as possible. In team sport, achieving maximal velocity is rare. When it
does occur, it is typically for very short durations. Therefore, the absolute maximum is more
important than the sustainability of it. With the intermittent nature of many team sports, an athlete
with the highest potential for speed will not need to work as hard, relative to the other athletes, to
run at a given speed. This concept is called speed reserve and is the main reason for training team
sport athletes to improve maximal velocity. Of course, the potential for reaching maximal velocity is
dependent upon an effective acceleration phase, but key differences in propulsion and mechanics
make it beneficial to train for maximal velocity specifically. Relative to acceleration, maximal velocity
sprinting is characterized by shorter ground contacts, greater stride frequency and length, higher
eccentric loading and use of the elastic tendon response, and a shift in emphasis toward vertical force
production.
When training with the purpose of increasing maximal velocity, it is necessary to accumulate time
spent at or near maximal velocity. This is characterized by near maximal or maximal velocities and an
upright posture. The torso will be vertically aligned, with legs cycling underneath and feet contacting

the ground directly under the hips. While athletes may not be able to achieve their best recorded
velocity on every repetition, it is this posture along with speeds in excess of 90% of the best recorded
that characterize maximal velocity sprint training. Most team sport athletes, from a static start, will
reach their maximal velocity between 20 and 40 meters. However, when high effort is needed to
accelerate to such speeds, the ability to maintain it without significant drop off is reduced.
There are three primary methods for developing maximal velocity:
• Maximal velocity sprints: These are characterized by longer distance sprints (40-60m)
with maximal effort throughout the repetition.
• Variable speed methods: These are characterized by segments of the repetition being
performed with varying degrees of effort in an attempt to shift the ratio of energy
expenditure favorably towards time spent at maximal velocity.
• Assisted methods: These are characterized by the use of an external or environmental

assistance in an attempt to shift the ratio of energy expenditure favorably towards time
spent at maximal velocity.
In a maximal velocity sprint repetition the athlete progresses through a maximal acceleration phase
into a period of maximal velocity sprinting. Typically, this form of sprint will use repetitions between
50-80 meters with the athlete spending at least 10 meters at maximum velocity. Because the
acceleration phase that precedes the maximal velocity phase is performed at maximal effort this
form permits limited accumulated exposure to maximal. However, this option can be very useful to
develop both acceleration and maximal velocity.
Variable speed methods involve repetitions performed with varying levels of effort. By slightly
manipulating effort levels within a repetition, it is possible to shift the ratio of training stimulus
favorably to focus more on maximal velocity and less on acceleration. One form of the variable speed
method is flying sprints. In this option, athletes begin the repetition at a slightly submaximal effort
and gradually build intensity over a set distance. At the conclusion of the ‘fly-in’ zone, the athlete
should be at upright posture with near maximal or maximal velocity. The submaximal acceleration
allows for an energetic redistribution allowing for a greater accumulation of volume at near maximal
velocities. Typical repetitions include a ‘fly-in’ zone of 10-30 meters followed by 10-40 meters of
maximal effort sprinting. Prescription for team sport athletes may tend to fall on the lower end of the
sprint distance range, as their lack of maximal velocity endurance will result in faster decrement.

Another variation of the variable speed method is sprint-float-sprints. These involve an athlete
changing the level of effort in various zones of a repetition. The ‘sprint’ segments of the repetition
would be performed at maximal effort and the ‘float’ segment would be very slightly submaximal.
The goal of sprint-float-sprints is to develop maximal velocity while teaching the athlete to run fast
while relaxed. A typical prescription for this method would use sprint segments of 20-40 meters and
a float segment of 10-30 meters.
When training for max velocity, athletes should be given complete or near complete rest to recover
in between repetitions. This will typically work out to a 1:20 to 1:40 work to rest ratio.
Distance Time
10-40 meters / rep @ >90% of max V 2-6” / rep @ >90% of max V
200-300 meters / session @ >90% of max V -
1’ rest / 10 meters 1:20-40 work to rest
Example max velocity session

8 x 15 meter fly-in + 30 meter sprint with 2:30 rest
= 240 meters total volume
Table 2: Maximal velocity training guidelines
Change of Direction Training Guidelines

Change of direction and agility are often thought of as synonymous. In reality, change of direction
ability is only a small piece of agility, which is a more encompassing athletic quality. In this section,
change of direction ability will be covered as a physical component of agility, while touching on the
cognitive and technical aspects of agility as it relates to developing competition readiness.
Change of direction refers to the physical ability of an athlete to redirect their body’s momentum. This
redirection is not limited to any specific angle, body orientation, or plane of movement. In the realm of
team sports, it is necessary for an athlete to be able to change the direction of their movement with
respect to unlimited potential situations. Aside from the physical capacity to do so, one can imagine
the implications that skill and coordination have on the success of the outcome. Advanced athletes
will express a natural timing and rhythm for such movements within the flow of the competition.
How and when to initiate a redirection is very much learned through repetition and is tightly linked to
the athlete’s understanding of their own physical capacity. This relationship comprises the cognitive

decision-making that is needed during competition in invasion sports, where players are constantly
interacting with a changing environment. The skill of changing direction is also dependent upon
proper body positioning. Manipulation of an athlete’s center of mass is important in setting up

mechanically advantageous positions for which to display physical strength and power. For example,
when an athlete running straight ahead needs to stop and redirect their speed in the opposite
direction, a lowering of their center of mass will help them decelerate quickly and put them in a
position to optimize reacceleration. This, again, is a skill that can be learned through repetition and
will be necessary in improving change of direction ability, because redirecting momentum will be
nonproductive without the ability to quickly move to another location. This idea gives way to another
technical component of agility, which is the display of dynamic speed quality. Depending on the
context, it may be beneficial to strategically regulate the speed of movement to try to catch an
opponent out of position. In other words, change of direction ability does not always occur with full
effort and speed in and out of the redirection.
Classifying Intensity
In order to recommend training guidelines for change of direction development, it is important to
classify what makes a series of movements more or less intense. In general, there are three variables
that need to be quantified when making this classification. The first is the athlete’s velocity upon
approaching a redirection effort. A body that is moving faster coming into a change of direction will
require greater braking forces to decelerate enough to make an effective cut. The second variable is
the angle of redirection. Sharper or more acute angles will also require greater braking forces in
order to turn and reaccelerate. A subcomponent of the angle of redirection is the body’s orientation in
space before and after the cut is made. For example, if two athletes are sprinting straight ahead and
both of them need to redirect their momentum in the exact opposite direction, but one will turn and
face the direction they came while the other will proceed with a backward movement, the intensity of
each athlete’s drill will be quantified differently. The final variable deals with the cognitive aspect of
agility and distinguishes the intensity of a change of direction effort made as a scripted drill or as a
reaction to a stimulus. Scripted change of direction efforts will allow the athlete to plan the timing of
their deceleration and their foot placement upon redirection. This method is an effective means for
developing general capacity and for learning but can be considered of lower intensity compared to a
change of direction effort made in response to a stimulus, where the athlete is forced into reactive
and rapid decision making. This type of drill often leads to imperfections in timing, foot placement,

and center of mass manipulation, resulting in a less efficient effort. Imperfection is, of course, the
nature of the unpredictable environment of many team sports, so reactive types of redirection can
also be considered more sport specific and necessary for the complete development of the athlete.
Training guidelines for change of direction development are similar to those for acceleration sprinting
but are more easily quantified by time per repetition and number or redirections instead of distance.
However, distance can be a useful tool in estimating the approach velocity for each cut, assuming
maximal effort throughout. Because the act of decelerating and reaccelerating takes time, the
recommended length of a repetition covers a slightly larger range. Change of direction repetitions
should generally remain within 2-8 seconds of work in order to keep the quality high and avoid
significant glycolytic energy metabolism, from which longer recovery may be required. Each
repetition may include 1-6 redirections. Total session volume ranges from 8-20 repetitions
accumulating 24-60 seconds and rest periods that mimic acceleration at 1:20 to 1:40.
Keep in mind that a repetition with six redirections may seem the most intense, but in order to stay
within the appropriate time frame of work, the distance between the cuts would have to be small and
therefore the approach velocity low. In contrast, a repetition with one sharp angle cut and a 20 meter
sprint in and out may seem very simple but is actually quite taxing. Depending on the athlete, it may
be beneficial to prescribe longer sprints with less redirections or shorter sprints with more
redirections. Regardless, it is important to account for not only the number of cuts, but the intensity
of each as well.
Time Redirection
2-8” / rep 1-6 cuts / rep
8-20 repetitions -
24-64” / session Variable depending on intensity
Tend toward longer for higher speed, intensity,

1:20-40 work to rest
and number of redirections
Example change of direction session
10 x 6” w/ three 90 degree cuts
10m, 5m, 5m between
2:00 rest between reps
= 60” total volume
Table 3: Change of direction training guidelines

Plyometric Training Guidelines
Few things match the effectiveness of plyometrics when training for the development of athletic
power. These exercises are classified as jumping activities, which make use of the stretch shortening
cycle and explosive strength. They are used in many ways to replicate the demands of competition by
training the capacity to handle repetitive high speed and high load activities. The benefit of plyometric
exercises is that they can vary widely in intensity and application and are very easily trained with no
equipment. They are also useful in developing aspects of the expression of power such as rate of
force development, reactive strength, and tendon and muscle stiffness and resiliency. Most explosive
efforts in an athletic context require high eccentric loads, a reliance on tendons for the storage of
elastic energy, and a high rate of concentric contraction for propulsion. Plyometrics offer a means for
developing each of these qualities simultaneously.
Classifying Intensity
Due to the large optionality of exercise selection and variation, it is important to establish a
classification system for plyometrics. With a speed-power athlete, plyometrics will be used quite
consistently, so an understanding of mechanical loading is necessary in order to define the intensity
of the exercises.
The first thing to consider is the speed of ground impact during a jumping activity. This is a direct
indication of the forces that will be required to decelerate the body upon landing. A simpler way to
quantify this is by assessing the height of the fall of the athlete, from the apex of vertical
displacement to the landing surface. For example, a standing vertical jump of 40 cm will be followed
by a fall of 40 cm, whereas a jump of 60 cm will incur a 60 cm fall and; therefore, greater landing
forces. This is especially important for exercises that are being performed to and from a box, as the
height of the box will be a factor in how intense the exercise can be. Jumping and landing on a surface
that is lower than the takeoff point will increase the impact forces at landing. In contrast, jumping and
landing on to a surface that is higher than the takeoff point will decrease the impact forces at landing.
The difference in intensity between these two exercises of the same jump height is massive and
needs to be accounted for when prescribing plyometric activities. As a reminder, the height of the
jump is less important than the distance of the fall when quantifying intensity.
The next factor in quantifying plyometric load is the presence and speed of horizontal displacement.
Here, the question is whether or not the athlete is moving forward, laterally, or otherwise during the

jumping. Displacement during a jump will change the angle and magnitude of loading on contact, as
the athlete now has to decelerate both horizontal and vertical momentum. A subcomponent to this
variable is the speed of the displacement. The faster the body is moving horizontally, the more
braking forces are required upon impact. For example, consider the contrast between a standing
vertical jump, a standing broad jump, and a long jump with a three-step run in. The intensity increases
with each successive jump variation because of the angle, position, and speed of the landing, even
though the vertical displacement may not change or may even decrease, respectively.
The third quantifying variable is the type of ground contact. This is important for the landing of both a
single effort jump as well as multiple jumps done in succession. While the classification lies on a
continuum, on either end are the stiff landing with fast ground contact time and the compliant
landing with a slower collision. A stiff landing makes use of the fast stretch shortening cycle with a
shock of high eccentric load, and acts like a dense rubber ball hitting the floor. This type of contact is
quick, elastic, and non-yielding and requires a large contribution from the tendons. Compliant landings
allow more time to decelerate the body’s momentum, often through larger ranges of motion. The
concept is analogous to a sprinting effort coming to a stop in either five steps or 15 steps. The
compliant landing acts more like a deflated ball hitting the ground, where more yielding will occur
before coming to a stop. While a compliant landing may allow more time to produce propulsive
forces for a bigger successive jump attempt, the stiff landing is the more taxing from a
neuromuscular and musculotendinous standpoint.
The final consideration for plyometric intensity is the distribution of load upon impact. This refers to a
landing of either bilateral with a temporal offset, asymmetric bilateral, symmetric bilateral, or
unilateral contact. In general, each type of jump landing can become more intense than the previous.
Bilateral landings with a temporal offset are those where one foot comes into contact with the
ground immediately before the other. The impact of landing is primarily taken by the initial contact
leg, while the other helps to dissipate forces and acts in propulsion for another jump. These types of
exercises typically include variations of skips and gallops, often with emphasis on height or distance.
Asymmetrical double leg contacts are those that take place on two feet simultaneously, but in
different positions and with different loading emphasis. Exercises like the lunge jump are often
thought of as unilateral but are a better fit under this category. The previous two types of landings
constrain the intensity of successive jumps by the nature of their transfer of energy through the body
and are often deemed less intense than symmetric bilateral or unilateral contacts. While it may seem
like symmetric bilateral contacts are of low relative intensity because of the balance of ground

reaction forces, this also allows them to produce, and accept load from, higher vertical displacements
and can be scaled to great intensities. It may also seem intuitive to assume that during a unilateral
landing, the support leg incurs double the ground reaction forces relative to its role in a bilateral
landing. However, because of the shift in the balance of center of mass and the fact that the free leg
is now contributing to the weight of the body during the fall, the ground reaction forces during a
unilateral landing can greatly exceed double with respect to the bilateral counterpart. For this reason,
single leg landings should be known as much more intense than double leg landings.
In order to balance the training volume and intensity of plyometrics for the development of power, it
is helpful to categorize types of jumping exercises with an understanding of the four previously listed
variables. In practice, categories should be used as a guide and not a strict manual, because there
always exists a potential for variability in the execution of plyometric exercises for the purpose of
manipulating intensity or achieving a specific goal. At Athletic Lab, it is common to perform a series of
jumping exercises together within a session that are of similar intensity and which aim to achieve a
similar goal. Simple ways of grouping jumping exercises are by likeness in type of ground contact,
displacement, rhythm, or load distribution. By creating a series of different exercises with the same
purpose, it is possible to attain an adequate volume of work without over-stressing any particular
movement pattern and breeding injury. Some plyometric series may be used for a general endurance
effect of the stretch shortening ability by keeping intensity low and working for longer periods of
time. Others aim for a more potent reactive strength stimulus, which is reflected by an attention to
the performance of each repetition separately. The common theme throughout is that volume is
inversely proportionate to intensity and, furthermore, the overall load of the rest of the session is
taken into account during planning.
When prescribing low to medium intensity plyometric work for the purpose of developing tendon
stiffness and resiliency, it is appropriate to accumulate a relatively high number of ground contacts.
This type of prescription may include a series of eight or more in-place jumping exercises performed
sub-maximally and repetitiously in sets of 20-30 seconds, or 15-25 repetitions each. Rest periods
should be equal to or double the duration of work and total contacts for a session can reach up to
250-300. In-place jumping exercises include lunge jumps, side-to-side bilateral hops, or tuck jumps.
Moderate to high intensity plyometric variations include different types of short jumps and bounds.
These exercises often include both horizontal and vertical displacement and can be done as single
efforts or continuously with up to 5-6 contacts per set. Short jumps and bounds can total 4-5 sets
accumulating 30-60 contacts. These exercises are to be performed much closer to maximal effort

and should be allowed 1-2 minutes of recovery between sets. Standing long jumps, short horizontal
bounds, and consecutive hurdle jumps are all examples within this general category. For certain
athletes, especially those with a low training age, short jumps and bounds can serve as a high
intensity stimulus. More advanced athletes will use these exercises as a lead-in to some of the most
intense forms of plyometrics. Exercises of high to very high intensity include extended bounding and
depth jumps. Extended bounds serve a specific purpose for athletes in a sport where extensive elastic
single leg contacts are required, such as track and field middle distance or sometimes basketball.
These can include straight leg bounds or combinations of horizontal bounding step patterns.
Repetitions are typically between 20-40 meters, accumulating no more than 400 meters through 2-3
sets each of up to six exercises. Depth jumps are a type of plyometric exercise that are dependent
upon set-up for the intensity rating. The exercise is done by falling off of a box into a stiff and reactive
ground contact, and jumping vertically, horizontally, or laterally. As a standard, the depth jump can
approach the height of the athlete’s standing vertical jump and beyond. It is this height coupled with
the speed of the collision with the ground that gives depth jumps the high level of intensity. Volume
for depth jumps should be relatively low due to the high intensity nature of the activity. Typically, less
than 30 total contacts are recommended.
Exercises of the highest intensities should serve a specific purpose within the focus of the training
plan and be reserved for the later stages of development. It is important to remember that the goal
of using plyometric exercises is to develop the capacity and potency of the stretch shortening cycle
as it relates to the expression of power. The expression of power will come in different forms for
different types of athlete, and this should be reflected within the planning of plyometric training.
There may be a place for many different variations of jumping exercises within and throughout the
training plan, but again, volume and specificity should reflect the goal. Plyometric activity should also
work in accordance with the total amount of other work being done via sprints, strength, etc., not only
within each session, but also within the microcycle and larger mesocycle.

