Details of Module and its Structure

Module Detail

Subject Name Sociology

Paper Name Development, Globalisation and Society

Module Name/Title Conceptualising Development

Pre-requisites theories of modernisation as given by various thinkers from perspectives

and how they relate to various aspects of a society’s developmental process
Objectives This module looks at the main theory of modernisation and examines the
factors that facilitate its achievement. It delineates into which criteria
should be used to label a society as “modern”
Keywords Modernisation, psychic mobility, Structural Differentiation, social evolution,
social mobilisation, urbanisation, Achievement Motivation Theory,
Thematic Appreciation Test, Need for Power, Need for Affiliation, Need for
Achievement

Structure of Module / Syllabus of a module (Define Topic / Sub-topic of module)

Conceptualising modernisation – theories by Stages of Growth Theory, Achievement Motivation

various thinkers Theory

Role Name Affiliation

Principal Investigator Prof. Sujata Patel Department of Sociology, University

of Hyderabad
Paper Coordinator Prof. Sherry Sabbarwal Department of Sociology. Panjab
University, Chandigarh
Content Writer/Author Parneet Kaur Sandhu and Department of Sociology, Panjab
(CW) University, Chandigarh (UT)
Department of Sociology,
Dr. Manoj Kumar Post Graduate Government College
for Girls, Sector-11, Chandigarh (UT)
Content Reviewer (CR) Prof Sherry Sabbarwal Department of Sociology, Panjab
University, Chandigarh
Language Editor (LE) Prof Sherry Sabbarwal Department of Sociology, Panjab
University, Chandigarh
 Course: Development, Globalisation and Society
Unit: Conceptualising Development
Module Title: Conceptualising Development – Modernisation Theories

Modernisation theories – an introduction

Modernisation theory or simply modernisation emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century
although its roots can be traced even further back to the 18th century around the Age of
Enlightenment. It stems from the Idea of Progress that is the idea that advances in technology,
science and social organisation can produce an improvement in the human condition. The
improvement in the human condition is generally determined by the betterment of the quality of
life through economic development (modernisation) and the application of science and
technology (scientific progress). Societies evolve from one stage to the next as they go through
the process of social evolution. Simple, agricultural societies undergo changes due to the
influence of technological development and adapt as they come in contact with other societies
which further progress and development. This has an impact on the characteristic features of a
society, changing it in a fundamental way. In other words, both internal and external factors
prompt a society to undergo change and adapt to its new environment.
Post Industrial Revolution, Marx predicted a certain future course for the societies that had
undertaken the capitalist model of development. According to him, capitalism is a self-
consuming and a self-destructive model of development and the society will progress in a
fashion so as to lead to the eradication of capitalism and even the concept of private property i.e.
society will progress from capitalism to communism and finally to socialism, given the very
nature of capitalism. Modernisation emerged as an alternative course of action that can be taken
as the society progressed further. Modernisation refers to the social and cultural developments
that occur along with economic growth. It is a process by which the society undergoes
development and becomes “modern”. As a theory, modernisation attempts to identify the social
variables that contribute to social progress and development and seeks to explain the process of
social evolution. Simply put, it refers to a model of a progressive transition from ‘pre-modern’ or
‘traditional’ society to a ‘modern’ society.
Lauer says that the social psychology of modernisation tries to understand the following points in
a broad sense.
 Is there a ‘modern’ person who holds attitudes and values that are distinct from those of
the pre-modern individual and that are a necessary part of the modernisation process?
 If so, is the modern individual as result of modernisation or a necessary cause of
modernisation? (Lauer 1982: 101)

The starting point of modernisation can be marked by what Talcott Parsons refers to as
“structural differentiation”. Structural differentiation is defined as the feature of the modern
society under which there is an increased process of system differentiation as a way of dealing
with complexity of its environment. The differentiation process increases the complexity of the
system and makes it possible for it to respond to the variation in the environment. Ritzer says
that increased variation facilitated by differentiation not only allows for better responses to the
environment but also allows for faster evolution or socio-cultural evolution, which in
sociological terms is a process of selection from variation; the more differentiation that is
available, the better the selection. (2007: 95-96).

