Global and Planetary Change 216 (2022) 103919

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Global and Planetary Change

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gloplacha

Research article

Volcanism driven Pliensbachian (Early Jurassic) terrestrial climate and

environment perturbations
Kai Zhou a, b, Jing Lu a, *, Shuo Zhang b, Minfang Yang c, Ran Gao d, Longyi Shao a, Jason Hilton e
a
State Key Laboratory of Coal Resources and Safe Mining, College of Geoscience and Surveying Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing 100083,
China
b
State Key Laboratory of Hydroscience and Engineering, Department of Hydraulic Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
c
Petroleum Exploration and Development Research Institute, PetroChina, Beijing 100083, PR China
d
SINOPEC Exploration & Production Research Institute, Beijing 100083, China
e
School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Editor: Dr. Maoyan Zhu Initial breakup of Pangaea and opening of the Central Atlantic Ocean during the Early Jurassic resulted in
widespread volcanism and was accompanied by significant changes in atmospheric composition, climate and
Keywords: environment of the Earth’s surface system. Although profound changes in global geochemical cycles, palae­
Early Jurassic oclimate, and palaeoenvironments during the early part of the Toarcian Stage have been extensively studied and
Qaidam Basin
attributed to the emplacement of the Karro-Ferrar Large Igneous Province (LIP), similar changes in other parts of
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau
the Early Jurassic are less well known, especially in terrestrial settings. We studied Pliensbachian aged terrestrial
Terrestrial mudstones
Large Igneous Province volcanism strata from the Dameigou section in the Qaidam Basin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau to elucidate climate and
environmental changes and their potential driving mechanisms. Three significant climate and environment
perturbations were recognized by high-resolution mineralogical and geochemical analyses, with each charac­
terized by peaks in kaolinite composition that indicate relatively warm and humid climates. Each kaolinite peak
is accompanied by proxy evidence that indicates anoxic redox conditions, high paleoproductivity, and strong
continental weathering prevailed, and coincides with negative carbon isotope excursions and peaks in Hg/TOC
ratios that record three episodes of concurrent volcanism. The three episodes of volcanism are correlated with
global events and suggest volcanism as the driving mechanism for major global climate and environment per­
turbations during the Pliensbachian. Each interval of volcanism released massive quantities of greenhouse gases
and Hg into the atmosphere, leading to negative carbon isotope excursions and mercury anomalies in sedi­
mentary strata. Global climatic warming induced by volcanism resulted in an enhanced hydrological cycle and
can be correlated with more humid climatic conditions, intensified continental weathering and organic matter
burial, lake expansion, and eutrophication. Such changes have important negative feedback on the global carbon
cycle by increasing consumption of CO2 in lacustrine settings, which in the late Pliensbachian led to the resto­
ration of similar climates and environments that occurred pre-volcanism in the study area.

1. Introduction
The Early Jurassic was characterized by important palaeoceano­
graphic, climate and environmental changes, biotic turnover, and per­
turbed global geochemical cycles (Ruhl et al., 2016; De Lena et al., 2019;
Schöllhorn et al., 2020a, 2020b; Storm et al., 2020). It also witnessed
multiple somewhat smaller scale changes including fluctuations in the
global exogenic carbon cycle (Riding et al., 2013; Jenkyns and Weedon,
2013), shifts between climatic warming and cooling on regional and
global scales (Korte et al., 2009; Korte and Hesselbo, 2011; Korte et al.,
2015), marine and continental life extinction and origination events
(Close et al., 2015), and fluctuations in regional and global sea-level.
The initial breakup of the super-continent Pangaea and the opening of
the Central Atlantic Ocean during the Early Jurassic resulted in wide­
spread volcanic activity, including the Karoo-Ferrar and Patagonia Large
Igneous Provinces (LIPs). Volcanism from the Central Atlantic Magmatic
Province (CAMP), which triggered the mass extinction event at the end
of the Triassic, also remained active during the Early Jurassic (Cohen

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Lujing@cumtb.edu.cn (J. Lu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2022.103919
Received 15 April 2022; Received in revised form 8 August 2022; Accepted 10 August 2022
Available online 16 August 2022
0921-8181/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
K. Zhou et al. Global and Planetary Change 216 (2022) 103919

et al., 1999, 2004; Cohen and Coe, 2002; Whiteside et al., 2007; Ruhl
et al., 2016; Percival et al., 2017; Shen et al., 2022).
Toward the end of the Early Jurassic, the Early Toarcian Oceanic
Anoxic Event (T-OAE) was perhaps the largest exogenic carbon-cycle
perturbation in the Early Mesozoic (Xu et al., 2018). It was associated
with significant perturbations in other global geochemical cycles,
palaeoclimate and palaeoenvironment, and has been attributed to
emplacement of the Karoo-Ferrar LIP (Jenkyns, 2010; Burgess et al.,
2015; Percival et al., 2015). However, an increasing number of studies
highlight important climatic and environmental changes prior to this
event, which remain less well understood, including the Sinemurian-
Pliensbachian boundary event, the early Pliensbachian warming
event, the upper Pliensbachian positive carbon isotopic event (CIE), and
the Pliensbachian-Toarcian boundary event (e.g., Hesselbo et al., 2002;
Suan et al., 2008; Ruhl et al., 2016; Bougeault et al., 2017; Peti et al.,
2017; Deconinck et al., 2019; Schöllhorn et al., 2020a, 2020b; Storm
et al., 2020). Little is currently known about links between palaeogeo­
graphic changes in the Pliensbachian and changes in palaeoclimates and
palaeoenvironments. Scenarios for driving mechanisms of biotic and
environmental changes during the Pliensbachian have ranged from LIP
volcanism (the Karoo-Ferrar LIP), ocean stagnation, and changing ocean
circulation, to orbital forcing (e.g., Deconinck et al., 2019; De Lena et al.,
2019; Schöllhorn et al., 2020a, 2020b; Storm et al., 2020; Silva et al.,
2021).
With the aim of reconstructing climatic and environmental changes
during the Pliensbachian and elucidating their potential driving mech­
anisms, we studied the Pliensbachian sedimentary succession from the
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau of China on the northern margin of the eastern
Tethys Ocean (Fig. 1). We selected the Dameigou section in the Qaidam
Basin to investigate as it is well-dated and represents the best exposed
Jurassic terrestrial succession in this region (Fig. 2). High-resolution
mineralogical and geochemical analyses are presented to recognize
paleoclimate and paleoenvironment perturbations and Hg/TOC ratios
are used to identify episodes of volcanic activity. We focus on clay
mineral composition because they represent the products of weathering
in terrestrial settings and serve as proxies for weathering regimes and