Type Volume Rest
8+ exercises, 15-25 reps or 20-30” 30-60” exercise
In-place jumps
150-300 contacts 1:1 to 1:2
4-5 sets, 4-6 reps each
Short Jumps & Bounds 1-2 min / set
30-60 contacts (per leg for SL)
4-8 exercises of 2-3 reps each
Extended Bounds 2-3 min / rep
20-40m / rep, <400m total
4-6 sets of 3-5 reps each
Depth Jumps 1-2 min / set
<50 total contacts
Example Jump Series

Horizontal Emphasis with relatively long contact time
Standing long Jump x 4
3 Hop x 4
Standing Triple Jump (RL) x 4
Double Double (RRLL) x 4r
= 44 Total contacts
Table 4: Plyometric training guidelines
Other Considerations
The process of planning a training cycle that incorporates an abundant use of plyometrics can be
tedious, as exercise selection and volume accumulation are the only ways to quantify the total load.
Unlike strength training, where session load can be quantified and progressed according to total
weight lifted, plyometric training needs a more skillful approach. In general, understanding the ways
in which exercises are differentiated and what gives each one its value of intensity is a solid basis for
prescribing training. Always keep in mind the ability level and training age of the athlete, as long-term
development should be the priority over short-term gain. Some plyometric exercises may not be
appropriate for certain athletes or may take years of proper training to be ready for. A thorough
development of all capacities should precede the need for “the biggest tool in the shed.”

Emphasis Speed Element Plyometric Element
Horizontal propulsion, Standing Long Jumps, Short
Acceleration development
Long ground contacts Bounds, Weighted Jumps
Vertical propulsion, Depth Jumps, Hurdle Jumps,

Max Velocity development
Short ground contacts Assisted Jumps
Lateral propulsion, Speed Skater, Lateral Bounds,

Change of Direction Sprinting
Linear deceleration Depth Landings
General tendon stiffness, Fast

- In-place Jump Circuits
twitch fiber metabolism
Table 5: Complementary training for speed-power sessions

Athletic Conditioning
Proper conditioning for athletes is necessary for the support of all other physical qualities. The
success of all athletic endeavors is dependent upon the efficiency and effectiveness of the body’s
energy production and utilization. Conditioning simply refers to the act of training to become
physically fit. However, there are many variables involved and the process may be complex
depending on the specific definition of physical fitness. While every sport will be unique in what
characterizes physical fitness of its athletes, it can be generally described as the ability to carry out
tasks without undue fatigue. A comprehensive understanding of sport context as well as fundamental
physiology and training principles is important in prescribing a conditioning regimen that achieves a
desired fitness effect.
It is helpful to understand that manipulating the adaptation of energy production pathways has the
common goal of improving the sustainability of activity. No matter the nature of the sport, the
primary concern is to be able to perform at higher intensities for longer periods of time. The process
of athletic conditioning should focus on the physiological effects of training instead of the athlete’s
psychological tolerance to workload. While the latter does have implications on the development of
an athlete, the physiological variables are ultimately both the driving and limiting factors in the ability
to handle training load. Developing the athlete’s physical fitness will not only lower their perceived
exertion, but also increase the efficiency of the systems at work, allowing for higher quality and
quantity of training, ultimately leading to improved performance in competition.
Energy Systems
The three energy production pathways are Anaerobic Alactic, Anaerobic Glycolytic, and aerobic. Both
anaerobic pathways produce energy without the presence of oxygen. The Anaerobic Alactic pathway
is also known as the ATP-PC pathway because it uses phosphocreatine (PC) for the production of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Anaerobic glycolysis provides ATP through the metabolism of glucose
and produces lactate as a byproduct. When oxygen is present, aerobic metabolism can occur through
the breakdown of triglycerides as well as glucose. In theory, we can categorize these energy systems
as separate, but the reality is that each energy production pathway is always contributing in different
proportions. Each has its benefit to the athlete, even if a sport is considered purely aerobic or
anaerobic. The three energy systems work in collaboration with each other. When workload and

intensity changes, one production pathway will increase its contribution in support of another
production pathway that is unable to keep up with demand. Sports that rely on short bursts of
explosive activity with long periods of low intensity work or rest are largely fueled by the ATP-PC
pathway, but it is the aerobic system that replenishes the depleted substrate in preparation for the
next bout. Conversely, endurance-based sports fueled primarily by aerobic metabolism may see
contribution from anaerobic energy production if the necessary intensity of work exceeds the rate at
which the aerobic system can produce. Very few sports will benefit from the development of one
energy system alone.
Physiological Effects of Conditioning
The three main variables that the development of physical fitness can affect and improve are oxygen
supply, oxygen utilization, and substrate availability. Oxygen supply and utilization are components of
aerobic power, or the rate at which the aerobic system can produce energy, while oxygen utilization
and substrate availability determine the capacity of the systems to sustain production. Improvements
in cardiac output, capillarization at the muscle tissue, and respiratory capacity contribute to increases
in oxygen supply. Improvements in oxygen utilization benefit from increases in the oxidative capacity
of fast twitch muscle fibers through lactate metabolism, the oxidative capacity and efficiency of slow
twitch muscle fibers through mitochondrial density, and the efficiency of the extraction of oxygen by
muscle cells from the blood for use in metabolism. Substrate availability is improved by increasing
the efficiency of aerobic energy production for the replenishment of ATP and PC, increasing the
capacity to store the substrates in the muscle cells, and through hormonal regulation during
metabolism. It is plain to see that the work of aerobic system in the presence of oxygen is a large
determinant of becoming more physically fit. While some physiological improvements have to do
with the efficiency and capacities of the Anaerobic Alactic and Anaerobic Glycolytic energy pathways,
it is, again, aerobic metabolism that is primarily tasked with replenishing the substrates that they use.
An important marker of fitness is not only the power of each pathway to produce energy to the
greatest extent, but also the capacity of the entire biological system to sustain or repeat bouts of
activity.

Training Variables
The following variables will be discussed as they relate to designing conditioning sessions and
programs. Understanding how to manipulate these variables will be an important factor in ensuring
the prescribed activity has the desired physiological effect.
Exercise Duration
The duration and intensity of exercise is the simplest way to try pinpointing the development of a
specific energy system pathway. While the timeframes are guidelines, they are well documented as
consistent across all athletes and cannot be changed substantially. While training will not significantly
affect the duration an individual can operate in a given energy system, it can affect the amount of
work the individual is able to perform in that time frame. The Anaerobic Alactic system supports work
of up to about 10 seconds. The Anaerobic Glycolytic system is the primary energy system between 10
and 90 seconds of work, and the aerobic system supports sustained effort of over 90 seconds.
Always keep in mind, however, that all systems work simultaneously during sustained effort and
there is always significant overlap of the energy systems, particularly during intermittent efforts.
Rest
Prescribing appropriate rest intervals is necessary to ensure that successive bouts of activity during
training are achieving the desired effect. This is particularly true when intervals are being employed.
When attempting to stay in an aerobic state using intervals, insufficient rest between repetitions
could shift the athlete into an anaerobic glycolytic state. Conversely, permitting too much rest
between intervals could reduce the potential aerobic stimulus. Rest periods are very dependent upon
the intensity of the exercise, and the two variables together can drive energy system contribution in
one direction or another.
Intensity
The intensity of the activity will be dependent upon the goal of the training. Intensity is often in
contrast to sustainability. Endurance bouts need to be less intense in order to work for long periods
of time, while powerful bouts need to be more intense to drive adaptations in anaerobic power. There
are several ways to quantify the intensity of a conditioning session. The most widely used and
supported by research is heart rate because it is directly related to the need for oxygen consumption

and delivery. Intensity is often prescribed as a range of percentage of maximum heart rate. Each
energy system will have general guidelines on heart rate ranges that correspond to the type of
energy production pathway that is most efficient for the given intensity of work. Intensity can also be
quantified, albeit subjectively, by use of the rating of perceived exertion scale. This is a method that
puts ownership on the athlete to understand their body and know how hard they feel like they are
working relative to an absolute maximal bout. This can be useful when heart rate monitoring is not
logistically possible, but a subjective measure does not tell the whole physiological story. Some
athletes, especially those with less training experience, may struggle to accurately depict their level
of fatigue. Training may feel harder than can be explained through objective physiological measures
such as heart rate. This limits the accuracy of perceived exertion, as the goal of conditioning is not
just to make hard training feel easier, it is to affect the physiological systems, although the two are
closely related.
Volume
As with many other training types, volume is inversely proportionate to intensity. The more intense a
bout or series of efforts is, the less volume the body will be able to handle before an undesired
training effect occurs. Generally, with fitness work, relatively large volumes are attainable if an
adequate amount of time is given for completion. Still, for the purpose of logistics and controlling the
load on the body, volume should be kept in check so as not to over train. It may be appropriate to
quantify volume on the level of the microcycle and macrocycle as well. For example, endurance
runners will look at acute volume accumulation per session and also volume accumulation per week
as a marker of chronic load on the body. Because of the training frequency required to press
adaptations in aerobic capacity, it is important for endurance athletes to see the big picture as well.
Density
Manipulating the density of conditioning is an effective way to increase intensity of a session and
accumulate more volume with time efficiency. Density refers to the amount of work done in a given
amount of time. For example, 100 meter tempo runs done at 10 sets of two repetitions are much less
dense than 100 meter runs at two sets of 10. The former allows for more rest within the workout,
while the latter puts a constraint on rest periods, making the session more time efficient and
potentially stressing the substrate replenishment rate of the energy systems to a greater extent.
Density is especially important when prescribing interval based conditioning because the rest periods

between bouts are a determinant in the overall intensity of the workout. Density can also be
manipulated for the purpose of progression. An unfit athlete may look to accumulate a volume of
work with low density early in a training cycle, then progress toward the same volume with higher
density as their fitness improves to accommodate.
Session Design
The following training guidelines will provide a framework for designing conditioning sessions
according to a specific goal. While there are many methods for achieving energy system
development, understanding the constructs in association with the previously listed variables makes
it possible to accurately target the desired metabolic pathway. This section will primarily focus on
running related activities, but the basic guidelines can also be applied to alternative methods such as
cycling, rowing or swimming. While the basic guidelines suggested below will remain the same, non-
impact methods such as these may permit volumes as much as 200% higher when comparing the
total time and repetitions of the session to activities like running.
Aerobic Development
Aerobic conditioning methods involve both lower intensity sustained efforts as well as higher
intensity intervals. Depending on the athlete and the period in the training cycle, both options may be
appropriate. It is important to understand context of the demands of the sport in order to progress
from general improvement in aerobic capacity to specific competition-based aerobic development.
A quite common method for improving general aerobic ability for all sports is long, slow distance
running. This type of sustained effort can improve the physiological variables that support all types of
aerobic and anaerobic efforts. Long, slow distance training can increase the oxidative capacity of slow
twitch muscle fibers, increase cardiac output, and improve the efficiency of oxygen uptake into
muscle cells. Long aerobic runs are done at 60-75% of max heart rate for 30-90 minutes at a time. It
is important during these sustained efforts to regulate intensity such that there is almost no other
energy system contribution. The purpose is to keep intensity low and accumulate volume. Distance
runners may use long runs throughout their training cycle, while speed-power sports will see benefit
sparsely and early on in training.
An interval training method with similar benefit to long distance runs is extensive tempo. These
intervals also improve the oxidative capacity of slow twitch and some fast twitch muscle fiber due to

their higher intensity and speed relative to long runs. Extensive tempo intervals are to be performed
for 10-60 seconds at either 70% pace for a given distance or 70-80% max heart rate. Accumulation
can be 8-16 repetitions at a 1:2 work to rest ratio. Extensive tempo intervals work well for developing
the aerobic system at relatively faster paces. The goal of this method is to remain alactic and aerobic
throughout the repetition of anaerobic bouts. The moderate intensity heart rate zone coupled with a
rest period double the length of the work allows the aerobic system to replenish any depleted
anaerobic substrate to allow for volume accumulation.
The next two types of interval training methods are slightly more intense in nature. Long intervals
include repeated efforts of 2-4 minutes near the athlete’s anaerobic threshold. This type of training
can increase VO2 max, or the maximum amount of oxygen uptake, and anaerobic threshold, which
coincides with the shift from primarily aerobic to primarily Anaerobic Glycolytic metabolism. Long
intervals are performed at 80-90% max heart rate, or around 85% of VO2 max pace. Volume can be
accumulated through 2-5 sets of 3-6 repetitions at a work to rest ratio of 3:2 to 1:1. Long intervals are
meant to challenge the ability to remain below anaerobic threshold during relatively high intensity
effort.
High intensity aerobic intervals are much shorter in duration and will be performed at a faster pace or
higher effort. These intervals aim to improve the oxidative capacity of fast twitch muscle fiber and
increase aerobic power. Heart rates should remain between 80-90% of max, and pace is around
120% of VO2 max pace. Typical protocols include work of 15-30 seconds for 2-4 sets of 8-16
repetitions. Rest periods follow a 1:1 to 1:2 ratio. A way to simplify the benefit of high intensity aerobic
intervals is to think about stressing the ability to stay primarily aerobic as long as possible during
repeated high intensity work intervals, giving enough rest to accumulate volumes of 4-10 minutes per
set. Maximal aerobic speed training is popular amongst team sport athletes and reflects the goal of
these training parameters well. Maximal aerobic speed is the slowest speed at which an athlete
reaches their VO2 max. Therefore, VO2 max pace roughly equates to the maximal aerobic speed for a
given distance. It is common to use this speed, in meters per second, to prescribe paces and distances
that relate to specified work intervals.
Anaerobic Development
Conditioning methods for improving anaerobic energy production are, by nature, high intensity
efforts. The speed of the bouts is meant to be near maximal, which will be associated with heart rates

above 90% of max. Anaerobic Glycolytic intervals are those that intentionally surpass the anaerobic
threshold for the sake of improving the ability to metabolize lactate. Lactate is not just an unwanted
byproduct of glycolysis, but also a substrate that can be used for the formation of glucose to be
again used in energy production. Other types of Anaerobic Alactic intervals have the goal of delaying
the onset of glycolytic metabolism as long as possible in order to work at higher intensities for longer
before decreases in power output are eminent.
Lactic intervals, or special endurance runs, are relatively long bouts of near maximal intensity that
aim to improve the sustainability of anaerobic activity. These intervals are done at 20-45 seconds,
separated by long rest periods of a 1:10 to 1:15 work to rest ratio. Volume can be achieved through 1-2
sets of 2-5 repetitions, with 8-10 minutes separating sets. Unlike aerobic intervals, which stress the
metabolic pathways with controlled paces and relatively short rest periods, the value of lactic
intervals lies primarily in the work. Because of this, rest periods are much longer to ensure that the
athlete is able to repeat the bout with minimal power drop off. For team sport athletes, the work
interval may be done as some type of agility or change of direction sprint drill. Keep in mind, however,
the ways in which the intensity might change when the speeds are slower, but decelerations are
present. The type of lactate accumulation experienced during special endurance intervals can be very
taxing on the athlete, especially if they are not aerobically developed enough to replenish energy
substrates during rest periods. Lactic intervals should therefore be saved for very specific training
purposes or later stages of a training cycle.
Speed endurance runs are similar in execution to lactic intervals, but done for a shorter period of time
for the purpose of improving the maintenance of maximal velocity or decreasing the deceleration
during a long sprint. These intervals are typically completed as straight ahead running of 8-20
seconds in length at maximal intensity. Appropriate volumes are attained with 2-3 sets of 2-5
repetitions each, following a 1:15 to 1:20 work to rest ratio.
Intensive tempo intervals are very similar to extensive tempo intervals but target anaerobic
metabolism instead of aerobic. Intensive tempo should be faster and more intense than extensive but
will follow roughly the same guidelines for repetition length and volume accumulation. The purpose
of these intervals is to achieve a fast but submaximal pace, which will tend to become glycolytic in
nature over the course of a repetition and especially throughout a set. Rest periods should allow
enough time to repeat another effort of the same pace, but short enough to stress lactate
metabolism and develop the ability to sustain anaerobic activity. Intensive tempo is characterized by

the performance of 8-16 intervals of 10-60 seconds performed at an intensity of 85-95% of
maximum heart rate, following a 1:1 to 2:1 work to rest ratio.
Repeat sprint training is an example of a primarily Anaerobic Alactic conditioning method that trains
the ability to delay glycolysis and lactic buildup over the course of several relatively short sprints with
short rest periods. This training method should not be considered speed training or acceleration
development, as the goal is simply to maintain power throughout a series of accelerations. Repeat
sprint training is done at less than eight seconds of work for 2-4 sets of 4-8 repetitions separated by
30-60 seconds rest, or a 1:5 to 1:10 ratio. Heart rate should be at 80-90% of max, although this type
of interval is typically quantified by speed drop off instead of a physiological marker. Repeat sprint
training can be beneficial for athletes of intermittent team sport, where repeated sprint ability has
specific value during competition.
As a reminder, no matter the method used to train energy system development, the constructs in
relation to training variables are the determining factor in which production pathway is dominant.
Further, regardless of the sport or athlete, aerobic metabolism will always be the underlying
mechanism for which substrate is replenished, so its development should have its place in nearly all
training plans. Finally, when progressing toward sport specific competition demands, thorough
understanding of goals and processes is important to ensure that the conditioning methods used
have the desired physiological effect on the athlete.
System Method Training Variables Example Session

Long Slow HR 65-75% 15-60 minutes running, biking,
Distance 15-60 minutes continuous rowing, etc.
HR 70-80% (70% pace for
2 sets of 8 x 30” runs
Extensive distance)
70% pace
Tempo 10-60”
60” rest
Intervals 8-16 reps
3’ between sets
1:2 W:R
2 sets of 5 x 3’ minutes
HR 80-90% (85% VO2 max pace)
Aerobic 92% of VO2 max pace or max
2-4 minutes
Long Intervals aerobic speed
8-15 reps
2’ at 40% pace active rest
3:2 – 1:1 W:R
4’ between sets
HR 80-90% (120% VO2 max pace) 3 sets of 8 x 15” runs
High-intensity 15-30” 120% VO2 max pace or max
Aerobic 8-16 reps aerobic speed
Intervals 2-4 sets 15” rest
1:1 – 1:2 W:R 3’ between sets

HR 90%+
Lactic Intervals 20-45” 1 set of 5 x 40” runs
(Special 2-5 reps Full speed (~300m)
Endurance) 1-2 sets 6’ rest
1:10 – 1:15 W:R
HR 90%+
8-20”
Anaerobic Speed Full speed (~100m)
2-5 reps
Glycolytic Endurance 4’ rest
2-3 sets
10’ rest between sets
1:15 – 1:20 W:R
HR 85-95% (85% pace for
distance)
Intensive 85% pace
10-60”
Tempo 60” rest
8-16 repetitions
3’ between sets
1:1 - 2:1 W:R
HR 80-90%
3 sets of 6 x 6” sprint
Anaerobic <8”
Repeat Sprint Full speed (~50m)
Alactic 4-8 reps
Ability 60” rest
capacity 2-4 sets
3’ between sets
1:5 – 1:10 W:R
Table 1: Training parameters for energy system development
While each session example for the anaerobic energy system is simplified as linear running, team
sport athletes should incorporate guidelines for change of direction training. Adding redirections and
decelerations may make the repetition more intense in some ways, but the speed reached will be
much slower than a linear sprint, so the work intervals can be lengthened or the rest intervals.
Similar energy system adaptations may be achieved using alternative methods such as cycling,
rowing, or circuits as long as the basic guidelines for intensity, duration and rest are adhered to.