The Process of Modernisation

The process of modernisation comes about when various spheres of a society are affected by the
changes that are taking place. The changes in these social spheres, in turn, have a direct impact
on the members of the society leading to the emergence of a modern individual in a modern
society. These spheres or indices are studied collectively under the social mobilisation. The
indices that fall under “social mobilisation” as coined by Karl Deutsch are best suited to the
study of socio-demographic impact of modernisation. According to Deutsch, it is “a process in
which major clusters of old social, economic and psychological commitments are eroded and
broken and people become available for new patterns of socialization and behavior and he has
indicated that some of its indices are exposure to aspects of modern life through demonstrations
of machinery, buildings, consumers’ goods, response to mass media, change of residence,
urbanisation, change from agricultural occupations, literacy, growth of per capita income and so
forth”. (Eisenstadt 1973: 23).
A society has to have certain characteristic features that ascertain it as a modern society. These
are the structural characteristics in a society and are identified as following:
 There is a high level of differentiation in the society.
 The resources that are available to the society are not under the control of a fixed,
ascriptive group.
 The identity of the members of the society transcends the narrower boundaries of their
immediate groupings and they now identify with a wider, non-traditional, “national” or
even super national group identity.
 The development of the various institutional spheres is marked by specialised roles and
there are wider regulative and allocative roles in the economic, political and bureaucratic
organisations of the society.
In the modern society, social mobilisation and structural differentiation occurs side by side and
changes take place in all major social institutions. Structural changes take place in the economic,
political and cultural spheres establishing the society as modern. In the economic sphere, there is
an increasing degree of specialisation in economic activities as well as in occupational roles and
the production goals become more market oriented. Now there is a complex market for every
commodity that can be conceivably sold like goods, labor, money etc. This structural change in
the economic sphere has a direct impact on the social organisation of the society in question. The
rate of urbanisation rises as population in the urban centers keeps increasing due to specialised
economic, professional and civic activities. Increasing urbanisation influences the breakdown of
traditional factors of ascriptive status like tribe, estate or region. To supplant these, more flexible
and varied markers of status emerge enabled by social mobility which is achieved through
economic, occupational and educational means. A change in the economic sphere leads to
changes in the educational sphere of the society. Where previously, the major institutions catered
to the needs and demands of the elite, now there is more or less fluid movement between the
various strata due to social mobility. To adapt to this change, the major institutions respond by
undergoing a change. Now the focus is on a wider social group than the elite and they address
problems of social mobility in general and occupational mobility in particular.
Political power or more specifically the power to influence the political machinery used to be
confined in the hands of a few. Now with a larger number of people with economic influence
backed by an education that makes them aware of their augmented position in the society, there
is a structural change in the political sphere of the society. In the modern society, the
administrative and political agencies become more centralised and the right to rule is not derived
from traditional legitimisation like divine right etc. but instead the political institutions are
restructured on the grounds of new political ideologies and the rulers are accountable to the ruled
for their actions in office. In other words, the ruled are the holders of potential political power.
This change in the political sphere eventually leads to a democratic setup which includes all
adult citizens in the political process. Now the onus of maintaining their power rests on the rulers
as they try to align their propaganda with the needs of the masses. They try to appeal to the needs
of the people to maintain themselves in the position of power to garner the continued support of
the largest groups within a society.
On the cultural front, a modern society undergoes structural differentiation of the major cultural
and value systems like religion, philosophy, education etc. There is a break away from the
traditional value systems and the new values that emerge, take their place. These are in tandem
with the emerging modern society with its emphasis on secular education, spreading literacy and
a development of more complex intellectual spheres in general. An increasing complexity in the