Fig. 1. Location and geological context for the research area. (a) Map of mainland China showing the Qaidam Basin with highlighted box section enlarged in b; (b)
Enlargement from A showing tectonic setting for the Qaidam Basin (modified from Zhao et al., 2000); (c) Paleogeographic reconstruction for the Early Jurassic
showing the location of the Qaidam Basin (modified from Li and Jiang, 2013) with 1 -Cardigan Bay Basin; 2 - Izee-Suplee Basin; 3 - Wessex Basin; (d) Simplified cross-
section showing structural relationships of the Northern Qaidam Basin in Early Jurassic (modified from Yu et al., 2017). Abbreviations: KP = Korean Plate; Mong. =
Mongolia; NCP = North China Plate; SCP = South China Plate.

2
K. Zhou et al. Global and Planetary Change 216 (2022) 103919

Fig. 2. Development and chronostratigraphic correlation of the Early Jurassic coal-bearing strata in the Qaidam Basin (modified from Guo et al., 2020). Detrital
Zircon U–Pb dating in Ma (million years) from Yu et al. (2017) and Yang et al. (2017); Biostratigraphic data from Zhang (1998) and Wang et al. (2005); Carbon
isotope data from Lu et al. (2020). Abbreviations: S. = Series; Mid. J. = Middle Jurassic; St. = Stage; Dmg = Dameigou; F. = Formation; Chemostra. = Chemo­
stratigraphy; TCZ = Thaumatopteris-Cycadocarpidium Assemblage; CAZ = Cladophlebis Acme Zone; CIZ = Coniopteris Initial Appearance; CDC = Cyathidites-Dictyo­
phyllidites-Cycadopites Assemblage; CCQ/C = Cyathidites-Cycadopites-Quadraeculina/Classopollis Assemblage; MNP = Cyathidites minor-Neoraistrickia-
Piceaepollenites Assemblage.

palaeoclimate at different timescales (Singer, 1984; Chamley, 1989;
Deconinck et al., 2005; Dera et al., 2009). Using these proxies for various
climatic and environmental factors, we establish a precise framework for
volcanism and its relationship to climatic and environmental changes
during the Pliensbachian.
2. Geological setting
The Qaidam Basin is situated in the north-eastern part of the
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (Northwest China) and covers an area of about
120,000 km2 with an average elevation of approximately 3000 m
(Fig. 1a). It is surrounded by the Qilian mountains to the northeast, the
East Kunlun mountains to the south, and the Altyn mountains to the
northwest (Fig. 1b). At the end of the Late Triassic during the Indosinian
movement, the East Kunlun-Qaidam block and South Qilian block
amalgamated to form the South Qilian and East Kunlun Terrane on the
North China Plate (NCP), the Qaidam Terrane, and the New Tethys
Ocean (Tang et al., 2000; Fig. 1d). Under the stable environment of
stress relaxation and extensional fault depression in the NCP, the Qai­
dam Basin began to develop under a fluvial-lacustrine dispositional
system. During the Lower Jurassic, the Qaidam Basin had a palae­
olatitude of approximately 30◦ N (Fang et al., 1996; Wan, 2004; Fig. 1c)
and was an important terrestrial coal and hydrocarbon-forming basin.
The Dameigou section, located in the northern margin of the Qaidam
Basin, is the best exposed and most complete Jurassic succession in and
around the Qaidam Basin (Yu et al., 2017; Lu et al., 2020). During the
Early Jurassic, the Dameigou area mainly developed fluvial, deltaic, and
lacustrine sedimentary facies (Yu et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 2020). The
Lower Jurassic strata are generally composed of conglomerates, sand­
stones, siltstones, mudstones, shales, and coal seams, with sediment
provenance mainly from the East Kunlun Terrane to the south and the
Oulongbruk basement lithologies to the north (Yu et al., 2017; Fig. 1d).
Paleocurrents are mostly southeastward under the influence of tectonic
activity (Zhao et al., 2000).
Early Jurassic strata in the Northern Qaidam Basin have been divided
into the Xiaomeigou, Huoshaoshan, Tianshuigou, and Yinmagou for­
mations from the oldest to the youngest. Based on biostratigraphic an­
alyses of fossil plants, sporopollen, and bivalves, the Huoshaoshan and
Tianshuigou formations have been dated to the Pliensbachian stage
(190.8–182.7 Ma) (Wang et al., 2005; Fig. 2). The age of the Tian­
shuigou Formation has also been constrained by detrital zircon U–Pb
dating in which the youngest detrital zircon ages from sandstones in the
upper part of the Tianshuigou Formation have been dated to 186.1 Ma
(Yu et al., 2017; Fig. 2). In addition, the Pliensbachian ages of the
Huoshaoshan and Tianshuigou formations have been confirmed by
carbon isotope chemostratigraphy and correlation with well-dated ma­
rine sections (Lu et al., 2020; Fig. 2).
The Huoshaoshan Formation, characterized by an upward-fining
sedimentary cycle, is in ascending order mainly composed of greyish-
white conglomerates, greyish-black silty mudstones, and black coal
seams (#B) (Fig. 3). It was deposited in fluvial conditions under the
typical binary phase of fluvial facies (Ritts et al., 1999; Yu et al., 2017;

