Q.

Rise of modern science in Europe was related to contemporary economic, social,

religious, intellectual and political developments. Elucidate.

Or

Q. Examine the causes for the rise of modern science in Europe.

(Intro conclusion main doc mein mil jaega)

Answer.

Reconstructing Old Ideas

The ideas of science itself dates back to the ancient world as Greek Philosophers wrote about
their worldview that was studied by medieval scholars and scientists later on. Aristotle proposed
a geocentric view of the universe and stated that heavenly bodies fall towards the centre of the
universe and rest at one place unless propelled by a mover. Ptolemy proposed theories in
astronomy, that crystalline spheres moved in concentric circles around the Earth's corruptible
nature and beyond that lay the purest region where heaven existed. Galen, a Greek physician,
proposed theories on human anatomy stating that all veins were connected to the liver and from
it ran one kind of blood to the entire body while the arteries carried blood mixed with a spirituous
liquid (pnuema). His book 'On Anatomical Preparations' rained an important text for fourteen
centuries. Pythagoras and Archimedes provided important theories on mathematics and physics
respectively.

The Arabs contributed in the field of mathematics by developing concepts about irrational
numbers, analytical geometry and theorems in algebra and trigonometry. Al-Khwarizmi,
Jamshid al-Kashni contributed in the fields of geometry and astronomy while Avicenna (Ibn
Sena) contributed extensively in the field of medicine. His book Canon of Medicine, a medical
encyclopaedia, listed various diseases and their cures which was used by medieval Europeans.
Arabs preserved Greek texts which were later used as references by medieval Europeans and
in 12th and 13th century Arab texts began to be translated into Latin. George Sarton the founder
of history of sciences stated that the investigation, accumulation of positive knowledge, minute
methods of science and prolonged observation were alien to Greek temperament. The arabs
introduced theses to Europe henceforth, providing a necessary backbone to the scientific
revolution.

Another important factor for origin of sciences was questioning of ideas about magic. Alchemist
Paracelcus stated that diseases were separate entities that had lives of their own. Alchemy was
viewed as a secret formulae of nature & atomism stated that things were made of partickes and
their composition could change. Astrology stated that natural phenomenon could be understood
with the help of planetary alignment. The Jewish system of thought Cabala stated that the
universe consisted of magical arrangements of numbers. These ideas drew the attention of
mediaeval scholars encouraging them to question the bizarre conclusions of magic.
A C crombie and M Clagett state that scientists owed their success to intellectuals of ancient
and medieval periods. They viewed Aristotelian notions as a stepping stone towards scientific
achievements and hence history of science was an evolutionary phase rather than a revolution
as it is made out to be. Crombie states that science owed its success to the use of inductive and
experimental procedures.

Renaissance and Science

The Renaissance was an essential factor in the origin of modern sciences as scholars in the
renaissance started drawing on Greek and Arab texts. Heinrich Burkhardt in his book
'Civilisation of Renaissance' states that this period not only saw the revival of classical studies
but also research. The idea of 'humanist' took birth during this time, a humanist was a person
who was a master in many disciplines like history, fine arts, astronomy, sciences etc.
Notions of realism in arts and statues encouraged artists to study and learn geometry to create
realistic images & Kenneth Clark, an art historian emphasized this point. Alberti believed that no
painter could paint without knowledge of geometry, lights and shadows and hence mathematics
became important. Mathematics and geometry played a key role in development of architecture.
Koenigsberger states that Italian artists had started using linear perspective. Fibonacci spirals
and golden ratios were used in paintings. Artists went to mortuaries to study bone structure.
Andreas Vaselius was the first person who had cut up cadavers to study human anatomy. This
technique of his came under scrutiny by the Church under terms of heresy. Arvind Sinha states
experiments were carried out during the Renaissance, but there was no formulation of general
theories. The developments of the Renaissance created skilled artisans and engineers but they
did not create true
scientists.

Voyages of Exploration and Need for Services

The Renaissance had introduced the idea of the universe as an independent entity hence,
voyages of exploration created a desire and need for development of sciences. New
technology was developing like water wheels, compasses, better maps. Metallurgy developed
due to a need for better firearms, shipbuilding and the printing industry developed too. Leonardo
da Vinci produced accurate maps as chief engineer and cartographer. Steam cannons, ship
paddlers and the science of hydraulics originated.