intellectual institutional system leads to the advancement of specialised roles based on these
intellectual disciplines.
All in all, modernisation leads to a very fundamental shift in the very fabric of the society; it
systematically does away with the old while making place for the new. All the major social
institutions undergo change in order to keep up with the advancements brought about by the
process of modernisation.
This module focuses on three thinkers in particular and how they approach modernisation – from
the social perspective or from the individual perspective. They are
1. Daniel Lerner – mass media, cultural products as means to promote economic and social
development in post-colonial countries.
2. Walt Rostow – the stages of economic growth
3. David McClelland – the achievement oriented personality
Daniel Lerner – mass media as proponent of modernisation
Daniel Lerner was an American scholar and writer who gave a modernisation theory based on
the use of mass media. His work is also considered to be influential in the discipline of media
development and development communication. Lerner focused his work of the role of the mass
media as a means of promotion of economic and social development in post-colonial countries.
His theory of modernisation is decidedly west-centric and lays great stress on the superiority of
the American cultural, social, economic and political systems. In his book, “The Passing of
Traditional Society: Modernising the Middle East”, Lerner tries to work out a theory of
modernisation and social transformation through the effect of mass media. He studied how
propaganda, aided by mass media can be used to generate and mobilis
e public opinion and how it furthers the modernisation process. He states that societies can make
a shift from traditional to modern through the help of mass media. The logic underlying the
transformation comprised the following arguments: “No modern society functions efficiently
without a developed system of mass media”; mass media “open to the large masses of mankind
the infinite vicarious universe” of modern ideas and experiences; media exposure produces
“desire . . . to live in the world ‘lived’ only vicariously”; when many people experience this
desire, “a transition is under way” toward modernisation. And because “what the West is, the
Middle East seeks to become,” “Islam is absolutely defenseless” against “a rationalist and
positivist spirit” embodied in Western-style democratic institutions.1
According to Lerner, the process of modernisation begins when the rural population of a country
starts to shift from the rural areas to the urban areas prompted by economic factors like better
opportunities. This leads to an increased rate of urbanisation and the population that now exists
in the urban areas has basic needs that need to be fulfilled. This is a need for better education
systems, markets that allow free trade, and other institutions that are founded on modern and
democratic lines. Media consumption also grows exponentially in the urban population. The
growth of literacy and media consumption leads to higher economic participation and political
participation. This changing trend in the personal decision making process of the population of a
country is highly conducive to the new ideas and values that form the foundation of
modernisation. Mass media plays an important role in shifting popular opinion in the favor of
these new ideas and values and makes the modernisation process seem more attractive. Mass
media communicates images and ideas from the West and helps the postcolonial countries to
replace their traditional ways of thinking with modern ways of thinking. Lerner says that the
mass media helps to promote “psychic mobility” which he defines as the ability and desire to
project oneself into unfamiliar situations and places. In other words, it is an adaptive
characteristic in man to respond to his environment with a sense of empathy, rationality and
constricted participant style. Traditional man is passive and acquiescent; he expects continuity in
nature and society and does not believe in the capacity of man to change or control either”.
Modern man in contrast, believes in both the responsibility and desirability of change and has
confidence in the ability of man to control change so as to accomplish his purpose”.2
Mass media helps foster a desire in its target audience to experience the same process of
development and modernisation that the West has undergone. Lerner further says that any nation
in the world, can achieve modernisation, provided it is willing to emulate the Western pattern of
development. This line of thought was different from the colonial perspective that viewed racial
inferiority and genetic predisposition as reasons for backwardness and lack of development. The
condition to achieve modernisation is to move away from traditional practices and beliefs that
foster a “subculture of peasantry” as described by Everett M. Rogers. The Western way is seen
as a shining light of development that the rest of the post-colonial world would greatly benefit
from by following in their footsteps.