3
K. Zhou et al. Global and Planetary Change 216 (2022) 103919

reflects the chemical weathering state of rocks by referring to the loss of

labile elements, and is defined as Al2O3/(Al2O3 + CaO* + Na2O + K2O)
× 100. The Weathering Index of Parker (WIP; Parker, 1970), expressed
as (2Na2O/0.35 + MgO/0.9 + 2K2O/0.25 + CaO*/0.7) × 100, quanti­
tatively evaluates the weathering degree of silicate rocks. In the CIA and
WIP analyses CaO* refers to the calculated calcium content in the sili­
cate fraction (McLennan, 1993). The effects of potassium metasomatism
alteration on CIA were evaluated by the A-CN-K (Al2O3-CaO* + Na2O-
K2O) diagram (Nesbitt and Young, 1984). In the A-CN-K diagram, the
samples with CIA values of <85 trend approximately parallel to the A-
CN boundary, mimicking the predicted weathering trend (Fig. 3; Nesbitt
and Young, 1984). Samples with higher CIA values (CIA > ~85) lie
subparallel to the A-K boundary but gradually tend toward the A apex,
indicating that the samples of the study area are less affected by po­
tassium metasomatism alteration in the diagenetic stage (Fig. 3).
Generally, high CIA and low WIP values indicate that siliciclastic sedi­
ments in the source area have experienced strong weathering.
From the major and trace element analysis, the ratio of Σ (Fe + Mn +
Cr + Ni + V + Co)/Σ (Ca + Mg + Sr + Ba + K + Na) (termed as C-value)
Fig. 3. A-CN-K (Al2O3-CaO* + Na2O-K2O) diagram for the Pliensbachian
was applied to reveal paleoclimatic changes over different timescales
mudstone samples from the Dameigou section, with the Chemical Index of
Alteration (CIA) scale to the left.
(Qiu et al., 2015; Fathy et al., 2021). V/(V + Ni) (V represents Vana­
dium, Ni represents Nickel) and V/Cr (Vanadium/Chromium) ratios
were employed as paleoredox indices (e.g., Algeo and Maynard, 2004;
Lu et al., 2020; Fig. 3). The Tianshuigou Formation contains two fining-
Tribovillard et al., 2006; Algeo and Ingall, 2007), and the ratio of P/Al
upward cycles. The lower cycle consists mainly of fluvial greyish-white
(Phosphorus/Aluminum) was used to assess changes in paleo­
sandstones in the lower part and lacustrine greyish-black shales inter­
productivity (e.g., Shen et al., 2014; Lu et al., 2021a).
bedded with coal seams (#C) in the upper part (Ritts et al., 1999; Yu
et al., 2017; Fig. 3). The Yinmagou Formation comprises greyish-white
4. Results
gravel-bearing coarse sandstones in the lower part and shales as well
as some coal beds in the upper part, which were deposited in delta-
4.1. Bulk minerals and clay mineral assemblages
lacustrine environments (Ritts et al., 1999; Yu et al., 2017; Lu et al.,
2020; Fig. 3).
The analysis results of bulk minerals and clay mineral assemblages
and the crystallinity of illite (Kübler index) values are shown in
3. Materials and methods
Fig. 4a–e, Fig. 5, and Table 1. Bulk minerals are dominated by clay
minerals (47.6–86.4%, x‾ (mean) = 69.9%), followed by quartz
From the Dameigou section in the Qaidam Basin, 42 fresh mudstones
(11.7–44%, x‾ =25.2%), and lower amounts of feldspar (0–13.5%, x‾
were sampled from the Xiaomeigou Formation to the Yinmagou For­
=7.7%) and pyrite (0–8.9%, x‾ =5.9%) (Fig. 4a). Clay mineral assem­
mation. Sampling locations are shown in Fig. 3. Every mudstone sample
blages are predominantly composed of kaolinite (36–89%, x‾ = 63.5%),
was ground to <200 μm using mesh sieves and divided into four parts for
random illite-smectite mixed-layer clays (7–57%, x‾ = 29.8%), and
(1) bulk mineral analysis, (2) clay mineral analysis, (3) major elements
minor to small proportions of illite (0–28%, x‾ =6.7%) (Fig. 4b–d, 4).
analysis, and (4) trace elements analysis. Bulk mineral and clay minerals
Three intervals with significantly higher kaolinite values are recognized
were analysed at the State Key Laboratory Coal Resources and Safe
during the Pliensbachian that we name from the oldest to the youngest
Mining (Beijing), and the major and trace elements in Beijing Research
K-1, K-2, and K-3 (Fig. 4b). Illite generally occurs in small quantities,
Institute of Uranium Geology.
except for an interval of relatively high content during the late Pliens­
Bulk mineral compositions were determined using an X-ray diffrac­
bachian (Fig. 4c). Kübler Index values vary from 0.29 to 0.92◦ Δ2θ (x‾ =
tometer (D/max 2500 PC) with Cu-Kα radiation. The sample powders
0.42◦ Δ2θ) (Fig. 4e).
were evenly pressed into the sample frame. The XRD patterns scanned
from 3◦ to 70◦ (2θ) at a scanning speed of 2◦ /min, and the data were
4.2. Element geochemistry, δ13Corg, and Hg/TOC ratios
interpreted using Rockquan 2016 software with a precision better than
±5%. For each clay mineral sample we prepared three kinds of oriented
Results for Carbon isotope values, V/(V + Ni), V/Cr, P/Al, CIA,
slides, including natural oriented slides (N) (air-drying), ethylene-glycol
δ13Corg, and Hg/TOC ratios are shown in Fig. 4f–l and Table 2. C values
oriented slides (EG) (ethylene-glycol solvation for 12 h), and high-
vary from 0.11 to 0.69 (x‾ = 0.37) (Fig. 4f), V/(V + Ni) ratios vary from
temperature oriented slides (HT) (heating at 550 ◦ C for 2 h). Three X-
0.41 to 0.93 (x‾ = 0.78) (Fig. 4g), V/Cr ratios from 0.32 to 6.72 (x‾ =
ray diagrams were then obtained using an X-ray diffractometer (D/max
1.75) (Fig. 4h), and P/Al ratios from 16 × 10− 4 to 492 × 10− 4 (x‾ = 78
2500 PC), and the data were interpreted using Clayquan 2016 software
× 10− 4) (Fig. 4i). CIA values from 72.9 to 93.1 (x‾ = 87.6) (Fig. 4j). Each
with the relative analysis error of ±5%. Major and trace elements
of these parameters records three distinct peaks that are coincident with
analysis was undertaken with an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer
each other and the K-1, K-2 and K-3 kaolinite peaks. Al/Si ratios vary
(PW2404) with the relative analysis error of ±5%. More details of the
from 0.25 to 1.33 (x‾ = 0.45), K/Si ratios from 0.008 to 0.065 (x‾ =
analytical method are described by Ma et al. (2015) and Wu et al.
0.042), and WIP from 1.13 to 37.90 (x‾ = 20.26) (Table 2). δ13Corg
(2017). The crystallinity of illite (Kübler Index; KI), expressed as the
values vary from − 29.3 to − 22.3‰ (x‾ = − 25.6‰) (Fig. 4k) and Hg/
integral breadth (Δ◦ 2θ) of the 10 Å peaks, was calculated to determine
TOC ratios vary from 0 to 133.67 ppb/wt% (Fig. 4l). In the present
whether the clay minerals suffered metamorphism during their long-
analysis data from bulk minerals, clay mineral assemblages, and
term burial (Ehrmann et al., 2005; Cheng et al., 2019). High KI values
geochemical parameters are new, whereas the CIA values, δ13Corg values
(≥0.25) indicate that the clay minerals are not affected by meta­
and Hg/TOC ratios come from Lu et al. (2020).
morphism (Kübler, 1968).
The Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA; Nesbitt and Young, 1982)