Demographic Considerations
A sport performance coach will inevitably encounter many different types of athletes throughout his
or her career. An athlete’s age, gender, injury history, and training level should all be considered when
putting together a training program. However, what seems like a long list of modification-causing
differences is actually not the case. Most of the differences in how to regard special demographics of
athletes are actually quite subtle. The following will break down these demographics and discuss
what significant disparities, if any, need to be taken into consideration.
Age
Age is undoubtedly one of the more popular topics in training, particularly in regard to youth
resistance training safety. While children go through different stages of growth and maturation that
must be taken into account when training, there are as many limitations needed to be placed as one
might think.
Youth Population
Chronological age refers to the actual number of years a person has been alive. While children can be
placed into different age groups based on chronological age, it doesn’t give a clear picture of the
physical development of the child. For this reason, coaches often turn to anatomical, and biological
age. Anatomical age classifies youths based on the anatomical changes from birth, to pre-puberty,
puberty, through maturity. More importantly, biological age is an athlete’s physiological development
of the body systems that affect the athletic potential of the athlete. Biological age is the most
important factor to consider when training youth athletes. Two athletes with the same chronological
and anatomical age may be at completely different stages of physiological development.
Generally speaking, as a child develops both physiologically and anatomically, training should move
from learning a variety of skills in a fun environment to more structured and specialized training.
Children should be encouraged to learn to run, jump, throw, swim, and develop coordination from a
young age while participating in many different sports.

Common Concerns About Youth Training
How Young is Too Young
There is no minimum chronological age that a child must reach before beginning strength training. As
discussed above, biological age is much more important in determining if a child is ready; however,
mental and emotional maturity is another factor to consider. Strength training places physical and
emotional stress on the body, so an athlete must be able to handle it. As a general rule, athletes old
enough to play sports are old enough to start strength training. It is important to keep in mind that
strength training is not necessarily a matter of placing external loads, such as barbells or dumbbells
on a child. There are many other ways to introduce resistance training to youth athletes. Bodyweight
exercises alone can provide plenty of resistance that a youth athlete must overcome to develop
strength.
Weights Are for Boys
Differences in male versus female will be discussed a bit later, but it is worth pointing out a common
misconception found even among young athletes. Weight training is often associated with an activity
for male athletes and it can intimidate female athletes who think lifting weights will make them
appear more masculine, particularly in size. A female’s fear of “getting big” is one of the largest myths
that persists over time. Female hypertrophy is limited due to a lack of testosterone production. Young
girls need to understand the benefits of training just as young boys do; however, coaches may need
to communicate with girls differently to overcome the hesitation they may have.
Weight Training Stunts Growth
Another popular myth is the idea that strength training will stunt a child’s growth. Despite the fact
that research indicates resistance training can actually improve the growth of children, the myth
persists. A coach should be well educated with research and encourage athletes that a resistance
training program can have many benefits. Not only does it improve muscular strength and endurance
beyond that of normal growth and development, but it also improves sport performance, helps to
prevent injuries, and introduces lifelong habitual exercise.

Growth Plate Concerns
A myth that is often paired with the idea that strength training will stunt growth is the idea that it
places a child’s epiphyseal plate at risk of injury. While a child’s growth plate is indeed not ossified and
therefore more prone to injury, these types of injuries due to weight training should not exist in
supervised training programs administered by intelligent coaches. It should go without saying that
quality of movement and safety should be the top concern of a coach when administering a
resistance training program for a child.
Youth Training Guidelines
It should come as no surprise that there are very little differences between training guidelines of
youth athletes versus adults. A coach should make an effort to ensure the child is aware of how
training can benefit them in their sport, as well as the associated risks. Coaches should put an
emphasis on proper instruction, execution of exercises, and patience of progression. Quality of
movement is much more important than the load, but the coach should not be overly cautious to the
point of neglecting the overload principle and in turn, neglecting the athlete from progression.
There are some common misconceptions in training guidelines for youth athletes. One misconception
is the delay of introducing barbell movements. It seems as though some coaches are hesitant to start
the use of a barbell with children until they have gone through a long progression of bodyweight and
/ or goblet squat variations. However, with the availability of light weight children’s barbells, there
should be no reason to delay the introduction of learning barbell lifts at an early age, outside of any
glaring movement deficiencies. Another misconception holds that children should stick to high rep
ranges. This most likely stems from the concept that volume and intensity (% of 1RM) of strength
training has an inverse relationship. The higher the percentage of an athletes 1RM, the less reps can
be performed. While this concept is indeed true, youth athletes don’t need to be introduced to it in
early stages of resistance training. Coaches should not be concerned with a youth athlete’s 1RM nor
follow the same volume and intensity guidelines as experienced athletes and adults. Therefore,
coaches should experiment with different rep ranges and loading parameters when teaching young
athletes to lift weights, provided quality of movement and safety is still the top priority. In many
cases, a higher rep scheme gives an inexperienced athlete more opportunity for an undesired break
down in mechanics and poor movement quality.

Elderly Population
Aging is one of life’s cruelest inevitabilities. How a person ages is largely genetic, but keeping activity
levels high throughout life, particularly in strength training, has been shown to dramatically improve
the aging process. Coaching older athletes is not unlike coaching other populations as long as the
coach has a strong knowledge of the changes in physical capabilities that occur with the aging
process.
Use It or Lose It
Unfortunately, as a person enters their fourth decade of life, no amount of activity can reverse the
steady decline of physical capabilities that peaked earlier in life. However, research overwhelmingly
indicates that continuing to stay active into older age can have a significant effect on the magnitude
of the decline of physical capabilities. Outside of pathology, there are a handful of stark disuse
disorders that are the result of neglecting to stay active.
Sarcopenia
Sarcopenia is the reduction of strength that comes with age, as a result of a decrease in size of
muscle fiber and muscle mass. It is arguably the most significant of the natural aging processes that
can be extremely detrimental in the inactive populations.
Power Production
Of the muscle loss that is shown to increase with age, the cross-sectional area (CSA) of Type II muscle
fibers decreases considerably between 40 and 80 years of life. This unfortunate loss of neurological
function, or decrease in fast twitch alpha motor units, has a significant effect on power production in
elderly populations. In older athletes, a decrease in elastic components of connective tissue, and
compromised power production can have negative effects on performance, including jumping power,
change in direction speeds, and acceleration. For the general public, the ability for muscles to contract
at a high rate of speed is critical to reducing the risk of injury seen in day-to-day life, such as falling.
Elderly Training Guidelines
As stated previously, the difference in actual training protocols with age are subtle. Older populations
can and should be training much in the same way as younger populations. In fact, the benefits of
strength and power training for older populations cannot be overstated. All of the natural losses in

muscle size, fiber type, and power production can be greatly reduced by maintaining activity levels
and continuing to train throughout life. Participating in a resistance training program can have a
positive effect on muscle size, strength, and power, as well as bone, tendon, and ligament strength,
and an improved quality of life. When training the elderly, consider an increase in recovery methods
such as nutrition and rest between workouts.
Gender
The differences between men and women with regards to training should not be overlooked.
However, the common thread throughout this section on demographic considerations is that,
generally speaking, training across populations will look roughly the same. Gender is no exception.
That being said, below are some gender differences to take into account when training female
athletes compared to male athletes.
Hormonal Implications
Probably the most obvious difference between men and women and how the body functions is the
difference in testosterone production. Males produce much higher levels of testosterone which is
responsible for major differences in bone maturity and protein synthesis during puberty. Higher
testosterone levels and a longer growth period are the main reasons adult men have a larger build
than adult women.
As previously mentioned, there is a common myth among women that strength training will
dramatically increase the size of their muscles, making them appear “big and bulky.” Because
testosterone levels in women are considerably low, this is not typically the case. Women who believe
this myth, and therefore avoid proper strength training protocols, are missing the benefits of
reduction of body fat and increases in lean mass that are associated with strength training. Coaches
should educate their female athletes and the parents of young female athletes on the benefits of
strength training and the truth about hypertrophy in females.
Size Differences
Men tend to have broader shoulders than women, allowing them to carry more muscle mass and to
be at a mechanical advantage at the shoulder. This may be why there is a large difference in upper
body strength between male and female athletes. When looking at absolute strength, i.e. the amount

of force that can be produced regardless of a person’s size or muscle mass, men are shown to be at
a considerable advantage. However, when accounting for things like body size and muscle mass, in
particular cross-sectional area of muscle fibers, there is no difference in relative strength. This is an
important revelation in gender considerations as, ultimately, females can train in exactly the same
way as males. An athlete, regardless of sex, should have special attention given to his or her
weaknesses. The upper body strength disadvantage in women, for example, should be treated no
different than any other weakness in another athlete, such as an athlete who needs to improve
eccentric power. It is important that a coach does not get hung up on the differences of gender.
The Female Athlete Triad
The female athlete triad refers to three conditions that are commonly found in female athletes.
Eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, are the first conditions of the triad.
The second is a condition called amenorrhea, which refers to a menstrual irregularity in which there is
a cessation of the menstrual cycle for more than three months. The final part of the triad is
osteoporosis, which is a common disorder of unusually low bone mineral density that increases the
risk of bone fractures. Coaches should understand, psychologically, the pressures teenage girls face
that could lead to eating disorders, and how this disordered eating can cause menstrual irregularities
and subsequently low bone mineral density.
Pregnancy
Before the mid 1980s, women were told to take it easy during pregnancy and not to be physically
active. However, current research shows that in a normal healthy pregnancy, there are many benefits
to working out (not only for the mother, but also for the baby).
Changes in the Body
A pregnancy can be divided into three trimesters, and each trimester comes with different
physiological changes and training guidelines. One of the most noted changes to a woman’s body
during pregnancy is weight gain, which is responsible for changes such as posture and balance. Other
considerations include changes in locomotion, proprioception, and an increased likelihood of lower
back pain. Hormonal changes are another cause for concern. Particularly relaxin, which is a pregnancy
hormone released to loosen connective tissues which aids in the expansion of the pelvis for the
birthing process. Another area effected by the loosening of connective tissue is the ribcage to allow

for better breathing. Eventually, the baby will push upward on the diaphragm into the rib cage making
breathing harder and faster. Resting and working heart rates will increase during pregnancy, as will
blood volume which can have an effect on blood pressure.
All of the above changes during pregnancy put the mother at an increased risk of injury, but as long
as a coach is aware of the changes and how to modify appropriately, the benefits for the mother and
baby are far too great to avoid exercise.
Benefits of Exercise
Exercise during pregnancy can help improve sleep, increase energy levels, help to decrease lower
back pain and enhance muscular strength and endurance. This can lead to a shorter labor and
decreased medical interventions during labor. Glycemic control can also be improved for those with
gestational diabetes. There are a number of other benefits to working out during pregnancy, including
weight management both during pregnancy and post-birth, psychological benefits for the mother,
attentiveness and neurodevelopment of the baby, and placental nutrient delivery.
Training Guidelines
Before recommending a woman train during pregnancy, it is important for a coach to know her
training history. A woman who was active before pregnancy should continue to be active during
pregnancy. However, if the woman was sedentary before pregnancy, it’s not a great time to start a
progressive training program.
During the first trimester, there’s typically not a need to modify exercises. However, nausea, vomiting
and extreme fatigue can have an effect on exercise during the first trimester. During the second and
third trimesters are when the mother’s body will go through significant changes and this is when
modifying exercises becomes necessary. When the technique of an exercise is compromised, a
modification will be necessary. After the first trimester, a pregnant woman should avoid:
• Exercises that place the woman in a supine, or inverted position due to the effect these
positions have on blood flow.
• Movements that place increased strain on ligaments such as kipping pull ups and deep
squats.
• Exercises that require extreme straining (Valsalva maneuver), causing the woman to hold
her breath which can increase heart rate and blood pressure.

• Overhead exercises that can place greater strain on the already vulnerable lower back and
put the woman at risk of dropping weights from overhead.
• Exercises that require substantial balance, especially in the third trimester.
Injury History
A coach’s top priority in training should be to keep his or her athlete free of injury. In fact, training is a
time to prevent injury, not cause it. While injuries that occur during training are relatively rare, injuries
on the playing field are almost inevitable at some point in time during an athlete’s career. Coaches
should be familiar with working around various injuries, including acute, chronic, permanent, and
physical disabilities. Before an athlete is allowed to participate in training, a coach should be made
aware of any current or previous injuries or conditions that could affect his or her training. Not only is
it important to know the injuries upfront, but a coach should know if an athlete is having pain during a
workout too.
Not every athlete will be honest about injuries out of fear of being sidelined. Younger athletes may be
too shy, or embarrassed to admit injuries, while adults may have too much pride. Developing trust
with athletes, regardless of demographic, is critical to be a successful coach. The coach should not
make the athlete feel like an outcast or unequal to other healthy athletes. There are two important
factors a coach must consider when training injured populations.
Training Around Injuries
Training around injuries is necessary when the healing process of an injury requires inactivity of the
injured body part. This does not always indicate that training altogether must stop. The coach can still
make the most out of training by working other parts of the body and / or working on weaknesses
and imbalances that don’t involve the injured part of the body. While the goal of training should be to
get the athlete back to pre-injury status, this time should be viewed as a way to continue
improvement in any way possible.
Training Through Injuries
Sometimes it may be necessary to train through injuries. If this is the case, it must be absolutely clear
the type of injury, and proper steps must be taken to ensure the injury is not worsened. For example,
some injures require complete rest, while others might require increased blood flow. Injuries requiring

increased blood flow could benefit from continuing to stay active, albeit with appropriate training
modifications. Modifications to exercises, including easier variations that cause less pain, or partial
ranges of motion should be utilized by the coach.
In any case, the goal of training injured athletes is to not put the athlete at an increased risk of
worsening the injury, and to aim for progression towards getting back to perfect health. The athlete’s
wellbeing should never be compromised for the sake of competition or pride.
Training Level Continuum
Coaches should realize that all individuals fall somewhere on a training level continuum, and not
everyone has the same goals. Any given point on the continuum comes with its own training goals,
and risk versus reward.
Sedentary
People who often sit for long periods of time and are, for the most part inactive, are classified as
sedentary. Some sedentary people are actively seeking a lifestyle change, others need to be
motivated to change, and some may not be interested in changing at all. When talking about general
fitness populations and performance related populations a discussion of risk versus reward, with
regards to training, is necessary. However, when discussing sedentary populations, it is more
appropriate to discuss risk versus reward not in regard to training, but instead to health. The health
risks of sedentary people cannot be overstated. They are at an increased risk for obesity and the
severe health byproducts that come along with it, such as heart disease and diabetes. If given the
opportunity to train someone who is sedentary, precautions must be taken to ensure not only the
safety of the participant, but also an adherence to their new lifestyle.

Fitness
Active individuals can be separated into two different categories: fitness, and performance. These
categories fall on a continuum because performance driven individuals will all require a level of
general fitness before a high level of performance can be achieved. However, not everyone who is
active will seek performance. Individuals seeking general fitness value their health over injury risk. For
the most part, they want to be “in shape,” feel good, and look good. Seeking this level of fitness comes
with relatively low risk of injury. Training these types of individuals requires a coach to understand the
risk versus reward, and to place an emphasis on improvements in health and quality of life over
improvements in performance. It is relevant to note that not all of these individuals completely turn
away from competition. Many people will participate in recreational sports or activities that stimulate
any need for competition while still staying at a lower risk versus reward.
Performance
Active individuals who seek performance, whether in competitive sports, or competitive fitness (such
as CrossFit), are often the most desirable individuals for coaches to train. These are the athletes who
do the impressive activities. These athletes accept the increased risk of injury associated with the
necessary training associated high performance. In competitive sports and fitness, small differences
in performance can lead to large differences in competition outcomes. For example, picture a photo-
finish in the 100 meter event at the Olympics. The difference between finishers is only fractions of a
second, yet it’s the difference between everyone in the world knowing your name, and no one
remembering you were there. To reach this level of performance, training comes with a much higher
risk versus reward than the general fitness population. Coaches must take extra care when designing
and implementing programs for athletes at the highest level of sport. Even though the risk is higher,
the goal should always be to keep athletes safe and free from injury.
Conclusion
Throughout a coach’s career, they will be responsible for athletes coming from all walks of life. An
athlete’s age, gender, injury history, and where they fall on the training level continuum are all
important factors for a coach to consider. While most of the differences in athlete demographics are
subtle when it comes to the actual training means and methods, it would be irresponsible for a coach
to not be well educated in the differences that do require attention.

