1.

 Entrapment. Gallstones enter the common bile duct and lodge at the ampulla of Vater.
 Obstruction. The gallstones obstruct the flow of the pancreatic juice or causing reflux of
bile from the common bile duct into the pancreatic duct.
 Activation. The powerful enzymes within the pancreas are activated.
 Inactivity. Normally, these enzymes remain in an inactive form until the pancreatic
secretions reach the lumen of the duodenum.
 Enzyme activities. Activation of enzymes can lead to vasodilation, increased vascular
permeability, necrosis, erosion, and hemorrhage.
 Reflux. These enzymes enter the bile duct, where they are activated and together with
bile, back up into the pancreatic duct, causing pancreatitis
2.
 Alcohol abuse. Eighty percent of the patients with pancreatitis have biliary tract disease
or a history of long-term alcohol abuse.
 Bacterial or viral infection. Pancreatitis occasionally develops as a complication of
mumps virus.
 Duodenitis. Spasm and edema of the ampulla of Vater can probably cause pancreatitis.
 Medications. The use of corticosteroids, thiazide diuretics, oral contraceptives, and
other medications have been associated with increased incidences of pancreatitis.

3. Acute pancreatitis patients often have increased serum amylase and lipase levels. These rises, on the
other hand, could just suggest pancreatitis. Amylase or lipase levels that are at least three times higher
than the reference range are generally regarded indicative of acute pancreatitis in research
investigations.

4. Precipitation of calcium soaps in the abdominal cavity is the most common cause, but glucagon-
stimulated calcitonin release and reduced PTH production may also play a role. When the pancreas is
injured, the enzyme pancreatic lipase produces free fatty acids.

Tetany and hypocalcemia are two symptoms of pancreatitis. Precipitation of calcium soaps in the
abdominal cavity is the primary cause, but glucagon-stimulated calcitonin release and reduced PTH
secretion may also play a role.
The first step in diagnosis is a blood test to determine your calcium levels. Your doctor may also
use mental and physical exams to test for signs of hypocalcemia. A physical exam may include a
study of your:
 Hair
 Skin
 Muscles

A mental exam may include tests for:

 dementia
 hallucinations
 confusion
 irritability
 Seizures

May also test for Chvostek’s and Trousseau’s signs, which are both linked to hypocalcemia.
Chvostek’s sign is a twitching response when a set of facial nerves is tapped. Trousseau’s sign is
a spasm in the hands or feet that comes from ischemia, or a restriction in blood supply to
tissues. Twitching or spasms are considered positive responses to these tests and suggest
neuromuscular excitability due to hypocalcemia.

5. The most common symptom of acute pancreatitis is stomach discomfort, which is dull,
boring, and consistent. Typically, the pain begins abruptly and steadily worsens until it becomes
a chronic discomfort.

6. Pancreatitis can cause kidney failure, trouble breathing, digestion issues, diabetes, and
abdominal pain.

7. It can be used to drain fluid and air from your pancreas, allowing it to heal more quickly. It
can also be used to help you get liquid food into your stomach while you're recovering.

8. Morphine PCA- You can give yourself intravenous (IV) pain medicine with a patient-controlled
analgesia (PCA) pump when you need it. You will have more control over your pain relief as a
result of this. Your pain medication is kept in the PCA pump. The drug of choice is usually
morphine, but other analgesics are occasionally used.

Pantoprazole (Protonix) IV- It helps heal acid damage to the stomach and esophagus, helps
prevent ulcers, and may help prevent cancer of the esophagus. Pantoprazole belongs to a class
of drugs known as proton pump inhibitors (PPIs). The injection form of this drug is used for a
short time when you cannot take the medication by mouth.

9. Acute discomfort due to pancreatic blockage is the most common nursing diagnosis. Kidney
failure and breathing issues are two of the major issues. Infection, pseudocyst, diabetes, and
pancreatic cancer are all conditions that can affect the pancreas.