4
 K. Zhou et al.
5

Global and Planetary Change 216 (2022) 103919

Fig. 4. Change in value of bulk minerals, clay minerals, Kübler Index (KI) values, C-values, V/(V + Ni), V/Cr and P/Al ratios, Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA), organic carbon isotope (δ13Corg) values, and Hg/TOC
ratios in the study area. Abbreviations: F. = Formation; S. = Stage; D. = Depth; Litho. = Lithology; Sam. No. = sample number; Hss = Huoshaoshan; Ymg = Yinmagou; Sine = Sinemurian; min. = minerals; Kao. =
Kaolinite; Ill. = Illite; cry = crystallinity. Note: bulk minerals, clay minerals, Kübler Index (KI) values, C-values, V/(V + Ni), V/Cr and P/Al ratios are new in this study, CIA, δ13Corg values, and Hg/TOC ratios in the study
area come from Lu et al., 2020; white boxes represent V/Cr values >3.
K. Zhou et al. Global and Planetary Change 216 (2022) 103919

Fig. 5. X-Ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of clay

fractions of typical samples in the study area. N, EG,
and T designate spectra of a naturally-oriented slide
(red line), ethylene-glycol saturated for oriented slide
(blue line), and high-temperature treated (green line)
at 450 ◦ C for oriented slide, respectively. Abbrevia­
tions: I/S = illite-smectite mixed layers; I = illite; K
= kaolinite; Qtz = quartz. (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)

Table 1
The results of bulk minerals and clay minerals (%) of the Pliensbachian samples from Dameigou section, Northern Qaidam Basin.
Sample NO. Bulk minerals (%) Clay minerals (%) KI values

Clay minerals Quartz Feldspar Pyrite I/S Illite Kaolinite

s11 50.9 44.0 5.1 – 38 4 58 0.38

s12 60.3 36.5 3.2 – 39 2 59 0.42
s13 61.3 31.8 6.9 – 57 2 41 0.40
s14 60.3 30.1 9.6 – 54 4 42 0.45
s15 59.6 30.3 10.1 – 27 8 65 0.45
s16 74.4 20.5 – 5.1 21 9 70 0.41
s17 83.7 16.3 – – 11 0 89 0.38
s18 85.3 11.7 – 3.0 10 8 82 0.43
s19 66.3 33.7 – – 18 2 80 0.40
s20 70.9 29.1 – – 30 3 67 0.40
s21 63.0 30.7 6.3 – 30 3 67 0.84
s22 68.1 23.0 8.9 – 38 3 59 0.37
s23 69.1 22.6 8.3 – 48 5 47 0.40
s24 65.6 27.8 6.5 – 50 10 40 0.41
s25 63.5 27.8 8.7 – 28 12 60 0.39
s26 69.7 26.1 4.2 – 50 6 44 0.48
s27 65.6 25.4 9.1 – 30 5 65 0.40
s28 75.5 21.2 – 3.3 30 3 67 0.37
s29 73.2 20.3 – 6.5 29 2 69 0.39
s30 75.1 24.9 – – 27 5 68 0.41
s31 74.6 25.4 – – 13 4 83 0.39
s32 78.2 17.3 – 4.5 27 5 68 0.40
s33 80.6 19.4 – – 25 6 69 0.42
s34 86.4 13.6 – – 18 4 78 0.41
s35 82.9 17.1 – – 34 4 62 0.40
s36 84.1 15.9 – – 24 6 70 0.39
s37 82.7 17.3 – – 13 3 84 0.40
s38 83.2 16.8 – – 32 4 64 0.39
s39 80.7 19.3 – – 24 4 72 0.40
s40 71.2 28.8 – – 18 4 78 0.38
s41 65.3 30.3 4.4 – 39 21 40 0.30
s42 67.5 28.5 4.0 – 40 19 41 0.36
s43 64.7 30.2 5.1 – 36 28 36 0.32
s44 62.1 25.9 12.0 – 38 18 44 0.38
s45 62.0 26.8 11.2 – 41 20 39 0.92
s46 63.1 32.0 4.9 – 12 5 83 0.37
s47 72.1 19.5 – 8.4 11 4 85 0.40
s48 70.5 23.5 – 6.0 7 8 85 0.37
s49 71.3 19.8 – 8.9 13 4 83 0.39
s50 73.2 19.8 – 7.0 10 5 85 0.39
s51 47.6 39.7 12.7 – 53 6 41 0.30
s52 50.1 36.4 13.5 – 57 4 39 0.38