Fundamental Strength Development, Part 2
Part One of the Fundamental Strength Development was primarily based on the underlying scientific
principles and concepts of strength training. This information has provided a framework for which
Part Two can build upon with practical methodology. The goal here will be to discuss the strength
training methods and guidelines for achieving specific goals of adaptation, as well as pertinent
training principles.
Fundamental Principles
Certain ideas and terminology will be helpful in developing a complete understanding of how and why
certain strength training methods are used and will also provide a foundation for making informed
decisions when planning a training cycle.
Foundational Strength Qualities
In the beginning of a training cycle, general stimulus is appropriate and necessary to ensure thorough
development when moving toward specificity. For the context of strength training, this includes
emphasizing foundational qualities such as muscle cross-sectional area and maximal force output
before the focus becomes rate of force development or power output. Increases in muscle cross-
sectional area, also known as hypertrophy, are accomplished by specific strength training methods
that act to enlarge the muscle fibers and increase the muscle filament density. This type of fiber
hypertrophy leads to increases in muscle force producing capability. Put simply, larger muscle fibers
have a greater potential for developing maximal strength. While there is some crossover in
methodology and maximal strength training can cause increases in muscle cross-sectional area, it is
beneficial to first emphasize the principles of hypertrophy as a foundation. Maximal strength
development is also a stepping-stone for most athletes toward sport specific power production. The
general principle is that muscles that have more potential for producing force maximally also have
more potential for producing force rapidly. Specific training methods are required to transfer
maximal strength capacities to a high rate of force development, but the overall force output is the
necessary underlying factor. Improvements in strength and the rate of force development will benefit
the efficiency of the stretch shortening cycle, which is present in nearly all explosive athletic
movements. The combination of these qualities creates a system that is able to express power, or

rapid force production. Power output, for most sports, is the most specific athletic quality relative to
the development of strength.
Specificity and Transfer
For most athletes, strength training will always be considered a general stimulus because its primary
purpose is to develop the physical capacities that will support the expression of speed, power, and
skill in training and competition. However, strength training methodology can still be more or less
specific to the physical needs of an athlete. In order to achieve a transfer from the capacities
developed through building strength, to the qualities needed for success in competition, training must
continually move toward the speeds, force outputs, or positions that the sport demands as a
competition period nears.
The Force-Velocity Curve
The force-velocity curve is a representation of the relationship between the body’s movement velocity
and an external load. As resistance increases, the potential movement velocity will decrease.
Conversely, as resistance decreases, velocity can increase. It is important to understand that the
relationship between maximal force output and maximal movement velocity is a continuum, and
somewhere toward the middle lies maximal power output. Since power is a factor of force and time, a
balance is necessary to achieve the greatest values. As an example, a throwing athlete’s arm velocity
will reach it’s peak with little or no weight in hand. Throwing a small weight, however, will result in a

higher power output. When the weight is increased substantially such that the velocity has dropped
significantly, the power output will also drop. It may be appropriate for an athlete to address areas of
the force-velocity curve both above and below what is specific to the movements of the sport. This
principle will help to conceptualize the loads that are appropriate for developing power in the context
of strength training.
Neural Factors
The Central Nervous System (CNS) is an important driver in the expression and development of
strength. Muscular strength is determined not only by the quantity of muscle mass, but also the
extent of muscular activation. This activation is determined by motor unit recruitment by the nervous
system. A motor unit is a basic neurological element that attaches to and controls specific muscle
fibers. When a motor unit is activated, all of the muscle fibers it innervates receive impulse. During
small controlled movements, very few small motor units are recruited to do the job. Larger and more
global movements requiring large forces will recruit a greater number of motor units that innervate
thousands of muscle fibers each. The importance in the context of strength training is that high
resistance multi-joint exercises will recruit vast numbers of motor units and are very taxing on the
nervous system. The concept of motor unit recruitment also plays a role in the more global concepts
of inter and intramuscular coordination. Intramuscular coordination refers to the firing rate,
synchronization, and magnitude of recruitment of motor units during muscular activity. These
variables together determine the force producing capability of a muscle group, and become more
effective in their interplay with specific types of strength training. Intermuscular coordination refers to
the complex relationship between different muscle groups of the body in performing skilled and
efficient movement. This concept is less about the magnitude of work a particular set of motor units
can achieve and more about the coordinated effort over multiple joints and muscle groups to
complete a movement. This is also something that can be improved with training, specifically that of
more repetition, or movement practice.
Exercise Selection
Choosing an appropriate exercise for strength development can affect the success of the outcome.
Certain exercises will be more or less efficient and effective at providing the stimulus necessary for
achieving a desired training adaptation. It is helpful to loosely categorize exercises according to the

magnitude of stimulus they can provide, as well as their potential for specificity to athletic demands.
Generally, exercises can be seen as having primary, secondary, or assistance value to the session.
Three simple variables to look for when assessing an exercise’s use are the magnitude of the
potential for loading, the magnitude of the potential for speed, and whether it is compound or
isolative in nature. Primary exercises tend to involve multiple joints and muscle groups, and have the
highest potential for loading or even speed of execution. For example, a barbell back squat may have
primary emphasis in a maximal strength session because it is a very strong movement that trains
nearly the entire body. In contrast, during a power development session, a power clean may be the
primary focus because it can be loaded to a high degree, although less than the squat, and also
incorporates a high speed of execution relative to strength movements. The back squat may actually
be a secondary exercise during that same session because of its value in the development of power.
Primary and secondary exercises are often very closely related categorically. The emphasis of the
session may be the determining factor for which compound, multi-joint exercise is of primary or
secondary importance. Assistance exercises typically include those that play a supporting role in the
thorough development of athletic strength. These exercises tend to be more isolative, and serve a
very specific purpose within the training plan. For example, certain pulling and rotational exercises for
the shoulder may be used for stability and strength balance in an overhead athlete, but do not make
up the majority of training time or energy. The commonality throughout this type of categorization of
exercises is determining the extent of motor unit recruitment. The exercises that allow the heaviest
and fastest execution will also recruit the most motor units and result in high Central Nervous
System fatigue. As a general rule, these exercises should be performed early in the training session
when energy and readiness levels are high. Also, the more of the body that is involved in the
execution of the exercise, the more motor units will be required to complete the task. This is why
single-joint isolation exercises are typically done last or within the session in such a way that they do
not affect the performance of primary and secondary exercises. Assistance exercises, however, may
also be multi-joint and include large muscle groups, but are performed in a way that cannot be
mechanically loaded to as great of an extent. The main purpose of classifying exercises in this way is
to understand proper session setup and appropriate loading parameters for varying strength goals.
Strength Training Guidelines

Here, discussion will be of three main strength qualities defined as hypertrophy, maximal strength,
and power. In the context of the training plan for athletic development, each will have a period of

importance and emphasis, but all aspects may remain present to varying degrees depending on the
training goal. For example, while hypertrophy training will improve muscle cross-sectional area early
on in the training cycle as a base for developing maximal strength, it may also be present in later
stages to maintain myofibril density and elicit hormonal responses that support the development of
strength and power qualities. It is important to note that there will exist crossover in training
methodology between the three strength qualities. The same exercise may be used to accomplish
hypertrophy, maximal strength, and muscular power at different times by manipulating training
variables like repetitions, session density, load, and speed of execution. For this reason, it is necessary
to be familiar with the outcomes that each set of guidelines will be oriented toward.
Training for Hypertrophy
It has already been stated that hypertrophy training is the primary method for increasing muscle
cross-sectional area. It can also have the benefit of improving muscular strength and activating
slower motor units that are not present during shorter sets of maximal load. There are two main
training methods that have the purpose of stimulating a hypertrophic adaptation. The repetition effort
method involves submaximal loads performed to muscular failure. The final repetitions in this type of
set when the musculature is asked to produce as much force as possible in the presence of fatigue is
the important range in which the maximal extent of potential motor unit recruitment occurs.
Neglecting to perform repetitions past the point of fatigue will fail to elicit the greatest hypertrophic
and muscular strength response. This would, instead, be referred to as the submaximal effort
method, where a set is purposely ended short of failure. This method, given the completion of
appropriate repetitions, can also stimulate hypertrophy, but does less for motor unit recruitment and
therefore muscular strength and should be regarded as a supplementary training method during
periods when hypertrophy is not the primary emphasis.
Regardless of which method is used, hypertrophy training should generally involve repetitions of 6-12
per set, with 3-6 sets at an intensity of 65-85% of 1RM. Higher volumes tend to be most effective in
inducing hypertrophic response, so up to five exercises per muscle group may be appropriate to
exhaust the working muscles. Rest periods can be short, between 30-90 seconds, because total
neural output is relatively low, but adequate rest should be given to allow for the accumulation of
volume. Any exercise could conceivably be used for hypertrophy training, but simple movements
involving fewer joints will be most effective because of their emphasis on fatiguing a particular
muscle group. More complex exercises will likely reach technical failure before true exhaustion of any

one area of musculature. Because less of the body ends up being trained during a work set, it is
beneficial to create an efficient session by pairing exercises in a superset. This is a setup where a set
of two exercises is done in succession before resting. For hypertrophy training, it is common to pair
exercises of different or opposing muscle groups. This can work well for the repeated effort method
where muscle exhaustion is necessary.
Progression in hypertrophy training can take simple form. The easiest way to quantify progression is
by manipulating volume and load. Between two sessions of the same muscle groups, volume may
stay the same while load increases, or load may stay the same while volume increases. Because
larger volumes tend to have the greatest effect on increasing muscle size, it may be beneficial to
progress by using a combination of both variables. If the upper limits of volume have been achieved,
other methods such as eccentric focused repetitions or tempo training can further adaptation by
increasing the muscle’s time under tension. Slowing down the eccentric portion of a repetition
appears to enhance the hypertrophic response especially in trained individuals. Remember that the
main factor in stimulating muscle growth to the greatest extent is the exhaustion of muscles to the
point of controlled failure.
Training for Maximal Strength
Maximal strength training, also known as heavy resistance training, is the process of improving the
absolute force producing capability of the musculature. During maximal strength development,
intramuscular coordination will determine the magnitude of the output from the fibers within the
motor unit, while intermuscular coordination will provide a functional system of multiple muscle
groups that work together to move the greatest load possible. The increased efficiency of both as a
result of training will ultimately lead to the overall improvement of maximal strength. Enhancing
force output requires training with maximal loads relative to a given exercise and repetition range.
This type of training is commonly known as slow strength, as force production takes priority over
speed of execution. Compound multi-joint exercises are typically used because of their high potential
for external loading and therefore motor unit recruitment. These exercises are very taxing not only
on the musculature, but also the CNS and require structure and planning for the most effective long-
term development.
Training parameters for maximal strength development include relatively few repetitions with a
higher number of sets needed to accumulate volume. Generally, 2-6 sets of six or less repetitions are

appropriate, not including warmup sets that may be necessary to build up to maximal loads. Working
sets should be above 80% of 1RM, depending on the repetition goal, and performed near muscular
failure. Sets, repetitions, and load percentages should be set up such that the individual is able to
work near maximally and still complete the prescribed amount of work. Rest periods between sets
should be relatively long, between 2-4 minutes, to accommodate sufficient recovery for the
accumulation of volume. While overall volume will be less than that of hypertrophy training,
intermuscular coordination will, again, benefit from relatively large volumes of movement practice,
especially in less-trained individuals.
Progression of the development of maximal strength will benefit from planning and periodization of
the training cycle. Both linear and non-linear periodization is effective and advancement can take
place through either increasing the percentage of maximal load, increasing the volume within an
appropriate range, or combination of both. Manipulating the emphasis on contraction type is another
way to progress intensity. For example, the same volume of work being done with biased emphasis
on the eccentric contraction versus equal emphasis on eccentric and concentric contraction of a
movement may further stimulate adaptations. Maximal strength may be present throughout the
entirety of a training cycle for the purpose of maintaining a base on which to develop power qualities.
When maximal strength training takes on a supporting role, volumes may be reduced, but intensities
should remain maximal to ensure its effectiveness.
Training for Power
The ability to produce a high power output can be a determining factor of success in many sports.
Power is simply a product of force with respect to time, and can be developed using many different
training methods. This section will discuss power development in the context of resistance training
with weights. The most commonly used methods are traditional strength exercises with emphasis on
high bar-speed, Olympic weightlifting variations, and ballistic training.
A barbell back squat is an exercise that is typically used for maximal strength development, but can
also have an effect on power output when performed with an emphasis on the speed of the bar
during the concentric portion of the movement. In order to move the bar fast enough to result in a
significant increase in power, the load cannot be maximal. The downfall of this method is that in order
to perform a squat without the feet leaving the ground, the body will have to decelerate as it nears a
standing position. This reduces the ability to produce power at the most mechanically advantageous

position of the movement. A similar, but more effective means of producing power is the squat jump,
which would fall within ballistic exercise. Here, the feet are allowed to leave the ground, so the body is
able to accelerate the load all the way through to the takeoff. Peak movement velocities tend to be
much higher during the jump squat, but load will necessarily be even more submaximal to ensure
safety and the ability to achieve separateness from the standing back squat. Olympic weightlifting
variations come in many forms, but remain effective for producing power through the lower
extremities. The mark of these exercises is the forceful acceleration of a bar that results in it moving
to a different area of the body. For example, during the Clean, the bar is accelerated from the thigh
and received at the shoulders. This type of movement can produce massive power outputs even at
maximal loads relative to the exercise. These methods are effective due to their emphasis on the rate
of force development, or the speed at which force is produced by the musculature, and their ability to
recruit large amounts of motor units very rapidly. These factors also make high-speed and heavy
power development exercises very taxing on the CNS.
In order to maintain maximal effort and achieve fasts bursts of acceleration against heavy resistance,
it is recommended that power development exercises be done for only a few repetitions, using many
sets to accumulate volume. Repetitions may range from 1-5 across 4-10 sets. For power development
the appropriate load will depend on whether the prescription calls for an Olympic lift or the use of
other exercises such as the squat for power development. Olympic lift movements should be
performed at 75-90% of 1RM while 50-75% of 1RM is more appropriate for other exercises. Long rest
periods between 3-5 minutes are needed to ensure maximal output can be attained on every set.
Training volumes can follow similar guidelines to maximal strength work with the understanding that
the expression of power is of greatest importance and significant decrement in movement velocity
and power output should conclude the training session.
Progression of power development exercises may take various forms. Commonly, volumes are
manipulated up or down depending on the period of the training cycle. A balance between the
external load and the movement velocity may also accompany changes in volume. For example, load
and volume may decrease while intended velocity increases as an athlete nears a competition period.
Conversely, load and volume may increase, allowing for lower velocities during general preparation.
There are many ways to juggle these three variables depending on the training goal, but each should
serve the purpose of optimizing the rate of force development and improving the power producing
capability.

Objective Parameters Load Methods Effect
Repetition effort
6-12 reps Exhaustion Cross sectional area
Hypertrophy 3-6 sets 65-85% Time under Peripheral fatigue
30-90” rest tension Slow MU recruitment
Isolation exercises
Compound
2-6 reps Force output
Maximal exercise
2-6 sets 80%+ High MU recruitment
Strength Slow strength
2-4’ rest Intermuscular coordination
Maximal loads
75-90% - Compound Rate of force-development
1-5 reps
Olympic lifts, 50- exercise High MU recruitment
Power 4-10 sets
75% - strength Peak acceleration Intramuscular coordination
3-5’ rest
lifts High bar speed Firing rate
Table 1: Hypertrophy, maximal strength and power
Strength training, from a practical standpoint, can effectively be accomplished in three ways; lifting a
maximal load, lifting a submaximal load to failure, or lifting a submaximal load with maximal velocity.
Lifting a non-maximal load for a non-maximal number of repetitions, or not to failure, should be
considered a supplementary training method mainly reserved for specific assistance exercises. All
methods have a purpose and a place within the training plan, and it is important to know when and
how to use each in order to optimize training.

Session Management
The importance of sound fundamentals in sport science, training theory, physics and physiology
should not overshadow the importance of session management. Delivering the written training plan
to your athletes effectively, and safely is arguably the coach’s number one responsibility. However,
there’s much more to coaching than simply handing out a sheet of paper with a workout on it, or
calling out sets and reps. Just as coaching a movement or skill is an art, running a flawless session is
also an art form. There are a number of factors a coach must consider when running a session,
including establishing authority, creating “buy-in” from athletes and building a culture of quality,
accountability, and safety. To do this, the coach must not only know the workout extremely well, but
he or she must know the athlete too. The following section will cover how to make sure a session
flows in a logistically efficient manner, how to work with non-homogenous groups, and finally,
managing large groups.
Managing Session Flow
Imagine the transition between a screen writer penning a movie script and the final film on-screen.
The director must read the script, interpret it, and make it come to life in front of the cameras. In the
realm of film, there is a filming budget heavily reliant on the amount of time it takes to make the film.
Any extra time needed to shoot the film, any significant obstacles, and the filmmakers are at risk of
going over budget, losing studio time, and possibly losing the availability of an actor. Instead, a
director must make sure the shooting process flows seamlessly from shot to shot, set to set, and
scene to scene. This is not unlike a coach taking the written training program and perfectly
implementing it into an actual session that flows seamlessly. In order to effectively manage a
session, one should consider how much time is being allotted, the number of athletes, what
equipment is available, athlete limitations, appropriate alternatives and more.
Planning Ahead
The fastest way to a session that goes off “without a hitch” is to be prepared. The written workout is
only part of the preparation. What good is a written program if a coach shows up to coach a session
that consists of a 1RM Back Squat and another group of athletes is using all of the squat racks? Below
are some simple guidelines for planning for an upcoming session.