Lerner’s model of cultural and intellectual superiority is based on the process of cultural maturity
that is divided into three phases. These are as following:

1
http://www.temple.edu/tempress/chapters_1800/2142_ch1.pdf
2
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/society/essay-on-modernisation-meaning-theory-and-characteristics-of-
modernisation/4406/
  the traditional phase
 the transitional phase
 the modern phase
The traditional phase is characterised by the following and practice of traditional values and
ideas that lead to backwardness. There is no social or cultural emphasis to improve or change the
status quo and as such economic, technological or cultural innovations and practices are not
made in this phase. The economic setup is feudal and largely agricultural, technology is obsolete
and the socio-cultural values are traditional as is evident through the position of women and
levels of education. The overall developmental process is stagnant and progress is at a standstill.
The transitional phase starts to see a shift in the values and ideas of the society. More specifically
the change is seen in the younger generation as they have been exposed to the influence of the
mass media that communicates the Western ideas of socio-economic and cultural development to
the previously traditional societies. The older generation still clings to their traditional ideas and
practices and are resistant to change.
The modern phase is characterised by capitalism, technological advancement and on the socio-
cultural front by women’s empowerment and rise in modern education. The elites hold an
important position in this phase. Through the help of the mass media, the elites are models of
aspiration for the masses and as examples of the result of embracing the modernisation process
and new, Western values.
Lerner’s study of the Middle-Eastern societies, particularly Balgat Turkey forms the basis of his
modernisation theory. But like all theories, this too has its shortcomings. Firstly, the theory is
decidedly west centric and promotes a neocolonial developmental model that does not eliminate
the dependence of the traditional societies on their more developed, western counterparts. In a
larger sense, the western modernisation process is equated with development and by default a
superior way of living, diminishing the traditional societies and their unique cultural features.
Secondly, Lerner’s theory only explains Turkey’s process of development with any certainty and
does not seem to apply to other Middle Eastern societies like Lebanon, Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and
Iran. The generalisations made by Lerner are based on too small a group to be taken conclusively
and accurately. Thirdly, the strongest criticism comes from scholars of postcolonial societies.
They state that the modernisation process, as proposed by Lerner, presupposes the inferiority of
the traditional societies and sees its elimination as an inevitable result of the modernisation
process. It forces the western ideas of modernisation upon the traditional societies. This
disregards the actual needs of the societies and is often oppressive and violent. Scientific
development and technology is seen as beneficial despite other factors and change is forced upon
the traditional society through propaganda rather than coming about organically.