6
 K. Zhou et al.
Table 2
The results of major element (%) and trace element (ug/g) geochemistry of the Pliensbachian samples from Dameigou section, Northern Qaidam Basin.
Sample NO. Major elements (%) Trace elements (ug/g) C value WIP CIA V/(V + Ni) V/Cr P/Al(×104) Al/Si K/Si

Si Al Fe MgO CaO Na K MnO P V Ni Cr Sr Ba Co Th U

s11 39.45 22.89 1.68 0.599 0.132 0.705 1.270 0.699 0.046 89.2 26.1 75.4 72.9 452 11.30 18.3 23.5 0.37 19.7 87.8 0.83 1.18 21.9 0.53 0.06
s12 50.35 23.52 2.10 0.560 0.145 0.116 2.160 0.66 0.064 65.8 12.9 45.4 144.0 613 6.08 11.6 8.9 0.17 21.8 89.7 0.84 1.45 27.2 0.47 0.04
s13 59.83 23.42 1.40 0.593 0.269 0.148 2.190 0.693 0.057 61.4 7.4 38.8 110.0 378 2.35 27.2 23.5 0.23 22.8 88.9 0.89 1.58 24.3 0.39 0.04
s14 61.67 20.35 4.05 0.160 0.141 0.353 3.600 1.160 0.071 79.4 19.7 55.6 59.0 353 7.74 21.7 20.8 0.40 37.9 81.4 0.80 1.43 34.9 0.33 0.06
s15 42.58 17.64 16.86 0.620 0.260 0.409 2.450 0.620 0.192 70.6 37.7 65.5 84.8 428 23.00 25.0 28.1 0.41 26.8 83.8 0.65 1.08 108.8 0.41 0.06
s16 16.53 8.90 2.41 0.971 0.341 0.088 0.419 0.171 0.089 98.5 35.0 51.1 85.7 338 3.42 8.1 6.2 0.45 5.5 92.2 0.74 1.93 100.0 0.54 0.03
s17 33.50 17.62 7.22 1.620 0.642 0.347 1.620 0.520 0.308 131.0 32.2 19.5 105.0 196 9.43 20.1 23.6 0.65 19.3 86.3 0.80 6.72 174.8 0.53 0.05
s18 36.86 15.43 1.86 0.675 0.125 0.277 1.620 0.275 0.056 90.9 25.9 56.0 80.4 125 5.46 14.4 12.9 0.87 17.5 86.8 0.78 1.62 36.3 0.42 0.04
s19 55.33 22.10 5.25 0.941 0.252 0.130 2.610 0.941 0.101 118.0 21.0 35.5 79.2 215 9.58 25.2 23.7 0.64 26.8 86.9 0.85 3.32 45.7 0.40 0.05
s20 56.62 24.66 1.61 0.342 0.112 0.162 3.070 0.642 0.249 93.9 10.2 92.6 57.5 134 2.35 23.1 19.3 1.03 30.3 86.4 0.90 1.01 101.0 0.44 0.05
s21 58.02 22.70 1.78 0.207 0.104 0.138 2.860 0.707 0.058 26.4 10.7 81.7 68.3 272 2.99 27.0 25.2 0.36 28.2 86.8 0.71 0.32 25.6 0.39 0.05
s22 58.76 24.00 1.29 0.267 0.114 0.207 3.280 0.567 0.043 29.1 6.3 69.9 68.2 492 2.61 25.0 22.1 0.19 32.2 85.5 0.82 0.42 17.9 0.41 0.06
s23 5.39 2.15 58.58 0.994 2.170 0.125 0.351 0.994 0.045 31.5 12 42.8 66.5 477 4.63 2.8 2.8 0.28 9.3 72.9 0.72 0.74 69.8 0.40 0.07
s24 48.41 22.51 2.75 0.691 0.403 0.116 2.350 0.691 0.069 57.0 49.4 60.5 89.3 803 11.50 28.4 24.8 0.20 24.2 88.3 0.54 0.94 30.7 0.46 0.05
s25 27.92 6.25 0.62 0.131 0.170 0.065 0.299 0.131 0.017 74.0 91.4 89.8 64.2 875 10.50 15.7 20.6 0.28 3.9 92.0 0.45 0.82 27.2 0.22 0.01
s26 34.03 12.49 0.89 0.349 0.144 0.074 1.040 0.349 0.076 23.5 11.0 73.9 50.2 413 3.05 21.0 17.7 0.24 10.8 90.2 0.68 0.32 44.8 0.37 0.03
s27 21.94 2.58 0.23 0.283 0.339 0.046 0.037 0.083 0.212 46.1 67.5 44.8 68.0 804 4.30 1.4 1.6 0.19 1.1 93.1 0.41 1.03 821.7 0.12 0.00
s28 61.69 23.04 0.96 0.420 0.242 0.201 2.290 0.420 0.069 60.4 4.8 18.05 40.7 358 1.54 13.9 15.3 0.21 23.5 87.8 0.93 3.35 29.9 0.37 0.04
s29 47.96 22.22 2.82 0.167 0.119 0.149 2.330 0.667 0.067 138 24.0 27.2 68.8 505 3.06 30.9 36.4 0.34 23.6 88.5 0.85 5.07 30.2 0.46 0.05
7