Know What Area of the Facility is Needed
A coach should have an idea of what parts of their workout space they will need for each component
of the session. The coach should then check with any other coach that may be scheduled during the
same time block to see what areas of the facility they will need for their session. Once the coach
knows what space is available for their athletes to complete the work, he or she should plan out how
the athletes will transition from station to station throughout the entire session. Nothing should be
left up to chance or the coach can get caught having nowhere to put his or her athletes and in turn,
look unorganized.
Know What Equipment is Needed
Coaches should also determine what equipment they will need, and which pieces of equipment need
to be set up prior to the start of the session. Cones, hurdles, testing equipment, sleds, and bars are all
pieces of equipment that may be stored away when not in use, so it is advisable to get the equipment
out and set up before the session begins.
Know How to Pair Each Exercise
It would be nice if every coach was able to work in an empty facility with unlimited space, and full
access to all equipment. This is rarely ever the case, so part of planning ahead means knowing what
exercises to pair together to make the best use of space and equipment. For example, if a facility has
limited barbells or power racks, two barbell movements in the same superset may not be practical.
To get around this, a coach should pair a barbell movement with a dumbbell movement. Other ways
of pairing that makes great use of space and equipment limitations is putting a lower body exercise
with an upper body exercise or using some form of complex training. These pairings are discussed in
greater detail in the section on session design because the pairings provide other added benefits
beyond just good logistics.
Time Management
Sessions are typically broken up into three to four components:
1. Introduction
2. Warmup

3. Main Body
4. Cooldown
To manage time efficiently, a coach should know how long each component should last, based on the
total length of the session and the training objectives of the workout. When calculating appropriate
time segments for each component of the session, remember that transition time between exercises
or different parts of the facility count. If a speed workout takes place outside of the facility and is set
to last 30 minutes, and the strength session is inside the facility, lasting 35 minutes, the coach must
account for the time it will take the athletes to get back inside the building and to set up equipment.
Below are some guidelines for keeping a session running on time.
Using a Timer
Instead of the coach trying to keep time in his or her head and constantly watching the clock, a timer
can be set to each session component’s appropriate length. This allows the athletes know how long
each segment is and letting them to the timer can help the athlete to be more aware of his or her
own time management.
Pre-briefing Athletes
It is up to the coach how much of the training plan he or she wants the athlete to know. Some
coaches prefer to give the athlete several weeks’ worth of the program ahead of time, while others
prefer to only give the athlete the current session. In any case, during the session it is beneficial to let
the athletes know how the session should flow so everyone is on the same page, there are no
surprises, and transitions are quick and smooth.
Call Sets and Reps
With large and small groups alike, in order to control the flow of a session, Athletic Lab requires all
coaches to call the sets and sometimes, the reps of the session. This means the coach must verbally
orchestrate the session by telling the athletes when to complete sets and when to rest. No athlete
should be working or resting out of sync with the rest of the group. This ensures all athletes are
working through the session at an organized pace and receiving appropriate rest periods. All athletes
should begin and end the session at the same time.

Appropriate Use of Rest
A great way to cut down on transition time is to set up for future exercises or work stations during
the rest time of present sets of an exercise. For example, knowing there will be a transition from
power clean to back squat, the athlete should use his or her rest time between power cleans to have
the squat rack set up for the back squats to follow. After the last set of power cleans, all the athlete
has to do is get the bar onto the squat rack and little time is wasted.
Creating an Atmosphere of Urgency
Athletes should have a sense of urgency when moving between exercises, loading or unloading a
barbell, or setting up a new exercise. However, do not let urgency turn to carelessness. Coaches
should keep the safety of their athletes at the top of the priority list. Sacrificing proper rest times, and
/ or quality of movement to keep a session running on time is never appropriate.
Handling Non-Homogenous Groups

While it is not uncommon for a coach to work with athletes from a variety of sports, more often than
not, these athletes are grouped by specific sport, age, and / or gender. This is especially true in school
sports, and, generally speaking, the same holds true in the private sector. However, it is critical that
coaches are able to deal with non-homogenous groups, such as athletes of different sports, gender,
age, experience level, culture, or ability.
Age Differences
As discussed in the section on demographic considerations, age can pose a number of different
obstacles for a coach. Outside of the obvious connection between age and physical development, an
athlete’s maturity can also have a large impact on session management. Maturity, in this sense, is
how appropriately an athlete responds to the training environment. An immature athlete can
interfere with crucial time management, as well act as a distraction to the coach and other athletes
present in the session. This will ultimately lead to an unwanted culture, a decrease in session quality,
and put the entire group of athletes at risk of poor performance, or worse, risk of injury. The issue of
maturity is mostly associated with younger athletes but can also be seen in adult populations as well.
There should be no tolerance for disruptive athletes in a session. Disruptive athletes should be

engaged in an appropriate manner, so that athlete may hopefully grow from the experience, thus
creating buy-in for that athlete.
Gender
As discussed in the section on demographics, there isn’t a significant difference in training between
men and women. In the context of session management, there should be little to no noticeable effect.
That being said, workouts will probably need to be scaled appropriately. A workout containing
prescribed loads should be adjusted so that the load is lighter for a woman. However, this is more of
an issue of general size, strength, and training experience. It would not be uncommon for men with
less experience and / or strength to require a lighter prescribed load. It is for this reason that a coach
must understand that every athlete should be treated equally. Regardless of gender, know which
athletes need a push, and which need to scale down appropriately.
Injuries
One of the most challenging categories of athlete, that can exist within a non-homogenous group, is
the athlete who has an injury. Non-injured athletes can almost always do close to the same workout,
but injured athletes may require additional modifications that can interfere with the flow of the
session. There are several different types of injuries an athlete may have. Acute injuries such as
sprains, strains, or in some cases tightness and / or extreme soreness may require alternate
exercises that temporarily deviate from the training plan, but don’t disrupt the athlete’s training to a
great extent. Depending on the timeline of recovery, previous surgeries can be treated similar to
acute injuries. However, surgeries with long recovery times are going to affect the overall plan to a
greater capacity, similar to chronic pains that are long-lasting and persistent over time, can require
greater interventions. While most of the previously discussed categories can all participate in a
workout “as written” in some capacity, an athlete with an injury may need more significant changes
made to the workout. In other words, if chosen correctly, most exercises can be progressed or
regressed depending on the training age of the athlete, but an injured athlete may require a
completely different exercise altogether. In many cases, this alternative exercise might be brand new
to the injured athlete, requiring a teaching progression that can potentially distract the coach from
the rest of the group. A coach must develop his or her own methods of managing this type of
scenario.

The more debilitating injuries will be hard for an athlete to hide, but chronic pains are sometimes not
communicated to the coach by the athlete. There are a number of reasons an athlete might not tell
the coach of an injury, including embarrassment, fear of feeling left out of the group if the prescribed
exercise has to be changed, competitiveness, or even a mislead attitude that he or she must push
through pain. It is critical to the safety of the athlete that the coach seeks a necessary level of
transparency from the athlete, which can only be achieved by building trust.
Training History
Training history or training age, which is different than biological and chronological age, is the
collective time an athlete has spent training. It is another important consideration when managing a
group of athletes. It must be understood, however, that an athlete who has played his or her sport for
many years but has never had structured training such as weight lifting, speed training, or plyometric
training, has a training age of zero. For simplicity, an athlete’s training age can be broken into four
different categories:
Complete Novice
The complete novice are generally young athletes getting exposed to structured training for the first
time. Alternatively, this can also be an adult who has been sedentary most of his or her life and is
looking to start a workout routine. While these two examples may be in very different stages of
biological developmental, often times the same techniques for introducing training can be applied.
Some Familiarity with Training
Just as the complete novice, those who have some familiarity with training can be both young
athletes who have been training for a short while, or adults who might attend a gym but haven’t
received a lot of guidance. These are typically “do it yourself” types who are still somewhat “green”
when introduced to structured training.
Detrained and Untrained Individuals
This category will rarely apply to youth populations, unless they started training at a very young age
and took time off. Conversely, this category is for adults who may have been former high school or
college athletes, undergone structured training at one point in their life, but have not been active in
several months or years. Transitioning these athletes from a sedentary state back to being active

should not be rushed, but in most cases should be smooth and they can be treated very similarly to
those with a higher training age.
Very Experienced
While the very experienced population may be the most difficult to coach, these athletes are by far
the easiest group to manage and will be the least disruptive to the rest of the group. With little
teaching left to devote time to, these athletes have a high level of autonomy and free the attention of
the coach to be directed towards the other categories that require more teaching. While it appears
having highly experienced athletes in the same group as less experienced athletes can be a significant
challenge to the coach, this is not necessarily true. Experienced athletes can help guide the lesser
experienced athletes through the workout, which can help relieve the coach of some of the trials that
come with disparities in training age.
Regardless of training age, it is quite possible for an athlete to have the natural ability to pick up new
skills introduced in training. It is not uncommon to see two athletes with the same training age of
zero progress at very different speeds. This idea is not limited to complete novices. At every level of
training, in all training populations and demographics, large differences in natural talent exist. It is for
this reason that a coach must be able to recognize which athletes can be pushed and when. Likewise,
it is equally important for a coach to recognize which athletes need to scale back the workout and
progress at a slower pace. This may sometimes pose a problem of one athlete feeling discouraged
and wanting to keep up with the others who are advancing at a faster rate. This is one of the many
reasons why it is critical that a coach develops a high level of buy-in and trust with the athlete. A
coach must make the athlete feel content with making slower progress than those around him or
her.
Large Group Considerations
Large groups of athletes can provide an intimidating set of challenges ranging from having proper
authority over the group to spatial, equipment and safety concerns. An ideal athlete to coach ratio of
no more than 12:1 is a crucial first step to keeping the session running smoothly, efficiently, and safe.
More than 12 athletes in a session requires an additional coach on hand. In some cases, this can be as
easy as assigning a qualified intern to assist, but a second staffed coach is preferred when possible. In
rare cases when groups are larger than the ideal athlete to coach ratio, and there are no additional

coaches on hand, there are a number of things a coach can do. While reading the following, keep in
mind that all of these categories are just as important within the ideal athlete to coach ratio.
Vocalize
Right from the beginning of the session, the coach should make his or her presence known by
communicating with the large group. The athletes should know who the coach is, and what the
objectives of the session are. This will not only make the athletes more comfortable, it will
immediately set a tone that the session is under control and well managed. At no point should there
be a feeling of confusion or doubt in the athlete’s mind.
Command Authority
It’s not enough for a coach to simply make their presence known and explain the training objectives. It
is critical that a coach be assertive, audible, and clearly in control of the group. If there does happen to
be a second coach or intern on hand, it is equally important that the lead coach introduce the second
coach or intern and establish the same level of authority. The worst scenario for a coach is to lose
control of the group, which can result in poor session flow and possible injuries.
Assistance
Coaches are human. It is possible to be assertive, command authority, yet show the right amount of
vulnerability so the athletes are aware of the effort it takes on both sides. The coach should be up
front with the group, letting them know what is expected and how they can help make the session
work well. Asking for help shows that just because a coach is in charge of the group, there is an equal
and opposite level of trust with the athlete. An athlete who feels trusted and involved in the training
process will be more likely to follow direction.
Splitting Groups
Splitting a large group into smaller groups is critical for managing a large group and it improves
overall session flow. If two exercises are done in a superset, the coach has half of the group do one
exercise and the other half do the other exercise. After completion of one set of the first exercise, the
groups switch places, so each athlete has performed the first set of both exercises. This process is
repeated for the remainder of the sets. More than two exercises, such as a tri-set or circuit can be

done in the same way by splitting the group into “stations.” The athletes should do a set, rotate to the
next station until one set of each exercise has been completed, and then repeat. It is relevant to
mention that even if the exercises are not meant to be performed as a superset, it is still best
practices to split the group up into stations. The groups can perform all sets of the exercise and then
rotate to the next.
Distributing Attention
Some exercises pose more of a risk of injury than others and require greater attention from the
coach. It would be irresponsible of a coach to try and monitor the entire group at the same time.
Instead, the coach should watch a small number of athletes perform the set, provide feedback, and
then watch another small number of athletes perform the set. How many athletes a coach can watch
at one time will depend largely on the coach’s experience and visibility. It is recommended that a
coach only watch 2-3 athletes at a time, and in rare cases, no more than five. Exercises that pose less
of a risk of injury can be performed by the whole group of athletes. For example, a small group of
athletes should be watched when performing a 1RM power clean, compared to the whole group of
athletes performing a biceps curl at the same time.
Teach Spotting Techniques
A great way to alleviate safety concerns of a large group is to teach the athletes proper spotting
techniques. It is hard for a coach to watch one athlete perform an exercise if he or she has to act as
the spotter, let alone act as a spotter while coaching an entire group. It must be said, however, that
sometimes it is best not to trust all athletes to spot one another, such as with a 1RM bench press. If
there is any doubt on the ability of an athlete to act as a spotter, it is better for the coach to have
each athlete perform an exercise one at a time than to risk an athlete getting injured.
Space and Equipment Considerations

Sometimes the ability to manage a large group is dependent on the amount of available space and
equipment at a coach’s disposal. It is always preferred to take space and equipment into consideration
when designing a session, though, often times a coach will be faced with a programmed session and
a facility that is struggling to accommodate. What happens when there is a speed session planned

but nowhere to run? What if there are heavy back squats planned but only four squat racks between
twelve athletes?
Think on Your Feet
The ability to think on your feet is a skill that should come naturally to a great coach. A great coach
doesn’t just have a plan B, but has a plan C, and a plan D. A planned workout that worked well in an
empty gym during one part of a day may not be feasible in a crowded gym at another time of the
day. Modifications may need to be made on the fly. On one hand, it is critical to maintain buy-in with
the athlete and a coach may not want to expose that the plan is changing. The coach must always
seem organized and under control. On the other hand, a little transparency is fine if a coach has built
the aforementioned trust with their athlete.
Safety First
When dealing with tight spaces, safety should be a coach’s first concern. There should be ample
space between athletes and the equipment being used. When one athlete is performing an Olympic
lift in the weight room, for example, athletes waiting their turn should stand at a failure-safe distance.
This means that if the lifting athlete must bail on the lift, the barbell will not come into contact with
any bystanders.
Partner Up
When dealing with limited equipment, athletes may need to share. There are some important factors
to consider when determining which athletes will partner together for an exercise.
In strength exercises that don’t require a rack, such as deadlifts, cleans, snatches, sled pushes,
dumbbell exercises, etc., a coach must only consider the strength disparities between athletes.
Athletes should partner with someone reasonably close in strength levels to limit the amount of
weight that needs to be changed between each athlete’s set. For example, if athlete A deadlifts 200
kg and athlete B deadlifts 100 kg, they would not make good partners because it would take a great
deal of time to switch from 200 kg to 100 kg each set. Alternatively, if athlete C deadlifts 215 kg, he
would pair well with athlete A. The two athletes would only need to change 15 kg each set.
In strength exercises that do require a rack such as barbell squat variations, barbell shoulder press,
barbell bench press variations, etc., strength disparities aren’t the only concern. Height and limb

length disparities will also limit which athletes can partner with one another. If athlete A is 190cm tall,
and athlete C is 172cm tall, even though they can deadlift together it would be unsafe for them to
back squat together. Alternatively, if athlete D is 175 cm tall and of similar strength levels as athlete
C, the two athletes make a good match. It is important to note that in this circumstance, the shorter
athlete will always determine the height that the bar sits on the rack. It is safer for the taller athlete
to have to squat down a little deeper to un-rack the weight than it is for the shorter athlete to have to
come up on to his toes to un-rack the bar.
When multiple athletes are sharing the same equipment, rest time should be managed accordingly.
First, the order of which athlete starts the set should remain the same throughout the workout to
ensure each athlete receives the same rest interval. Second, the specified rest interval should be
started at the completion of the first athlete’s set, not after the second athlete. The second athlete
essentially does his or her set during the partner’s rest time, and vice versa.
In a perfect session, there will be an optimal athlete to coach ratio, plenty of space, and plenty of
equipment to go around. Unless a coach has full control over the layout, budget, and scheduling in his
or her facility, this is almost never the case. Having a strong understanding of how to manage large,
possibly non-homogenous, groups of athletes is necessary for every coach to master.
Best Practices for Managing Sessions

How does a coach deal with such varying degrees of experience levels within a single session? The
key is to establish trust, being strong and consistent in your teaching progressions and managing
time efficiently.
Critical First Sessions
The first session with an athlete is always a challenge, especially in a group of established athletes. It
should be the goal of every coach to keep the new athlete from feeling alienated from the rest of the
group. Starting from the beginning, it is important to set an immediate atmosphere of trust, as first
session “buy-in” is critical to a coach and athlete relationship. This can best be achieved by asking a lot
of questions, showing empathy towards the athlete, and starting to build a rapport. While trust is
certainly built over time, a great first impression with an athlete is the first step toward getting the
new athlete to believe in the coach and the program as well as to integrate within the rest of the
group.

Best Practices
First, be able to administer any teaching progressions from beginning to end, over and over without
any large inconsistencies. Teaching progressions should feel scripted and only deviate in extreme
cases. No matter who receives the coaching, everyone should receive the same teaching progression.
Work and rest can easily be staggered between novices and experienced athletes to allow for
teaching progressions to be carried out, without detracting attention from others. For example, while
experienced athletes complete a prescribed set, the novice athletes should rest. During the
experienced athletes’ rest time, the novice lifters are taught. This method ensures that the overall
workout time stays the same.
The same method can be used when managing injured athletes. Although it is probably best to assign
an intern or second coach to the injured athlete, this luxury of an assistant coach is not always
available. In the case of an injured athlete who requires a significantly modified exercise, it may be
best to stagger their sets, so no attention is split between healthy athletes and the injured.
In any case, non-homogenous groups can and should be trained together. It is critical that the coach
prescribes any modified or scaled exercise appropriately so that the entire group stays together in
the same area of the gym. There should never be an athlete on their own, unsupervised, during a
training session.