Certain goods and services were required in the 15th and 16th century to fulfill the demands of
a new emerging bourgeoisie class. Fortification of towns and improvement in artillery required
greater utilisation of resources like minerals. Sea voyages required better cartographers,
accountants, blacksmiths to make compasses, guns etc.

Marxist historians and scholars hold the notion that scientific revolution arose in response to the
needs of early capitalism and trade. R Hooylass argues that discovery of new worlds by
voyages of exploration exposed people to new lands with varied plants and animals which
needed to be studied and understood.

Debate about Individual Genuis

A Koyre, Arthur Koestler discount the relationship between social needs and sciences stating
that each event in development of science was independent and unrelated to society and was
hence a product of individual genius. Koyre gives credit to the unparalleled genius of individuals
as the scientific revolution was a mixture of genius, insight, delusion and error, therefore can not
be defined. He believed scientific developments were accidental or rather the birthing of one
genius alone galileo Galilei. Koestler in his book 'the Sleepwalker' suggests that scientific
revolution was a result of individual genius and their own capabilities which helped them
achieve new heights which were independent of society demands.

AR Hall emphasizes individual contribution liek teachers, professors, anatomists, medicine,

mathematics, engineers, opticians and instrument makers. Hans Lepherlly created the very
important lenses which were later used in telescopes by Galileo Galilie. Christopher Hill linked
the scientific revolution with the rise of Puritanism and bourgeoisie and holds science as a factor
responsible for the English civil war. He highlights that Francis Bacons Novum Organum gave a
blue print to merchants and artisans of Stuart period who tried to come to terms with the
authority of the clergymen and and feudal state after being exposed to the scientific
achievements of Galileo, Copernicus and the world view they provided.

Social Interpretations and Religious Causes

Social causes of scientific revolution have been explained in varied terms by Marxist historians.
Boris Hessen while stressing the scientific developments in accordance with the bourgeoisie
class states that Newton's principles were related to the needs of English Merchant Class. F
Engles states that society's technical needs helped science move forward by stimulating it to
fulfill the needs of the society and that there was no place for unique genius in the materialistic
needs of society hence discrediting that the scientific revolution was the birthing of individual
genius.

Edgard Zilsel believed that the emergence of modern science was a sociological outcome which
was a product dependent on achievements of ancient Greece and medieval Arabs. He argues
that emergence of early capitalism after the collapse of feudalism could only be supported by
scientific developments and the spirit of science itself could not develop in a feudal era of
clergymen. The individualism of the new society supported scientific thought.

Political Causes

Christopher Hill believes that the civil wars in England ws between two schools of astronomy,
one of the parliamentarians that supported the heliocentric view and the other of the royalist
Ptolemaics. H F Kearney stated that there was no direct link between economy and scientific
achievements as no evidence supports this notion. However, he does not ruke out the
possibility that social changes affected sciences as new wealth acquired by scholars and
scientists meant they could spend on experimental ventures. More men attended universities
and received training producing a new set of critical thinkers.

In 1628 Harvey's On the Motion of the Heart was published. He showed that the heart fills
passively and contracts actively, and that during contraction, it expels blood. However he
retained the fact that the "spirituous fluid" existed. Harvey published his book "On the Fabric of
Himan Body." This undermined the ancient views and furtehr set the base for modern sciences.
Hill contends, that in 1628, Harvey used anatomical analogies to support theories of absolute
monarchy. In his text, Harvey compared the heart to a prince in the
commonwealth and in an elaborate dedication of deMotu Cordis (Anatomica deMotu Cordis et
Sanguinis in Animalibus) to Charles I, the English ruler; he compared the king with the heart.
But in his second letter written in 1649 to Riolan after Charles' execution, according to Hill,
Harvey dethroned the heart and spoke no more of the sovereignty of heart but the prerogative
and antiquity of blood. This
'somersault' in Harvey's political ideas was due to the changing political scenario. Thus, Hill
argues that we cannot separate a thinker from the social climate.

Conclusion

Charles Webster emphasizes that by ignoring religious, political and social, economic,
intellectual movements it would drastically reduce the scope of history. + (include the conclusion
in the doc)