s30 44.37 19.48 1.65 0.584 0.319 0.133 1.860 0.584 0.028 128 15.0 82.4 42.7 347 3.07 22 25.1 0.59 19.7 88.6 0.90 1.55 45.2 0.44 0.04
s31 54.21 21.07 2.93 0.570 0.269 0.147 2.260 0.570 0.040 103.7 8.4 72.0 57.2 330 1.65 24.2 27.7 0.48 23.1 87.6 0.93 1.44 42.7 0.39 0.04
s32 39.75 19.19 1.86 0.333 0.342 0.134 1.290 0.333 0.372 93.8 14.6 59.5 56.0 210 1.63 23.3 23.7 0.64 14.2 91.1 0.87 1.58 193.9 0.48 0.03
s33 6.16 3.37 0.17 1.229 1.000 0.135 0.116 0.129 0.116 77.2 19.8 61.5 49.5 181 1.67 15.5 17.7 0.69 5.1 85.5 0.80 1.26 344.2 0.55 0.02
s34 27.05 8.89 3.93 0.261 0.126 0.106 0.687 0.261 0.033 54.4 9.1 46.0 41.5 216 0.88 9.0 11.1 0.44 7.9 89.1 0.86 1.18 82.1 0.33 0.03
s35 61.19 20.79 1.64 0.466 0.091 0.154 1.580 0.466 0.039 83.4 23.8 31.6 51.8 206 3.08 27.0 25.5 0.55 16.6 90.9 0.78 2.64 38.0 0.34 0.03
s36 38.64 16.82 2.47 0.845 0.432 0.172 1.230 0.445 0.048 93.7 19.5 74.1 63.3 235 2.14 15.7 20.9 0.64 14.5 89.7 0.83 1.26 46.4 0.44 0.03
s37 31.68 8.96 3.48 0.474 0.220 0.085 0.854 0.274 0.038 84.1 13.8 65.5 52.2 204 0.90 8.8 16.2 0.65 9.4 88.0 0.86 1.28 98.2 0.28 0.03
s38 43.67 20.58 1.64 0.468 0.121 0.083 1.640 0.468 0.042 102.7 18.3 58.0 55.8 218 2.58 25.7 25.3 0.67 16.5 90.8 0.85 1.77 35.0 0.47 0.04
s39 60.83 17.41 1.12 0.404 0.094 0.203 2.370 0.404 0.031 129.7 67.8 70.1 41.7 330 2.43 15.8 17.4 0.72 23.7 85.1 0.66 1.85 52.3 0.29 0.04
s40 52.39 26.81 1.78 0.714 0.171 0.220 2.560 0.714 0.069 142.0 69.9 65.4 86.0 309 6.06 42.9 29.8 0.72 26.5 88.9 0.67 2.17 33.2 0.51 0.05
s41 54.81 21.82 5.87 0.179 0.105 0.093 2.270 0.579 0.068 48.1 19.7 115.0 63.9 595 11.30 27.3 26.3 0.30 22.2 89.0 0.71 0.42 31.2 0.40 0.04
s42 56.81 24.40 1.30 0.213 0.122 0.096 2.410 0.613 0.062 44.7 11.4 80.8 70.0 489 2.73 24.8 24.6 0.25 23.6 89.4 0.80 0.55 25.4 0.43 0.04
s43 60.07 23.12 1.25 0.177 0.105 0.134 2.430 0.577 0.040 38.7 9.3 66.8 56.8 494 2.56 18.1 18.9 0.22 24.1 88.5 0.81 0.58 17.3 0.38 0.04
s44 54.36 25.90 1.84 0.144 0.138 0.076 2.420 0.744 0.048 41.9 15.7 60.0 66.8 409 8.90 26.3 25.9 0.27 24.0 89.8 0.73 0.70 18.5 0.48 0.04

Global and Planetary Change 216 (2022) 103919

s45 65.11 20.09 1.45 0.197 0.156 0.147 3.680 0.597 0.033 46.7 6.6 71.4 120.0 1094 3.45 4.4 5.5 0.11 35.3 81.6 0.88 0.65 16.4 0.31 0.06
s46 64.43 20.87 1.41 0.795 0.205 0.097 3.470 0.595 0.039 82.5 18.1 34.9 130.0 1212 6.64 3.9 4.1 0.11 33.1 83.4 0.82 2.36 42.6 0.32 0.05
s47 4.37 2.72 0.78 1.012 0.423 0.052 0.036 0.112 0.134 82.1 7.9 33.6 113.0 394 11.70 2.7 2.9 0.27 2.2 92.8 0.91 2.44 492.6 0.62 0.01
s48 56.55 22.85 3.44 1.330 0.693 0.125 2.100 0.853 0.032 97.9 17.4 20.1 44.7 219 24.30 17.3 21.6 0.61 23.4 89.3 0.85 4.87 40.3 0.40 0.04
s49 48.20 22.04 2.66 0.836 0.256 0.117 2.020 0.736 0.078 91.7 27.6 31.8 80.0 184 9.40 18.7 17.2 0.61 21.1 89.4 0.77 2.88 35.4 0.46 0.04
s50 43.31 20.05 5.34 0.718 0.135 0.155 2.120 0.918 0.059 140.0 60.7 41.1 79.0 297 26.90 31.4 27.4 0.73 22.6 88.1 0.70 3.41 49.4 0.46 0.05
s51 56.71 17.21 3.12 0.350 0.318 0.305 3.150 1.350 0.084 71.9 15.0 81.7 119.0 654 11.70 16.0 16.0 0.24 34.5 79.7 0.83 0.88 48.8 0.30 0.06
s52 38.28 18.50. 0.94 0.279 0.202 0.426 1.810 0.779 0.040 93.4 21.6 60.1 100.0 528 6.69 20.1 19.2 0.29 22.2 86.1 0.81 1.55 21.6 0.48 0.05
K. Zhou et al. Global and Planetary Change 216 (2022) 103919