Motor Learning & Control
Motor Learning is a field of sports science that investigates the processes and factors involved in
learning skills. In this section, we will investigate motor skills, motor control and look at how we can
use this science to improve the effectiveness of our skill teaching schemes.
Movement Strategies and Motor Control

Many factors come into play when one attempts to perform even the simplest motor task. Before a
movement pattern is initiated and executed, the nature of this movement is decided upon in some
manner. Movement strategy is referred to as the pattern of movement planned to accomplish the
task. Movement organization is the process of the formation of this strategy.
Two Generally Accepted Theories of Movement Organization:
The Generalized Motor Program Theory
In this view of movement organization, a learned skill exists as a motor program that can be called
upon and executed anytime it is needed. The program may be adapted to various situations and
environments to accommodate some changed circumstance, but the basic characteristics of the
program exist regardless of the environment in which the skill is performed.
The Dynamic Systems Theory
In this view of movement organization, when a skill is performed, movement strategies are organized
with respect to many environmental factors. The ability to replicate skills results from repeatedly
organizing movement in similar environmental conditions.
Factors When Movement Patterns are Affected
Cognitive Decision
Volitional thought processes are employed to trigger the use of some generalized motor program or
devise some original plan of action to undertake the task.

Nature of the Task
The demands of the task itself, or the results that characterize success help determine the strategy
employed.
Perception of the Task
The manner perceived to be most appropriate for undertaking the task determines much of the
pattern of movement. However, often the strategy that instinctively seems most appropriate is in fact
a poor one. In these situations, teaching the correct pattern of movement is doomed to failure
because the learner’s perception is faulty.
Reflexive Action
Certain movements or actions may elicit reflexes, which cause other movements to occur. These may
positively or negatively affect performance. Stretch reflexes and some proprioceptive concerns fit
into this category. We must teach movements that elicit the correct reflexive actions.
Injury Prevention Mechanisms
Self-defense and injury prevention reflexes may thwart complete execution of certain movement
strategies or cause the originally planned movement to be modified in some way. We must design
techniques that do not evoke these reflexes. Also, as coaches we must be able to differentiate
between what is actually a dangerous situation and what is unfounded fear that something might be
dangerous.
Prior Motor Experience
Learners have generalized motor programs and patterns of movement already constructed and in
place. The adaptability of these to the task at hand may invoke their usage in movement situations. A
generalized motor program that is in place provides a convenient option when devising a movement
strategy, yet it may or may not be appropriate.
Environmental Factors
Environmental factors have some effect on the pattern of movement chosen. Environmental factors
can include prior positioning of the body, prior movements of the body, perception of prior
movement, and the location of related pertinent objects.

Mechanical Concerns
The laws of physics that govern production and application of force make certain strategies more
efficient and appropriate. Humans may inherently sense these laws and operate accordingly, but
often they must be taught movement strategies that are efficient in this regard.
Anatomical Concerns
The anatomical construction of the human body, specifically the structures responsible for the
production and transmission of force affect the movement strategies we choose. We must beware,
because at time a movement strategy that we deem efficient when considering the laws of pure
physics may be ineffective when the anatomical structure involved is considered. Falling into this
category of concern are unique aspects of muscle architecture and joint structure.
Proprioceptive Concerns
Preferred proprioceptive patterns serve to affect the perception and execution of movement.
Effectiveness or patterns of proprioception may determine the muscle recruitment patterns used in
the movement.
Biomotor Concerns
An individual’s personal set of strengths and weaknesses in the areas of strength, speed,
coordination, flexibility, and endurance help to determine the strategies employed in performing a
task. A body imbalanced in these areas, or whose body parts are imbalanced with respect to each
other will likely reflect these imbalances in some way in the patterns of movement chosen.
Stages of Learning
When a novice undertaking the learning of a skill moves through distinct stages of the learning
process, we can identify the stages of learning that occur in this order:
• Acquisition: This consists of the earliest attempts at the skill, when the learner is basically
becoming familiarized with the movements of the skill.
• Refinement: This stage consists of the time spent after acquiring the ability to perform
the basic movements of the skill, when efficiency and accuracy are greatly improved.

• Stabilization or Diversification: This stage consists of the period of time during which the
learner becomes able to replicate the skill at will, easily and effectively, or becomes able
to adapt the skill into other situations by modifying it to some extent.
Practice Environment
The ability to effectively teach motor skills depends greatly upon the practice environment. Much
thought, planning, and preparation should go into the process of constructing this environment.
Key Considerations for Constructing Practice Environment
Purpose of Practice
The practice environment may be constructed differently depending upon the purpose of each
individual practice. While we often think of the purpose of practice being to teach a skill, there may be
others as well. Game simulation, familiarization with cue systems, rehearsal of meet communication,
and problem solving are all other frequently used practice purposes. The purpose of the practice
greatly dictates the intensity of the practice environment and often the choice of practice activities as
well.
Practice Distribution
Research shows that shorter, more frequent practice periods are more effective than less frequent,
longer practice periods. This lends itself to the philosophy of integration of the biomotor and technical
teaching program. This is because the wide variety of activities in the biomotor development program
offers many opportunities to practice the skill or parts of the skill.
Practice Environment and Stage of Learning
The practice environment should be appropriate to the stage of learning. The intensity of the practice
situation must be low in the initial stages of learning. Also, practicing complex skills in parts is
appropriate in these early stages of learning. As proficiency increases, the practice environment can
become more intense and complex.
Whole vs. Partial Practice
Whole practice is practice where the entire skill is performed in each trial, while partial practice
consists of practicing only some part of a skill with each trial. Research shows that whole practice is

more effective in most learning situations. However, very complex skills, such as many of those we
find in athletic events, are often too complex for the beginner. These skills should be introduced using
part learning, or possibly using a whole-part whole approach. While there are actual athletic coaching
situations where whole, competition specific practice may not be appropriate; we are generally better
off employing larger parts of the movement.
Variety in the Practice Environment
Research shows that variety in the practice environment improves performance in test situations,
even though practice performance may not be improved. This suggests that we employ a variety of
teaching progressions, drills, and activities in practice. We should also employ planned changes in
practice intensities and complexities to create the most effective learning environment and foster the
greatest gains.
Choosing Practice Activities
The exercises and drills used in the practice setting provide a context for teaching necessary skills or
parts of skills. The selection of these activities must be in accordance with all the considerations
above for effective learning to take place.
Intensity of Practice
Practice environments can be constructed that are of low or high intensities. This intensity is
determined by the activities chosen for the practice. The intensity of practice must not only be
appropriate to the stage of learning, but also to the purpose of the practice. Skill acquisition requires a
low intensity environment. Game simulation dictates a high one. Communication and cue rehearsal
can employ either, depending on other variables.
Overload Principle
The Overload Principle states that the body must be stressed to some degree in order to produce
adaptation. Normally, when we consider or discuss the Overload Principle, we are considering a
training stimulus and a resultant increase in fitness.
The Overload Principle can be applied to the learning of a skill as well. Well-planned, progressive
increases in the intensity at which the skill is performed can accelerate the learner through the stages
of learning and make learning more permanent.

Failure to increase the intensity of the practice environment can result in staleness and lack of
progress, due to failure to challenge the organism. At the same time care must be taken not to
increase the intensity of the practice environment too quickly, as this could result in regression.
Generally speaking, it is best practice to increase practice intensities slightly once a certain level of
mastery is gained at the previous intensity level. This level of mastery should be high, but
expectations of 100% mastery before advancing are unreasonable. 100% mastery at a certain level
of intensity is often attainable only after some increase in practice intensity beyond that point.
Communication
Communication skills are a crucial part of teaching skills. The best planned practice experiences may
fail if communication during those sessions is ineffective. Here we will examine these general issues
concerning communication. Specific communication issues will be explained in more detail later.
General Issues Concerning Communication
Quality of Communication
For effective learning to take place, communication must be of high quality. All communication
should be clear, precise, and have meaning to the teacher and learner.
Quantity of Communication
For effective learning to take place, the quantity of communication should be limited. A person is only
able to grasp a certain amount of information at a time and is able to apply only a certain amount on
each trial.
Verbal Communication
This is communication using spoken words. While only one of many forms of communication, it is
generally the form most frequently used and misused.
Nonverbal Communication
This is communication using other means besides the spoken word. Demonstrations, signs, gestures,
and even body language fall into this category.

Coach to Athlete Communication
A coach’s ability to effectively communicate ideas and concepts to a learner is a crucial skill. Good
communication can take many forms, and a skilled coach should be adept at these frequently used
ones.
Frequently used Forms of Communication
Verbal explanations are oral verbiage used to convey some type of concept to the learner. This
concept is usually a movement concept, or some background information a coach must relay to the
learner to place a movement concept in the correct context. Verbal explanations should be clear and
concise. They should also be meaningful to the learner while using terms and concepts the learner is
familiar with. They should also be somewhat limited in quantity, since only a limited amount of
information can be processed at one time.
Verbal directions a coach gives an athlete to elicit a certain predicted motor response are called cues.
A group of related cues, used with and within a context of understood terminology, used to adjust the
technical models called a cue system. Like verbal explanations, cues should be clear, concise, and use
limited information.
Demonstrations are when the coach or someone else physically performs a skill for the learner to
watch. This enables the learner to ascertain information about the motor pattern and assists in
movement organization. Effective teaching programs use demonstrations frequently. It should also
be noted that demonstrations, to be effective, must be accurate.
Augmented feedback is communication directed from the coach to the learner after a trial, relaying
information on the performance to assist the learner in perfecting the skill. Augmented feedback may
be verbal in nature, and in these cases is often related to some cue system. Augmented feedback can
also take the form of a demonstration, technological forms such as film, or any combination of the
above. We will examine in detail the process of providing augmented feedback in a later section.
Athlete to Coach Communication
Communication from athlete to coach is a crucial part of the communication process and a needed
part of an effective learning environment. An athlete who is skilled at communication can greatly
accelerate learning and help the coach avoid many hours of misunderstanding. While a coach may

not be fortunate enough to be working with an athlete who is a good communicator, it is part of the
teaching process to assist the athlete to communicate information the coach needs.
Fostering Athlete to Coach Communication
The coach should, within reason, convey openness to the athlete, creating a learning environment in
which the athlete is comfortable conveying information to the coach, and is assured it is being valued
and considered.
Sensation athletes perceive and experience during performance, while not always accurate, can offer
very important clues to a problem-solving coach. The coach should create a learning environment
where, within reason, this type of information is solicited and valued.
The coach should be skilled at asking direct, clear questions to ascertain needed information from the
learner, and to assist the athlete in communication.
Guidelines for Feedback
Augmented feedback can be classified in several ways. Below, we will examine several classifications
and how teaching is affected as we consider each. Keep in mind that these classifications are not
necessarily all exclusive of each other.
Classifications of Augmented Feedback
Knowledge of Performance
This is augmented feedback that consists of information the learner receives concerning the
correctness of incorrectness of the movement pattern itself. Most coach issued augmented feedback
falls into this category, and most research shows this type to be most frequently used and most
effective form of feedback. The skilled coach should be familiar with athlete’s perceptions, as these
perceptions may at times conflict with the knowledge of performance feedback issued by the coach.
Knowledge of Results
This is augmented feedback that consists of information the learner receives concerning the
measurement of the performance’s success. This type of feedback sometimes must be provided to
the learner, but is often immediately available due to the nature of the skill.

Qualitative Feedback
Qualitative feedback is augmented feedback that has no value attached to it. Instructions are simply
given or corrections are made, and no effort is made to convey to the athlete the degree of change
needed or the location of that particular performance on a spectrum of many.
Quantitative Feedback
Quantitative feedback is augmented feedback that has a value associated with it. Not only is
information provided as to the quality of movement, but also the degree of change performed or
needed.
Providing Augmented Feedback
Demonstrations
Demonstrations are when the coach or someone else physically performs a skill for the learner to
watch. This enables the learner to ascertain information about the motor pattern and assists in
movement organization. Augmented feedback demonstrations may exhibit mistakes, correct
movements, or both in a contrasting manner.
Verbiage
Verbiage consists of orally presented feedback, usually in the form of a cue or explanation.
Video
Augmented feedback can be provided via video, in order to present a clear picture of the athlete’s
movements or the movements of some selected model.
Frequency of Feedback Issuance
Another key issue in providing feedback is how often feedback should be provided. Frequent feedback
is helpful, especially in the earliest stages of learning. However, research shows that ideally the
number of trials performed should always exceed the number of trials after which feedback is given.
Feedback can be addictive, and this case can disrupt intrinsic feedback mechanisms and hinder
learning.

Fading
This is a strategy in which feedback is issued after every trial in the earliest stages of learning, but the
amount of trials after which feedback is not provided is gradually increased over time.
Self-Selected
In this strategy, the learner solicits feedback from the coach when wanted.
Bandwidth
In this strategy, the coach provides no feedback as long as performance is within preset, acceptable
limits. When performance falls below these standards, corrective feedback is provided.
Summary
This is a strategy in which multiple trials are performed without feedback. After this set of trials, the
feedback on the entire set of trials is issued. Focus can be on characteristics of individual trials, or
trends that develop over the course of the trials.
Typical Problems
Despite good planning, all coaches undoubtedly run into problems in the teaching of skills.
Early Stage Failure to Progress
Failure to progress in the early stages of learning of a skill is often due to a poorly constructed
practice atmosphere. Usually, the skill is too complex for the learner, and teaching should be
approached from a more remedial approach. Poor basic coordination capabilities of the learner can
be another cause.
Practice Regression
Regression in practice performance usually results when the demands of practice (intensity or
complexity) are increased too quickly. Another cause of practice regression can be failure to increase
these variables, thus failing to provide any challenge in the practice environment.

Competition Regression
Competition regression generally occurs when new learned motor patterns are not stable enough to
withstand the pressures of competition. More rehearsal and / or adequate meet simulation are
needed in this case.
The Choking Phenomenon
“Choking” in competition is not a purely psychological response. Pressures of competition and the
resulting psychological strain on the performer is indeed the root of the problem, but there is more
to it than that. Normally, this strain results in some particular breakdown in motor performance.
Eliminating the choking phenomenon requires identifying the technical flaw associated with it, and
helping the athlete to develop an understanding of and technical solution for the problem.

Fundamentals of Session Design
The training session is the shortest component of the overall training plan and it is composed of
several training units in a sequence targeting a daily goal. The length of the session can vary based on
the level of training experience of the athlete, the time of year relative to the overall training plan, and
time constraints. On average, sessions will last approximately two hours. However, it is not at all
uncommon for sessions to be as short as 30 minutes, or as long as five hours. Furthermore, for
advanced athletes, multiple sessions can be planned within one day.
A well-designed session is essential to the success of the overall training plan. Each individual session
is an opportunity for the coach to impose the proper acute stimuli necessary to achieve the long-
term adaptations that develop the desired performance increases. To successfully design a training
session, a coach must first have a comprehensive understanding of the following:
• What training elements can be paired together
• What order to place each element in the session
• Planning around time, space, and equipment constraints
• The overall components that make up a session
• How to develop a session template based on a Best Practices Model
At the end of this section, the coach will have gained the knowledge of the fundamentals of session
design.
Appropriate Session Pairings
Biomotor Abilities
Recall the five biomotor abilities that an athlete needs to develop in order to improve his or her
athletic performance in a particular sport: speed, strength, endurance, flexibility, and coordination.
These five capacities should be trained on any given day in some fashion. However, it is not sensible
to train each capacity at a high level every session. Every sport has a biomotor ability that
overshadows the rest, and this should be emphasized in training accordingly.

Striking a balance between the biomotor abilities being trained and how each compliment the other is
imperative to achieving an adaptive effect. Table 1 lists appropriate session pairings separated by two
types of sessions: high intensity sessions and low intensity sessions. Note that each biomotor ability is
represented, and how they are addressed based on the intended intensity. For example, speed and
max strength can be paired together on high intensity days, but endurance must be addressed
indirectly because it has a detrimental effect on speed and power development. Likewise, when
pairing speed, strength and endurance on low intensity days, strength protocols utilize much lighter
loads, and speed must be indirectly addressed to account for the emphasis on endurance.
Some biomotor abilities are compatible with each other. For instance, (maximal) strength and speed
pair well because of their similar neuromuscular demand. Similarly, activities like static flexibility
training and aerobic training pair together because well because of their low neuromuscular demand.
Likewise, certain training elements work well together while others may conflict. Whenever possible,
attempt to pair compatible biomotor abilities and complementary training elements to ensure the
strongest stimulus for adaptation.
High Intensity Days Low Intensity Days
Coordination / Skill:
Coordination / Skill:
Sprint Drills
Sprint Drills
Hurdle Mobility
Dynamic Hurdle Mobility
Technical Training
Technical Training
**more static in nature and emphasizing balance
Flexibility: Flexibility:
Dynamic Stretching (not Static) Static, PNF, or Assisted
Strength:
Strength:
Weight Lifting Circuits
Maximal Loads
Medicine Ball Circuits
Olympic Lifts (emphasizing speed of movement)
General Strength Circuits
Speed:
Acceleration Development Speed:
Maximum Velocity Indirectly addressed
Speed Endurance
Endurance:
Endurance:
Tempo Runs
Addressed indirectly or through Speed Endurance
General Strength Circuits
work
Medicine Ball Circuits
Table 1: Appropriate biomotor pairings for high and low intensity sessions

Keep in mind that “on paper,” the above pairings are easily separated into high versus low intensities.
A coach must understand what actually determines the overall session intensity, therefore
influencing the appropriate pairings for a session. This is going to largely come down to work to rest
ratios, volumes, and intensity of the exercise. Speed is an excellent example of how this works. Table
2 shows the same “speed” session, presented with two different volumes and rest times.
Session A Session B
10 x 10m Sprint (60” between sprints) 20 x 10m Sprint (20” between sprints)
Rest 3 min Rest 1 min
6 x 15m Sprint (90” between sprints) 15 x 15m Sprint (30” between sprints)
Rest 5 min Rest 1 min
5 x 20m (2 min between sprints) 12 x 20m (45” between sprints)
Total volume = 290m Total volume = 665m

Total Time to Complete = ~38 min Total Time to Complete = ~25 min
Table 2: Sessions presented with different volumes and rest intervals
In this example, only Session A can be categorized as speed work. The total sprint volume in Session
A falls within the appropriate range (refer to the Speed, Power & COD section), and the rest times
allow for proper recovery between sprints to maximize quality and keep sprint velocities high.
Looking at Session B, the volume is more than double that of Session A, and the incomplete rest
would make it impossible to keep velocities high enough to act as a speed stimulus. Therefore,
Session A could easily be paired with power and max strength on a high intensity day, but Session B
would be better paired on a lower intensity day that emphasizes conditioning.
There are two key elements of session design. The first of these is pairing training elements that are
compatible. The second key element is understanding how to manipulate work to rest ratios,
volumes, and intensities to create the proper stimuli. Another important consideration is arranging
the components of a session to ensure the desired outcome.
Effective Ordering of Training

Regardless of the specific sport or biomotor abilities being emphasized in a session, the order in
which each of the physical abilities appear in a session must be defined and followed with little
exception. Table 3 shows the appropriate order of operations for a training session along with
examples of each.