Walt Rostow – Stages of Growth

Walt Whitman Rostow was an American economist and political theorist who gave one of the
most important concepts under theory of modernisation. In his 1960 book, “The Stages of
Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto” he states that a society undergoes various
stages of development and it is these stages that lead to the ultimate modernisation of the society.
This is also known as the Rostovian take off model of economic growth. He postulates that the
human society undergoes five distinct stages of economic development to finally arrive at
modernisation. These stages are as following:
1. Traditional Society
2. Preconditions for take off
3. Take off
4. Drive to maturity
5. High mass consumption
In the first stage of “traditional society”, economic production is limited and only minimum level
of output is produced. Agriculture is subsistence level at best and development in technology and
innovation takes place slowly and inconsistently. Due to poor means of communication
technological innovations can be lost also. Political systems are unstable and that has a direct
impact on economic production. Trade is a high risk economic activity as transport of goods and
raw material is expensive, slow and difficult. The society itself follows tradition with rigidity and
obedience and submission to the existing social system is expected from all members of the
society. Political power rests in the hands of those who control economic resources, in this
instance, the landlords. The feudal system that is consolidated by other social institutions like
family and marriage and given legitimacy by religious customs, keeps the society at a status quo
and make social mobility impossible.
In the second stage, “Pre-conditions to "take-off"”, changes begin to emerge as agricultural
methods improve yielding higher produce and trade begins to develop that gives rise to
conditions for growth and take off. A fundamental change takes place in the socio-political
systems of the society. Technological know-how like better agricultural methods and irrigation
systems make it possible to have agricultural production that goes beyond mere subsistence.
Now agriculture is commercial in nature due to developing technology and the surplus gives rise
to commercial activity, thereby initiating economic change which makes individual social
mobility possible for the first time. Emergence of shared economic interests leads to the
establishment of national identity. There is a gradual shift towards trade and commercial activity
and both domestic and international markets are created. The surplus gained through agricultural
and commercial activities is in not consumed. Instead it is invested in the development of
industries and infrastructure for the society, making self-sustaining economic growth possible.
Entrepreneurship in agricultural and commercial sphere rises during this period and increased
investment becomes possible in the industrial sector. The final pre-condition for take-off is a
change in the attitude towards calculated risk taking and acceptance of change in the socio-
political sphere.
The third stage of “Take off” sees an increase in urbanisation and industrialisation. The self-
sustained growth that begins in the previous stage, gathers steam in this stage.The secondary
sector expands due to its improved rate of return and more resources are invested in it as
compared to the primary sector. Technological innovations are made in this period that make
secondary production a better yielding sector of economic production. Furthering economic
growth becomes second nature and industrialisation begins to change the basic structures in the
society, making it ready for the transition from traditional to modern society. The entrepreneurial
class develops that focuses its efforts on “delayed gratification”, accumulation of capital and are
willing to take high risk to achieve their economic goals. This class is motivated by the desire to
achieve social prestige that they were unable to achieve through traditional means of marriage,
established social groups and political or military power.
In the fourth stage, “Drive to maturity”, the self-sustained growth that is in full swing in the
previous stage has permeated all the resources of the society. Rostow defines it "as the period
when a society has effectively applied the range of modern technology to the bulk of its
resources." (Rostow 1960: 38) The economy is developed enough that it can now stand in the
international market. The industrial sector continues to expand and diversify which leads to the
creation of new industries. The resources available to the economy determine the leading sector.
There is a higher degree of professionalism among the workers, improved skills which enables
them to increase their wages. A bulk of the labor is now engaged in industrial sector as it give a
higher rate of return. The effect of commercial activities on the environment and health begin to
receive attention and appropriate policies and laws are made to govern the same.
The final stage is the “age of mass consumption”, the economy becomes even more industry
based and the secondary and tertiary sectors become the dominant means of production and the
primary sector is greatly diminished in terms economic and social value as well as in terms of the
human resource that is invested in it. Diversification in the products available lead to a wider
market and mass consumption, normative consumption are made possible by a higher disposable
income. On a larger, the society is at the liberty to choose between security concerns, welfare
issues or increase in luxuries for the people at large since subsistence is no longer an issue. The
political and cultural values of a society help in determining which of the three mentioned areas
get more attention.
Like with all theories, Rostow’s stages of growth also have certain points of criticism. The
theory is historic as it just classifies the events and developments that have already taken place.
The stages themselves are not as clearly defined as the theory makes it seem and the stages have
overlapping characteristics that make it difficult to ascertain and identify which stage a society
might be going through. His theory is considered West-centric as the stages in this theory are
based on the socio-economic developments that have taken place in America and Europe and do
not account for the developments in other parts of the world like Asia and Africa. Rostow does
not take into account “false starts” and regression in economic development. Various factors like
lack of resources, political unrest, and society’s resistance towards change can impede
development and can even set the society on a backwards path. Throughout his theory, Rostow
talks about “self-sustaining growth” but economic activity cannot take place unless there is some
form of effort from the human agency. Rostow’s stages of growth provide an alternative to the
Marxist model of economic development. He bases his theory on the assumption that societies
want to grow and achieve modernity and will eventually agree to the norms of economic growth.
As for modernisation itself, he states that it is possible for any society to become modern
irrespective of the type of economic model it follows.