5. Discussion

5.1. Paleoclimate and paleoenvironment reconstruction in the

Pliensbachian

5.1.1. Clay mineral assemblages

As products of rock weathering, clay minerals carry a variety of in­
dicators of climate conditions during their formation and evolution
(Singer, 1984; Chamley, 1989). Clay minerals in sediments can be used
as a proxy for paleoclimatic changes over different timescales (e.g.,
Chamley, 1989; Deconinck et al., 2005; Dera et al., 2009), particularly
when the sedimentary basins are small and/or are themselves marked by
continental episodes (Thiry, 2000) as they are in the Qaidam Basin.
However, before interpreting the paleoclimate significance of clay
mineral assemblages, it is essential to ensure that the clays are domi­
nantly detrital in origin and are not strongly influenced by depositional
recycling, hydraulic sorting, and post-deposition diagenesis.
The effects of depositional recycling on the clay minerals were
evaluated by the Th/U ratio (McLennan and Taylor, 1980) analysis.
Results vary from 0.50 to 1.75 (Lu et al., 2020) and indicate little or no
effect from depositional recycling on the samples (e.g., Bhatia and
Taylor, 1981; Lu et al., 2020). This agrees with the previous conclusion
that sediments in the Dameigou area are mainly derived from the
Oulongbruk Block (Yu et al., 2017). The crystallinity of illite (Kübler
index) in the study area ranges from 0.29 to 0.92◦ Δ2θ (x‾ = 0.42◦ Δ2θ,
Fig. 4e) and is generally low but has two high values. High Kübler index
values (> 0.6 Δ◦ 2θ) indicate poor crystallinities, whereas low values
(<0.6 Δ◦ 2θ) indicate good crystallinities (Ehrmann et al., 2005). As the
results show no relationship with depth, this indicates that the mudstone
samples were weakly or not affected by diagenesis (e.g., Ehrmann et al.,
2005; Li et al., 2018; Fu et al., 2022). The Al/Si ratios show poor cor­
relation with K/Si ratios (r2 = 0.031, P < 0.01, n = 42), CIA (r2 = 0.021,
P < 0.01, n = 42), and WIP (r2 = 0.002, P < 0.01, n = 42) (Fig. 6,
Table 2) implying that the variations of clay mineralogy are not
controlled by hydraulic or sedimentary sorting processes (Yang et al.,
2018). Previous studies on the sources of clay minerals in modern
terrigenous basins have shown that clay minerals in rivers and lakes
have major detrital characteristics similar to those in their circumjacent
drainage basins (e.g., Chamley, 1989; Liu et al., 2020). An absence of
cations and silicon in rivers and saline lakes may create deficiencies in
authigenic clay minerals in fresh and salt water (Gao et al., 2013). Fig. 6. Cross-plots of Al/Si ratio versus (a) K/Si ratio, (b) Weathering Index of
Therefore, we infer that there may be low levels of authigenic clay Parker (WIP), and (c) Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA), showing no signifi­
minerals present in the study area during deposition. In conclusion, the cant sedimentary sorting effect on sample compositions.
clay mineral assemblages in the studied strata are primarily of detrital
origin and show little effect on depositional recycling, hydraulic sorting, The relationships between kaolinite and illite clay mineral assem­
and post-deposition diagenesis. We thus consider them suitable proxies blages in the study area and paleoclimate conditions identified by pre­
for paleoclimate evaluation. vious studies are shown in Fig. 7a, f, e. Intervals K-1, K-2, and K-3 with
Significant seawater temperature fluctuations occurred in the higher clay minerals and kaolinite contents (with mean values of 77.6%,
Pliensbachian and were characterized by alternating warm and cold 71.2%, and 84.2%, respectively) are roughly isochronous with high
episodes (Armendáriz et al., 2012; Korte et al., 2015; Gómez et al., 2016; surface seawater temperatures in the UK (Hesselbo et al., 2000; McAr­
Price et al., 2016). Recent studies have shown that the Pliensbachian thur et al., 2000; Jenkyns et al., 2002; Bailey et al., 2003; Korte and
was also punctuated by wetter and drier climate episodes highlighted by Hesselbo, 2011; Li et al., 2012; Fig. 7f), indicating a relatively humid
kaolinite-rich and smectite-rich intervals in mid-latitude Western Tethys and warm climate prevailed in the Qaidam Basin at this time. K-2 and K-
(Bougeault et al., 2017; Deconinck et al., 2019; Schöllhorn et al., 2020a, 3, but not K-1, are coincident with an increase of atmospheric pCO2 (Li
2020b). In contrast, Pliensbachian climate records from North China et al., 2020; Fig. 7e). The intervals with the presence of feldspar and low
from palaeontological data including fossil plant stomatal parameters, kaolinite contents before K-1, between K-1 and K-2, and particularly the
sedimentology, and geochemistry indicate a warm-temperate humid one between K-2 and K-3 that also has a high illite content, roughly
climate prevailed (Deng et al., 2017). This is further evidenced by the correspond to intervals of low surface seawater temperatures and lower
widespread development of coal seams, siderite beds, and organic rich atmospheric pCO2 values (Fig. 7e), implying a relatively semi-humid/
mudstones in terrestrial settings across North China that formed under cool climate prevailed in the Qaidam Basin at these times.
warm and humid conditions. In addition, the clay mineral assemblages
dominated by kaolinite and illite-smectite mixed-layer clays in the 5.1.2. Element geochemistry
Qaidam Basin are significantly different from those that consist mainly The C-value (ratio of Σ (Fe + Mn + Cr + Ni + V + Co)/Σ (Ca + Mg +
of illite and kaolinite in the Western Tethys (Bougeault et al., 2017; Sr + Ba + K + Na)) was applied to reveal paleoclimatic changes (Qiu
Deconinck et al., 2019; Schöllhorn et al., 2020a, 2020b), indicating a et al., 2015; Fathy et al., 2021) on the basis that in general Fe, Mn, Cr, V,
more humid climate prevailing in the study area.