Physical Qualities Examples
Sprint Development Drills

1. Technique Change of Direction / Agility Drills done with submaximal effort
Low intensity plyometric
2. Speed Acceleration Development

Emphasis on quality over Max Velocity Development
quantity Speed Endurance
3. Power Plyometric
Loads moved at high rates Multi-Jumps / Throws
of speed Olympic Weightlifting Variations
Maximal Strength Development

4. Strength Eccentric, Isometric, and Concentric Strength
Hypertrophy
General Strength
Muscular Endurance
5. Conditioning:
General Strength
Energy system
Work Capacity
development
Aerobic Endurance
Table 3: Appropriate order of operations for a training session, with examples
Note the progression from less fatiguing, more intense exercises to exercises that are lower intensity
but introduce much more fatigue. Technique work is in the beginning of the session when an athlete
is the freshest, because fatigue can interfere considerably with an athlete’s ability to learn new motor
skills. Because speed and power development require high quality, highly intense training with little
accumulation of fatigue, these are placed towards the beginning of the session. Strength will always
precede endurance and will more often than not follow speed and power exercises. In some cases,
heavy strength exercises, such as a squat, can be placed before speed activities to achieve a post-
activation potentiation effect. Post-activation potentiation is a neuromuscular phenomenon where the
contractile history of a muscle will influence the mechanical performance in subsequent muscular
contractions. For example, performing heavily loaded slower movements prior to faster movements
may actually improve the performance in the faster movement. At the bottom of the list, endurance
activities are placed with the understanding that they are the most fatigue-inducing.
It is also important to note that not all of these elements need to be trained in the same session. In
fact, in most cases, it is best to avoid training all of these in one session. Likewise, within a session,
manipulating the volumes of each training component is important to reach the appropriate total
session load, as indicated in the overall training plan. For example, if the time of year calls for an

emphasis on developing max strength, a higher volume of strength work within a session is
necessary. However, this means that the volumes of speed and / or power work should be pulled
back to accommodate.
Planning a Session
There are a number of logistical considerations when planning a training session. The first thing that
must be considered is how many days per week are needed to train versus how many days per week
are available to train. This is crucial to designing a session because the number of available days will
have the greatest impact on what training elements can be addressed on a particular day. The more
available days, the easier it is to separate training elements appropriately. Less available days means
having to squeeze more work into each session, and in extreme cases, some training elements will
have to be omitted from the program.
Once the number of training sessions per week has been determined, how much time needed to train
per session versus how much time available to train must be considered. Again, this is important to
determining what training elements can be trained within a session and which may need to be
omitted. Looking back at the previous example in Table 2, notice the total time to complete Session A.
Assuming there are only 40 minutes of available training time, Session A would not be possible as
written. While it does fall within 40 minutes, there is no time allotted for a warmup that would
prepare the athlete for the high intensities of the session. Without a proper warmup the athlete
would also be put at an extreme risk of injury. There are two options in this scenario: 1) decrease
sprint volumes enough to get in a proper warmup or 2) shift the workout to something else entirely
that still meets the needs of the athlete.
Finally, after the length of the session is taken into account, and what training components are to be
included, the next logistical consideration is what equipment is available. While sometimes different
forms of equipment can be used to train the same physical qualities, a coach may have to make large
changes to the plan when equipment is limited. For instance, if back squats and power cleans are core
movements in a coach’s philosophy, but the facility is not equipped with a barbell, it will be impossible
for an athlete to perform either of those lifts. The coach must adapt the program to still target lower
body strength and power, albeit by other means and methods. These limitations are not exclusive to
weight room activities. A coach looking to improve an athlete’s maximum velocity sprinting may only
have 40 meters of usable space. He or she must then find other ways to develop the maximum

velocity of an athlete. As with time constraints, the worst-case scenario related to equipment
constraints could also result in omission of certain training elements.
Which training elements are omitted will often depend on a few different factors. Refer back to
conducting a needs analysis and determining the specific needs of the athlete. Even though all
athletes should aim to improve all physical abilities, athletes require a greater emphasis on some
abilities over others. An athlete who is already squatting double bodyweight, but shows weakness in
speed, should place a greater emphasis on speed. Another factor to consider is what activities an
athlete participates in outside of training. For instance, if a high school athlete has sport practice
several days a week that include a lot of running with little speed or strength training included,
omitting a conditioning component from a session is appropriate. Use this information to determine
which training elements can be left out of a session if absolutely necessary but remember that
omitting a training element completely can cause a decrease in performance. Going back to the
example of the double bodyweight squatter, leaving out lower body strength entirely from this
athlete’s training for too long will eventually result in a decrease in his or her squat 1RM.
At this point, with logistics already considered, the appropriate emphasis with respect to the athlete’s
needs, and an understanding of the compatibility of training elements, the coach can now organize
the session into different components.
Components of a Training Session
A training session should be broken down into three or four main sections, each containing smaller
training units, or exercises. The order in which these units are laid out are important to ensuring that
each biomotor ability is trained in a complementary fashion, balanced, and with no single ability
interfering with another. The three main sections of a session are the warmup, main body, and
cooldown. Depending on the time of year and the training age of the athlete, a fourth section, The
Introduction, can be added to the beginning of the session.
Introduction
In the introduction, a coach should use this time to prepare his or her athletes for the upcoming
session. This time can be used taking attendance, distributing workout cards, administering readiness
surveys or tests, or explaining the objectives of the session. A coach may also use this time to
mentally prepare the athletes, making sure they are motivated and focused. The length of the

introduction section is dependent on the amount of information a coach has to cover, as well as the
training level of an athlete. Novice athletes will usually require a longer introduction than their more
experienced training partners.
Warmup
Traditional vs. Dynamic Warmups
Traditional warmups consist of 4-5 minutes of jogging and another 10-15 minutes of static stretching.
This type of warmup is good for increasing the body’s core temperature but does very little to
prepare the athlete for the proceeding main body of the session. Just as training plan needs to have
specificity with regard to the athlete’s sport, the warmup should also be specific to the individual
training session. Due to a heavy reliance on static stretching and lack of specificity, traditional
warmups should largely be seen as a thing of the past.
Compared to the traditional warmup, dynamic warmups are preferred because they place the athlete
in a state of constant or intermittent motion to elicit the thermal, neuromuscular and metabolic
changes that are critical to being prepared for the demands of the session ahead.
Guidelines for a Better Warmup Protocol
Warmups should start general and over the course of time, move to being more specific, allowing for
a seamless transition into the main body of the workout. Table 4 gives an outline for an effective
warmup protocol, with some examples. While reviewing the chart, note the biomotor abilities that will
already be addressed within the warmup before the main body of the workout begins.
Warmup Component Example Exercises / Drills
Jogging Pick-up run

Skipping Weave Jog
Jumping Jacks Alt. Gallop
1. General Temperature Elevation
Running in Place Backwards run
Biking Skip Lunge
Rowing Skip w/ Arm Circle
Dynamic: Static:
2. Flexibility / Mobility Leg Swings Chest Hang
Usually dynamic but can be static on low Walking Knee Grab Pigeon
intensity days Trunk Twist Butterfly Sit
Frankenstein Walk PNF

Specific Mobility:
Hurdle Mobility
Nervous System Primer
3. Specific Warmup Sprint Drills
Sprint-offs
Depends on the first part of the main body of the Barbell Warmups
Build-ups
workout
Light plyometric
Prescriptive:
Pre-Habilitation Work
Table 4: An outline for an effective warmup protocol, with examples
Warmup protocols should not be arbitrary, but they should rather prepare the athlete for what is to
come in the main body of the session. The above example can be manipulated in several ways to
address specificity. For example, in the specific portion of a speed-power session, sprint drills, build-
ups and/or light plyometric are appropriate. Conversely, these elements may not be specific if the
main body of the session has a maximum strength focus, such as heavy squats. In this case, a barbell
warmup is a more appropriate transition into the main body. However, sprint drills, or light plyometric
can be included in the beginning of the warmup for general temperature elevation. With this idea in
mind, the athlete can continue to address those skills even if the session calls for a different
emphasis.
Main Body
The main body of the session is where the bulk of the emphasized training objectives take place.
Depending on the set up of the overall training plan, sessions may need to include more than one
theme. If this is the case, following the appropriate order of operations outlined above is critical,
provided the coach uses the appropriate biomotor pairings. Conversely, if the training plan can be
broken up into more sessions during the week, there is less of a need to address several themes in
one session. Sessions can then be more specific to individual themes. Understanding the components
that target each specific theme is important to designing an efficient session and it is possible that no
extra work is needed. As an example, the difference between a session that exclusively targets speed
versus a session that exclusively targets strength is outlined in Table 5.
Speed Session Strength Session
Longer Warmup Shorter Warmup

More technical Work More time for prehab / corrective exercises
Room for supplemental exercises More time for accessory exercises
-bounding -single joint movements
-plyometric -core / stability
Table 5: The difference between speed and strength themed sessions

Keep in mind, there should never be anything in a session that does not serve a direct purpose
aligned with the program objectives. Be careful not to add extra work just to fill time. Alternatively,
there may be situations where time is constrained, and multiple training elements must be addressed
in a session. Below are a handful of ways to make the best use of limited time. While these protocols
are being presented as ways to efficiently manage time, there are other added benefits that can be
addressed in more depth at a later time.
Supersets, Tri-sets, Giant sets, and Circuits
Supersets are most commonly associated with traditional bodybuilding type training and consist of
alternating two different exercises with little or no rest in between. For example, take a program that
calls for four sets of biceps curls and four sets of triceps extensions. Traditionally all four sets of
biceps curls would be completed first, and then all four sets of triceps extensions would be
completed. In a superset, the first set of biceps curls would be completed, followed by the first set of
triceps extensions, followed by the second set of biceps curls, followed by the second set of triceps
extensions and so on until all sets are completed. If the rest time between each is one minute — in the
traditional method, it would take at least eight minutes for all sets to be completed (not including
time it takes to complete the actual set). In a superset, the minute rest would start after the first set
of biceps curls with the first set of triceps curls taking place within that rest period. Effectively, this
will greatly cut down on the overall time to complete all sets. Tri-sets and giant sets work exactly the
same way as supersets, but consist of alternating three exercises, and four or more exercises,
respectively. Circuits make use of several different exercises targeting the entire body, and are
usually reserved for general strength development, not max strength. This is due to the long length
of work without rest which limits the loads being used, ultimately resulting in overall lower
intensities.
Contrast Sprints
Contrast sprints pair a resisted sprint such a hill, light sled, or harness resisted sprint together with a
pure sprint. When putting these sprints together in a session, it is important to keep the total
combined volume within sprint training guidelines, not each variation separately.
Complex Training
Complex training combines a heavy exercise with a significantly lighter, and faster movement that
utilizes a similar movement pattern. For example, a heavy back squat would be paired with a body

weight squat jump. This is a great way to incorporate both strength and power development into a
session while taking up much less time than training both elements separately.
Contrast Training
Contrast training is similar to complex training but pairs a heavy exercise with the same exercise just
at a lighter load. For example, a heavy set of back squats would be followed by multiple sets of back
squats at a lighter percentage, also known as a drop set.
French Contrast Training
French contrast training is essentially a combination of complex and contrast training and is most
appropriate for advanced athletes. This method goes from a heavily loaded lift, to a light and fast lift
such as a plyometric, to a loaded plyometric, ending with an assisted lift. For example, an athlete
would start with a heavy back squat, followed by a squat jump, followed by a weighted squat jump,
followed by a band assisted squat jump.
Weight Room Pairings
When planning to use supersets, tri-sets, giant sets, or circuits within a session, it is important to
understand what exercises pair well with others. Common pairings include the following:
• Push / Pull - Upper body exercises involving mostly shoulders, triceps, and chest are
classified as push movements, while exercises involving mostly the back and biceps are
classified as pull movements. The opposite nature of these movements makes them
great pairings, allowing several muscle groups to be trained in a short period of time.
Note that push / pull pairings can be applied to the lower body as well.
• Upper / Lower - Pairing an upper body exercise such as a bench press with a lower body
exercise such as a front squat works well because the upper body can (for the most part)
rest while the lower body works, and vice versa.
• Bilateral / Unilateral - Pairing a movement using one side of the body with a movement
that uses both sides of the body is another good use of time. It would be even more
efficient to combine a bilateral upper body exercise with a unilateral lower body exercise.
• Multi-joint / Single Joint - A multi-joint exercise such as a back squat can pair nicely with a
single joint movement such as a leg extension to increase the volume of lower body
work without extending the length of the session.

It is relevant to add that when pairing training using the above protocols — rest intervals, volume, and
intensities still play a critical role in the resulting training stimulus. For example, trying to cram too
much work into one session, with little rest and therefore decreased intensities, is not conducive to
speed, power, or max strength adaptations.
Cooldown
The cooldown period comes at the end of a session and is the first step in the recovery process. Its
main purpose is to bring the body back into homeostasis and how this is achieved depends largely on
what took place in the session, as well as the structure of the cooldown. When possible, the cooldown
should start with some form of active recovery that may resemble the prior activity, albeit at a much
lower intensity. This should be followed by a period of stretching. Because static stretching is not
recommended in the warmup due to its possible adverse effects on strength and speed-power
performance, the cooldown period is a perfect time to include it. Placing static stretching after the
workout can also elicit significant improvements in flexibility, due to the raised muscle temperatures
from the previous work in the main body of the session.
Best Practices
For any given set of circumstances presented when designing a session, a best practices approach
should be followed. The Best Practices Model should be a system that is accepted as the most
effective means and methods of training. A Best Practices Model should not be “one and done.” It
should be research-based, field-proven, and therefore subject to change as more effective ways of
training are discovered. With such a model in place, a coach can appropriately design a session
whether or not it is part of a long-term training plan.
There are two common scenarios a coach will inevitably face at some point — a one-off session and
group fitness training. In a one-off session, the session does not belong to a long-term plan.
Therefore, there are no previously planned sessions to build from and no definite future sessions to
lead into. The one-off session stands alone. Likewise, in group fitness training, a coach usually lacks
control over who participates and when. This makes it difficult to apply any progressive overload to a
grouping of successive sessions.
With appropriate session pairing guidelines and the correct order of operations in mind, the Best
Practices Model is born. This can then be used to form a wireframe, or template for a session, which

can serve two different purposes. When there is an opportunity to plan training long-term, the
template can aide in planning individual sessions. However, when there is no opportunity for long-
term planning — when there cannot even be a plan A — the session template will make it easier for a
coach to think “on his or her feet” to construct a workout that is still appropriate to the athlete’s
individual needs. Because of the several physical qualities an athlete needs to develop and the
possibility of interference between certain ones, a coach should have more than one template.

Planning & Organization
The organization of a training plan is an important aspect of developing an athlete. The process of
developing a training plan depends on manipulating variables such as: intensity, volume, density,
frequency, and load. Manipulating these variables provides the coach with the ability to influence the
biology of the athlete, allowing the athlete to continuously adapt to training and improve
performances. In best case scenarios, the athlete is able to peak performance for a competition at the
proper time.
Periodization
Although there are many different methods of organizing training, the organization of training is
known as periodization. Although the term periodization may not have been used in previous years,
whenever there are planned training sessions followed by periods of rest, the training plan falls under
the umbrella of periodization. In general, the goal of periodization is to impose a load on the athlete
and the load is followed by periods of unloading, allowing the athlete to continuously adapt over time.
Superior coaches are better able to organize the training of their athletes and they possess a deep
understanding of how the biology of the athlete responds to stress.
Adaptation and Detraining Time Frames

In order to understand how to properly create training programs, it is important to recognize the
training and detraining timelines for the various physical abilities: speed, strength, endurance,
flexibility, and coordination.
Speed
Speed must be trained with quality in mind. Increases in sprint and acceleration performances are
associated with maximal effort, full rest periods, and the technical focus must be high. Typically,
speed must be addressed twice a week, in some capacity, to offset detraining and to stimulate further
adaptation. Although the thresholds for adaptation will greatly depend on the individual athlete, in
comparison to other physical abilities, improvements in speed tend to develop slowly and a drop off

in performance can be seen quite rapidly if speed work is omitting from a training plan. For this
reason, it is important to maintain speed work throughout the annual plan.
Strength
Unlike speed, gains in strength are comparatively quicker to develop and strength abilities can be
maintained for longer periods of time without much attention. After a total cessation of strength
work for 30 days, 95% of an individual’s strength will be maintained. This does not mean an individual
should omit strength training, but there are periods during the annual plan when the frequency of
strength work may drop to 1-2 times per week while it should be expected to maintain strength at a
relatively high degree.
Endurance
Although gains in endurance can be achieved quite rapidly, endurance also detrains very quickly. It
can take as little as 24 hours for detraining of this ability to occur. This is largely why many
endurance athletes feel the need to do some sort of endurance training every day. Typically,
endurance training can be addressed in speed-power athletes through methods such as: training
duration, warmups, interval training, and higher volumes of resistance training.
Flexibility
Flexibility is another physical ability that can be improved on a day-to-day basis. Significant changes
to flexibility may happen very slowly over time, but small changes in flexibility can be seen from one
day to the next. Similar to speed and endurance, flexibility detrains relatively quickly. Decrements in
flexibility performance can been seen in as little as 24 to 48 hours if the ability is not addressed in
training.
Coordination
Lastly, coordination is specific to the skill being developed, and very dependent on individual retention
levels. For instance, some high jumpers are able to perform at a very high level without practicing the
event of high jump for nearly a month. However, novice jumpers may need to practice much more
frequently to learn the necessary skills and to retain those skills. The physical demands of the
movement pattern will largely dictate how long it takes an individual to acquire a given skill.