David McClelland – Achievement Motivation Theory

In the above introductory section, mention has been made of Lauer and how he talks about the
importance of the human personality in the process of bringing about modernisation. He calls
into question whether the modern society leads to the modern man or does the modern man cause
the modern society to be created. David C. McClelland, an American psychologist, focused his
work on the motivational aspect of the human personality as the reason for instigating change
particularly, economic development. In his book “The Achieving Society”, he talks about the
acquired needs theory that states that individuals develop specific needs over a period of time
which are a result of the experiences they have undergone so far. McClelland devised the
Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT) to determine which of the three needs does the individual feel
most strongly. These needs are:
 Authority/power motivation (nPow) – this is defined by the individual’s need to be
influential and effective as the name suggests. The focus of the individual is to increase
one’s power in both the social and personal sphere. McClelland refined his theory to
include two distinct types of power motivation: the need for socialised power, expressed
on the TAT by descriptions of plans, self-doubts, mixed outcomes, and concern for
others, and the need for personal power, expressed by stories in which one individual
seeks power and must oppose another to get it.3The attempt is to increase one’s personal
status and prestige through acts of leadership, aspiration to hold positions that afford
them control over others and from bringing one’s ideas to fruition.
 Affiliation motivation (nAffil) – this is defined as an individual’s need to feel a sense of
involvement and belonging within a social group and individuals who are motivated by
the need for affiliation seek approval from others –peers, superiors and subordinates.
They nurture warm interpersonal relationships with the people they have regular contact
with as having a strong bond makes them feel as if they are a part of something important
that creates a powerful impact.4
 Achievement motivation (nAch) – this is defined by an individual’s enduring and
consistent concern with setting and meeting high standards of achievement which in turn
is influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In other words, the individual
holds in mind both expectations from himself/herself as well as the expectations of others
in mind while setting realistic goals to achieve. This motivates an individual to seek
competition and succeed in it and to excel in activities that hold importance to him/her.
Of the three above mentioned motivation needs, the need for power motivation characterises
individuals to seek positions of power that serve their own goals; they tend to be argumentative,
assertive in group roles and feel frustrated if situations wrest control away from them. The need
for affiliation makes the individual place more emphasis on the establishment and maintenance
of interpersonal relationships. As such they are supportive group members who do not create
confrontational situations by engaging in risk behavior or by giving opinion that goes against the
group. This makes them good followers but poor leaders. The need for achievement motivation
comes the closest to the entrepreneurial spirit that requires the balance between calculated risk
taking, leadership qualities that encourage and motivate others to achieve established goals as
well as to meet one’s personal goals of achievement. On a larger scale, the entrepreneurial spirit
that develops as a result of this achievement motivation impels development that collectively
gives rise to the modern society. The spirit is exemplified in businessmen who are not driven by
any profit motive per se, but rather by “a strong desire for achievement for doing a good job.
Profit is simply one measure among several of how well the job has been done, but it is not
necessarily the goal itself.” (McClelland 1961:107). According to McClelland, the need for