Needs Analysis
Another key component in planning an annual training plan is understanding how the needs analysis
guides the training process. When an athlete desires to get better, it is very important to understand
what changes made to their biomotor abilities will have the biggest influence on their improvement.
In order to recognize what will make the largest impact on improvement, the coach must observe the
given sport and make decisions about what physical abilities are most important to the success of the
athlete. The coach can assess the athlete through testing, make training decisions based on which
areas the athlete may be lacking, and work to improve these areas. The assessment will indicate how
to best organize training. One area may need more work than another, while the sport itself may
somewhat dictate the training priorities.
Principles of Periodization
General to Specific
After the athlete has completed a needs analysis, the coach should have a good understanding of
what abilities the athlete needs to improve upon and the demands of the sport. The coach can then
begin writing a training plan that will cater to the needs of the athlete. Assuming the training plan
starts in the offseason, the coach should begin with very general training relative to the athlete’s
sporting demands. The training should not lack key components, as the plan should never stray too
far from addressing the demands of the sport, but training should be relatively general. For instance,
a sprinter should sprint year-round. This does not indicate the sprinter should be completing the
same workouts the first day of the training plan as they are the last day of the training plan, but there
should be some elements of sprinting throughout the entire year. The entire goal of the athlete is to
become faster and this physical ability will always be systematically progressed throughout the year.
However, because specificity is a continuum and dependent on biomechanics and physiology, there
may be training shifts in the weight room or on the track that decrease the specificity of the training
early in the annual plan. An example of this could be found in an athlete who is moving through a
squat progression. Earlier in the year, this athlete may perform squats through a full range of motion
and later in the year, the athlete may perform partial range jump squats. The full squat is inherently
general due to the velocity, power output, and joint angles, while the jump squat is specific to the
angles seen in sprinting, high power output, and incorporates elements of the stretch-shortening

cycle. The athlete may have started with a full squat for a month, progressed in weight and volume,
and eventually started to incorporate some muscle action specificity. This could be achieved by
adding a short pause at the bottom of the rep to develop the connective tissue and prepare the
athlete for the more specific training to come. That being said, the athlete could eventually progress
to the partial jump squat.
In many ways, the first months in the training plan could be viewed as training the athlete to train.
These initial months are preparing the athlete for the more intense training cycles and ensuring the
athlete is able to continuously adapt. If the training plan began with very specific training, it would be
difficult to progress throughout the rest of the training program. When an athlete reaches the end of
a progression, that athlete will be unable to progress further. Each training cycle should serve to
further prepare the athlete for more specific training.
Low Intensity to High Intensity
As stated previously, it is important to ensure training is progressively overloaded. This can be done
by manipulating a number of variables, but one of the easiest ways to increase training load is to
increase intensity.
One of the greatest reasons the athlete should start at relatively lower intensities is to preserve the
connective tissue. If a high tensile load were to be placed on the musculotendinous unit before the
athlete was adequately prepared, micro-trauma may occur, causing injuries and decreasing the
athlete’s training capacity. Further, if the athlete begins with maximal intensity, the athlete will be
unable to progress. The lower intensity training prepares the athlete for the high intensity work. If
proper preparation is achieved, the athlete will be able to raise their athletic potential and
performance ceiling.
High Volume to Low Volume
Intensity and volume are the two variables that largely dictate an athlete’s training load. Beginning a
training program with lower intensity allows the athlete to consequently increase training volume
early in the training plan. Many of the negative consequences of having a training intensity that is too
high can be mitigated by increasing load through relatively higher training volumes early in a
macrocycle. Initially, the athlete will start with a training volume that is manageable, and this volume
will be built upon for a mesocycle to increase the work capacity of the athlete. Once a threshold has

been met, the athlete can begin to decrease volume and increase intensity. This shift will likely result
in a somewhat similar overall training load, but the emphasis will be shifted away from lower quality,
general work to higher quality, more specific work. It is important to note that neither volume or
intensity can be increased indefinitely, and the constant undulating manipulation of these variables is
a necessary part of successful programming. For this reason, it is also important to regularly monitor
and track training loads.
Cyclic Nature of Periodization
Periodization should be cyclic in nature. It is very difficult to sustain chronically high training loads
with linear increases in volume and intensity. Without periods of rest, the athlete may become injured
or over-trained. Periodization can be organized into progressively smaller categories to help with
organizing a year, month, week, and session. A macrocycle is the largest categorization. Typically, this
represents a calendar year but for some situations this may be unnecessary or impossible. A sub-
category of a macrocycle is mesocycle. A mesocycle typically represents a period of 2-6 weeks.
Within the mesocycle are several microcycles. These are typically 7-10 days in length. The individual
sessions are placed on each day of the microcycle. By utilizing this categorization system, the coach
can systematically develop physical abilities by utilizing training principles such as progressive
overload, individuality, specificity, and rest and recovery. It is important to note, that because training
is cyclic, the individual will cycle between periods of high and low loads, which correspond with
changes in fatigue.
Progressive Overload
Understanding the categorization of training will allow a coach to better address how to continuously
improve upon the fitness of an athlete. To improve the fitness of an athlete, the coach must increase
frequency, intensity, or volume. Increasing one of the variables should be very systematic. Increases
in intensity or volume from microcycle to microcycle should not exceed roughly five percent from
one microcycle to the next. There are several ways to progress intensity and volume, but a simple
example can be seen by increasing the percentage from 1 week to the next by roughly five percent,
relative to a 1RM. If an athlete completed three sets of five repetitions of a back squat at 75 percent of
the 1RM on the first day of the microcycle, then the athlete may progress to three sets of four
repetitions at 80 percent on the first day of the subsequent microcycle. This would increase the
training intensity by five percent, while decreasing the total volume of back squat by three repetitions,

acting as a catalyst for further adaptation while reducing the risk of injury. The athlete could also
progress earlier in the season by increasing the number of repetitions in each set. This may seem to
contradict previous discussion; however, early in the macrocycle, the athlete will need to
progressively increase work capacity in the first mesocycle.
Program Organization
There are several strategies that can be used to enhance the adaptations to training. These strategies
are attempts to ensure overload is imposed while permitting adequate recovery to permit adaptation.
Recovery and Adaptation
For positive adaptations to occur recovery must take place. Coaches and athletes must never
lose sight of this important fact. While it is easy to focus on training, the recovery process can be just
as important in actualizing the training stimulus into the desired adaptations.
Undulating High and Low Intensity
If the sport coach also acts as the strength and conditioning coach, it is possible to implement an
idealized training set up. This means alternating training days between high and low intensities. This
allows the athlete to accumulate a relatively high training load without overtraining, as days with high
volume, lower intensities will be followed by a subsequent drop in volume and an increase intensity.
For instance, in track and field, training focus would be on speed and strength on Monday,
Wednesday, and Friday, while shifting the focus to endurance Tuesday and Thursday. This undulation
of intensity and volume is crucial to ensuring the athlete maximizes the training load while mitigating
the risk of overtraining.
Biologically Dictated Periodization
When working with an individual athlete who participates in a team sport, it may be more difficult to
create a clean training plan due to the requirements of the athlete to practice with their team;
however, qualitatively assessed sports such as bobsled luge, track and field, speed skating, and
weightlifting offer the coach more control of the training plan. If the athlete participates in a team
sport, the training principles discussed in the following paragraphs will still apply, but they may need
to be manipulated to allow the athlete time to recover. This planning takes advantage of the windows

of opportunity to train when peak performance is not necessary and a manageable level of fatigue is
acceptable. The coach should still systematically apply a training stress to the athlete during periods
when the athlete is practicing less with their team, has a long period of time without a game or isn’t
able to play in major competitions. The training should be adequate enough such that the athlete is
able to adapt and train frequently enough to address physical abilities based on the training and
detraining timelines. If the session is appropriately structured, the athlete should be able to recover
and participate in a competition within 24 to 48 hours.
Macrocycle Organization
Organizing a macrocycle is a very difficult task. Most coaches will split the year into categories such
as general preparation phase (GPP), specific preparation phase (SPP), pre-competition, competition,
and offseason. While this offers some insight into how an athlete may progress from general to
specific, it is important to recognize that the coach is not beholding to these terms, as biology is more
fluid. Creating these regimented categories should only be used to assist the coach in the planning
process. At Athletic Lab, we use a fluid periodization. Specificity is viewed as a continuum, which
allows us to continuously add elements that are increasingly specific to the sporting task. That being
said, the macrocycle typically consists of 12 mesocycles. Periods of high specificity will occur later in
the year, and will be offset by decreases in the overall volume. Later in the year, this volume can be
subtracted from the more general work.
Mesocycle Organization
A mesocycle may last 2-6 weeks. It is important to repeat a given training stimulus from one week to
the next to allow the body to adapt to a specific capacity. Within a mesocycle, changes will be
evolutionary rather than revolutionary. Exercise selection within each mesocycle may remain the
same, while volume and intensity are manipulated to spur on further adaptation from one week to
the next. This consistency allows the athlete to maximally adapt to the training stimuli before variety
is needed to spur on further adaptation. Typically, intensity is highest in the last week of the cycle.
This week can often function as a test week. In contrast, the first week of the mesocycle should
function as an introductory week to new means and methods. This usually means large changes to
the training plan from one mesocycle to the next. As stated earlier, the periodization should be fluid,

and therefore the training plan should have elements from the previous cycle. Typically shifting from
one mesocycle to the next means taking steps toward greater specificity. For example, a triple jumper
may go from hill bounding one mesocycle to flat ground bounding the next.
Microcycle Organization
The microcycle is typically 7-10 days long. In most cases, seven days is used as athletes often operate
on a seven-day work and / or competitive schedule. This doesn’t always have to be the case, but
many times athletes and coaches will find logistics of training much easier to abide by, if the
microcycle is broken up this way. In a typical training plan for individual sport athletes, Monday,
Wednesday, and Friday are high intensity days with lower volumes. On Tuesday and Thursdays lower
intensity and relatively higher volumes would be employed. If the athlete chooses to train on
Saturday, it would be appropriate to be a moderate intensity and volume day. If the athlete is early in
the training year, he or she may train less than six days per week. It is important to note that the
athlete should not try to add or remove training volume from the training plan. Doing so will be
detrimental to the athlete’s development, as increasing volume significantly to try to make up for a
lost day of training will result in acute increases in fatigue that could eventually lead to injury or
chronic drops in training quality.
It is advisable to train biomotor abilities that are complementary and compatible within the same
session. By doing so, the training stimulus will be amplified. This also allows the biology related to a
given physical ability to adapt, while another, dissimilar ability is rested. If the individual were to train
alternate between strength and speed abilities every single day, the training may be too similar and
result in over-stressing the same biological systems of the body. For example, high motor
recruitment is required to lift heavy weights fast. Similarly, high motor recruitment is required to run
fast. If the individual lifts heavy one day, and then sprints the next, the same system is being stressed
two days in a row without allowing the body much time to recover and adapt. However, if the
individual sprints and lifts heavy one day, but does light medicine ball circuits the next, there is a
period where each respective system can recover and adapt. By continuing this theme across the
duration of a microcycle, the individual is able to maintain a high training load while decreasing the
risk of overtraining or injury.

Session Planning
The individual session is the most immediate way in which the coach is able to influence and impact
the athlete. The session should be designed with a clear goal in mind; however, it is important to
remember that every biomotor ability should be addressed to a degree that corresponds with the
objective of the session. Biomotor abilities that are not the focal point of the session can be addressed
in the warmup or other components of the session. The individual session goal will be dictated by the
time of the year and the needs analysis. Generally speaking, it is best practice to avoid planning
consecutive training days that have similar intensities or objectives. This cycling allows the athlete to
adapt and recover to a given training stimulus before it is applied again.
Warmup
Each session should begin with a warmup that will adequately prepare the athlete for the following
activity of the session. In most instances, the warmup should consist of a variety of general
movements that elevate core body temperature. It may also be suitable to include activities that
challenge the athlete’s general coordination. This could include: skipping, side skipping, jogging, side
running, squats, and other less regularly used locomotive tasks. The warmup should progress from
general to specific. For instance, a soccer player may start the warmup without a ball, and progress
to utilizing a ball with cuts, spins, and other skill related movements. Depending on time constraints
and the goal of the session, raising core temperature through these means may take anywhere from
5-25 minutes. After core temperature is elevated, mobility can be addressed. It is advisable that static
stretching is reserved for lower intensity, endurance-focused sessions. Dynamic flexibility options can
be performed within any session. Depending on the athlete and their sport the use of sprinting drills
or plyometric activities may now be appropriate to prepare the athlete for a high intensity session.
Additionally, coordinative activities that also address mobility may also be included at this time. For
example, hurdle mobility are useful to address coordination and mobility while adding a mild strength
aspect to the day’s training.
Main Body
After the warmup has been completed, the athlete may begin addressing the main goal and focal
point of the session. This allows the athlete to perform a given activity at the highest quality, a key to
“spurring on” adaptation. Typically, sprint speed will be addressed during this portion of the training

session on high intensity days and endurance training will be addressed on low intensity days. The
volumes will be in-line with the recommendations given in previous sections.
Strength training can be appropriate on both high and low intensity days. The means and methods
will depend based on the focus of the day. For high intensity days, the weight room sessions should
generally begin with a power exercise (such as an Olympic lift), progress to strength exercises (like
the squat and bench press) and conclude with any accessory exercises. For lower intensity days,
strength could be addressed through circuits such as bodyweight circuits, medicine ball circuits, or
weight circuits.
Cooldown
Once the weight room session has been completed, the athlete can begin a cooldown. The goal of a
cooldown may be to return the body to a parasympathetic state to facilitate post-session recovery.
Cooldowns can range from foam rolling and moderate static stretching to low level skips, barefoot
jogging, or barefoot hopping.
Conclusion
The training session should begin with a warmup that moves from general to specific and low
intensity to higher intensities. The main body of the session should focus on addressing the biomotor
abilities that are the focal point of the session. Optimally, days should alternate between lower and
higher intensities as well as the specific means and methods employed. Following these guidelines
will ensure that a clear training stimulus is sent for adaptation and the individual has sufficient time
to recover and adapt to the training stimulus before a subsequent similar stimulus is applied.

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©2021 Athletic Lab athleticlabacademy.

com Follow @athleticlabacademy

Athletic Lab History ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 15

Meet Mike Young .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 16

“The Athletic Lab Way” ................................................................................................................................................................................. 18

Athletic Lab Coaching Education .......................................................................................................................................................... 18

Mission Statement of Athletic Lab ...................................................................................................................................................... 19

Athletic Lab Partnership with ELITE Training............................................................................................................................... 19

The Athletic Lab Phase 1 Mentorship ................................................................................................................................................ 20

Center of Mass ..............................................................................................................................................................................................21

Linear Motion and Angular Motion .............................................................................................................................................. 22

Kinematic Parameters ................................................................................................................................................................................. 22

Linear Kinematic Parameters .......................................................................................................................................................... 22

Angular Kinematic Parameters ...................................................................................................................................................... 23

Linear Kinetic Parameters .................................................................................................................................................................. 24

Angular Kinetic Parameters .............................................................................................................................................................. 25

Newton’s Laws .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 25

Linear Applications of Newton’s Laws ....................................................................................................................................... 25

Angular Applications of Newton’s Laws................................................................................................................................... 26

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The Hinged Moment ............................................................................................................................................................................... 28

Projectile Motion .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 28

Trajectory and Rotations in Flight................................................................................................................................................. 29

Flight and the Center of Mass ......................................................................................................................................................... 29

Special Considerations for Rotating Systems ............................................................................................................................ 29

Axes of Rotation ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 29

Relationship Between Angular and Curvilinear Velocity .............................................................................................. 30

Tangential and Axial Acceleration ................................................................................................................................................ 30

Conservation of Angular Momentum ........................................................................................................................................ 30

Transfers of Angular Momentum ..................................................................................................................................................31

Summations of Force ....................................................................................................................................................................................31

Proximal and Distal Joints ....................................................................................................................................................................31

Firing Orders ..................................................................................................................................................................................................31

Usage of all Available Joints ............................................................................................................................................................. 32

Posture and Stability .................................................................................................................................................................................... 32

Dynamic Stability ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 32

Postural Stability ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 33

Postural Alignment ................................................................................................................................................................................. 33

Applied Physiology .................................................................................................. 34

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Muscular System ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 35

Contraction Process ................................................................................................................................................................................ 36

Motor Unit ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 36

Energy Systems ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 36

Energy Systems ..........................................................................................................................................................................................37

Cardiorespiratory System ......................................................................................................................................................................... 38

Blood Vessels .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 40

Growth and Development ........................................................................................................................................................................ 40

Growth and Maturation ..........................................................................................................................................................................41

Health Status ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 42

Lifestyle Issues ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 42

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Fundamental Terms and Concepts ................................................................................................................................................... 46

Volume and Intensity............................................................................................................................................................................. 46

Age and Training Age..............................................................................................................................................................................47

Simple and Complex Training ...........................................................................................................................................................47

General and Specific Training ...........................................................................................................................................................47

Segments of Training ....................................................................................................................................................................................47

The Annual Plan .........................................................................................................................................................................................47

Periods of Training ................................................................................................................................................................................... 48

Other Segments of Training.............................................................................................................................................................. 49

Approach to Training .................................................................................................................................................................................... 49

Multilateral Training ............................................................................................................................................................................... 49