3
http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/acquired_needs.htm
4
http://www.managementstudyguide.com/mcclellands-theory-of-needs.htm
achievement (symbolised by n-achievement or nAch) is one of the basic needs and it is usually
the result of early childhood experiences. Child-rearing techniques are affected by social factors
which in turn either encourage or impede the need for achievement in children. If this need for
achievement is strongly developed through upbringing and through the reading material the child
is exposed to, it manifests as the entrepreneurial spirit which results in economic development as
an adult. McClelland and his associates tried to ascertain the extent to which people are naturally
inclined towards achievement oriented ideas by pursuing three types of research. They are as
following:
1. They sought to get group measures of n-Achievement and to relate these to indicators of
economic development
2. They obtained “individual measures of motives, interests, values and performance of both
mothers and their sons in various countries. (McClelland 1961:57)
3. They investigated the behavior, including motives of business entrepreneurs.
(McClelland 1961:108)
Group measures of n-Achievement – this measure was established on the basis of whether the
test subjects could differentiate between fantasy in the literature and folklore that they were
exposed to. The content analysis of the literature reflected the level of achievement motivation
under the assumption that the literature influences the members of the society and it reveals the
“natural mode of thinking in the society”. In an achievement oriented society, the literature
places more emphasis on the results that are obtained. Conversely in an affiliation oriented
society, the emphasis may be on co-operation with the group and collective enjoyment. A power
oriented society might focus on group relations and their organisation with the aim of achieving
desired results.
Sources of n-Achievement and its effect on adolescents – this measure was to examine why
certain individuals exhibited a higher level of n-achievement and others did not and if this
difference had an effect on their future vocational choices and performance. A cross-national
study was conducted in Japan, Germany, Brazil and India to gain results from boys and their
mothers. Concepts like independence, mastery training and views on one’s own values were
some of the parameters of this study.
Level of n-Achievement among businessmen and entrepreneurial activity – this study was
conducted to measure the level of entrepreneurial activity of business men and their
corresponding achievements as compared to other men their age. This study was also cross-
national in nature, stretching across U.S.A., Turkey, Italy and Poland. The aim was to identify a
factor or set of factors that was not limited to any culture in particular and instead was common
across cultures and societies. The conclusion of this study in particular was that although there
did exist cultural differences in terms of what constitutes as achievement, there was also several
basic similarities. People from all cultures and societies attempt to perform well according to
some standard as it is recognised in their society when their achievement motivation is high.
Comparing and relating the results of the above mentioned three studies and by comparing the
growth rate of various countries based on electrical production with level of n-Achievement and
comparison between growth rate and achievement related stories read by children, the conclusion
was drawn that there was a positive relationship between n-Achievement and economic growth
i.e. higher n-Achievement led to higher economic growth. Having established the relationship
between the need for achievement in the individuals of a society in a particular time, McClelland
proceeded to identify the sources of this need for achievement or n-Achievement. His studies
reveal three sources of n-Achievement. They are following:
1. The need for achievement that is based on parental concern and not on authoritarianism
and rejection. The parental concern focuses on “early mastery training”. This includes
encouragement towards independence, confidence in one’s own competence and abilities,
intrapersonal strength and the desirability towards the goals being set to achieve.
2. The quality of parent- child interaction also plays an important role in nurturing
achievement motivation. Importance is placed on the mother’s response of affection
whenever the child achieves anything and restraint in terms of domination from the
father. Success is rewarded with praise and appreciation which gives rise to the
association between positive feelings and achievement. In other words, high n-
Achievement is obtained when “reasonably high standards of excellence are imposed at a
time when the individuals can attain them, a willingness to let them attain them without
interference and real emotional pleasure in their achievements short of overprotection and
indulgence.” (McClelland 1961:356)
3. Social background also has an influence on the achievement motivation. Factors like
social class, family structure, occupational structure etc. affect the individual’s goal
setting abilities, their ability to calculate its feasibility and the desire to be challenged and
effective in their actions. The development of achievement motivation is further
influenced by social institutions that encourage characteristics that are in tandem with the
entrepreneurial spirit, e.g., factors like religion and other such institutions that place more
emphasis on following rituals, leave little room for self-reliance which in turn affects the
individual’s ability to take on calculated risk without constantly seeking approval and
acceptance from others.
In conclusion, McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory focuses on the individual and the
factors that kinder the entrepreneurial spirit in him/her. The need to achieve according to one’s
potential consistently so that it has a cumulative effect on the society as a whole is what can be
defined as the entrepreneurial spirit. In this regard, the individual, fostered with a high n-
achievement need, along with the other factors that reinforce the need for achievement grows up
to create a social as well as an entrepreneurial environment that ushers in modernity in the
society via technological and consequently socio-economic development.

Summary
Modernisation theory developed to study changes in the traditional societies and their gradual
moving away from obsolete values and practices that hinder progress and development. This
process of change can either be achieved organically like in the Western societies where
technological innovations are development of capitalism would eventually lead to the
modernisation of the entire society. Or it can be catalysed in traditional societies by factors like
mass media and cultural products. Some of the theories of modernisation view the process of
change from a broader, societal level like with Lerner and Rostow. Their theories focus on the
overall development of the society and the various stages it goes through to arrive at the ultimate
goal of modernisation. McClelland’s theory tries to under the modernisation process from the
individual level as he considers entrepreneurial individuals to be the main factor of kick starting
modernisation in any society. However, a society’s development cannot be studied in isolation
and has to be viewed in terms of international relations to fully understand the impact the
developmental process of one country has on others. This emphasis on study of the development
of the societies at the international scale displaces the modernisation theory with the dependency
theory that specifically looks into the economic and by extension socio-cultural relationship
between the countries that possess economic advantages and technological innovations and the
countries that borrow these economic models and technological advancements. It especially
focuses on the unequal and detrimental relationship between the two groups, something that the
modernisation theory ignores completely.