8
 K. Zhou et al.
9

Fig. 7. Correlations of clay mineral assemblages, redox conditions, paleoproductivity, carbon and oxygen isotope records, continental weathering trends, atmospheric pCO2, Hg/TOC ratios, and the paleoenvironmental

Global and Planetary Change 216 (2022) 103919

events in the Pliensbachian. Age stratigraphic framework from the International Stratigraphic Chart; a, Vertical climate change trends reconstructed by clay mineral assemblages and C-values in the study area; b, Redox
conditions reconstructed by V/Cr and V/(V + Ni) ratios in the study area; c, Paleoproductivity reconstructed by P/Al ratios in the study area; d, Continental weathering trends from Lu et al. (2020); e, Oxygen isotope
values compiled from (Hesselbo et al., 2000; McArthur et al., 2000; Jenkyns et al., 2002; Bailey et al., 2003; Korte and Hesselbo, 2011; Li et al., 2012); f, Carbon dioxide levels from Li et al. (2020); g, carbon isotope
records in the study area from Lu et al. (2020); h, Volcanic curve inferred from Hg/TOC ratio records (Percival et al., 2018; De Lena et al., 2019; Lu et al., 2020; Schöllhorn et al., 2020a, 2020b); i, Volcanism records and
tectonic events from Svensen et al. (2012), Burgess et al. (2015), Wang et al. (2015), Ruhl et al. (2016), Wang et al. (2016), and Navarrete et al. (2021). Abbreviations: S. = series; St. = Stage; Si. = Sinemurian; Toa. =
Toarcian; cond. = conditions; Paleoproduc. = Paleoproductivity; Cont. = Continental. Note: gray background represents the mercury spikes.
K. Zhou et al.
Ni, and Co are relatively enriched under moist conditions, while Ca, Mg,
K, Na, Sr, and Ba are concentrated under arid conditions, due to the
strengthening of water alkalinity caused by evaporation (Zhao et al.,
2007). High C-values (>0.6) indicate more humid conditions whilst low
values (<0.4) indicate a more arid climate (Qiu et al., 2015). As shown
in Fig. 4f, C-values of mudstones in the study area typically range from
0.10 to 1.03 and reflect a dry climate, but three peaks with average
values of 0.80, 0.64, and 0.65 respectively coincide with the K-1, K-2, K-
3 peaks in kaolinite and indicate more humid intervals (Fig. 7a).
Th/U (Thorium/Uranium) ratios are widely used to estimate depo­
sitional redox conditions of sediments (e.g., Wignall and Twitchett,
1996; Zhou and Jiang, 2009; Lu et al., 2021a; Lu et al., 2022), with lower
Th/U ratios (< 2) reflecting anoxic conditions. Uranium is reduced to
insoluble uranous (U4+) fluoride complexes and can be preserved in the
sediment under anoxic conditions, while it is converted to a soluble
uranyl (U6+) carbonate and removed in solution from oxidizing envi­
ronments (Wignall and Twitchett, 1996). The Pliensbachian mudstone
samples from the Qaidam Basin all show very low Th/U ratios of
0.50–1.75 (Table 1), suggesting relatively reducing depositional condi­
tions existed during deposition (Wignall and Twitchett, 1996; Kimura
and Watanabe, 2001).
Vanadium can be bound to organic matter by the incorporation of
V4+ into porphyrins and is concentrated in sediments deposited under
reducing conditions (Shaw et al., 1990; Emerson and Huested, 1991). V/
(V + Ni) and V/Cr have been used as a paleoredox index (e.g., Algeo and
Maynard, 2004; Tribovillard et al., 2006; Algeo and Ingall, 2007) since V
is generally enriched under anoxic conditions (Calvert and Pedersen,
1993). Higher V/(V + Ni) (> 0.6) and V/Cr (> 2) ratios are thought to
represent anoxic depositional conditions, with H2S present in the water
overlying the sediment (Ernst, 1970). As shown in Fig. 4f, the V/(V + Ni)
ratios of mudstones in the study area range from 0.41 to 0.93 (x‾ =
0.78), indicating generally anoxic conditions except for samples 23, 24,
and 26. However, the V/Cr ratios vary from 0.32 to 6.72 (x‾ = 1.75) and
have three distinct peaks from the bottom to the top (with average
values of 2.92, 2.03, and 3.19, respectively) (Fig. 4g), which is consistent
with the occurrence of pyrite in the bulk mineral results (Fig. 4a). We
assume that the three distinct V/Cr ratios peaks that are consistent with
high V/(V + Ni) ratios may indicate periods of anoxic conditions in the
study area (Fig. 7b).
P/Al ratios are commonly used to assess changes in paleo­
productivity (e.g., Shen et al., 2014; Shen et al., 2015; Lu et al., 2021a)
and provide information on the availability of P from continental
weathering or the decoupling of P availability from weathering fluxes (e.
g., Delaney and Boyle, 1987; Filippelli, 1997). Phosphorus content in
sediment has a good relationship to productivity as the P deposited in
sediments may be associated with organic matter from dead organisms
(Schenau et al., 2005). P/Al ratios in the study area show three distinct
peaks that indicate intervals of relatively high paleoproductivity
(Fig. 7c) that broadly coincide with peaks in kaolinite content (K-1, K-2,
and K-3), C-values, V/(V + Ni), V/Cr and CIA.
5.2. Volcanism as a potential driving mechanism for Pliensbachian
terrestrial climate and environment perturbations
Throughout Earth history, volcanism has frequently coincided with
episodes of major climate change and biological turnover, including the
Permo-Triassic mass extinction, the Carnian Pluvial Episode, and the
Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event (e.g., Bond and Grasby, 2017; Them
et al., 2018; Shen et al., 2019a; Shen et al., 2019b; Dal Corso et al., 2020;
Zhang et al., 2022). Volcanism can release vast amounts of CO2 into the
atmosphere-ocean system, leading to global warming. Recent studies
have shown that volcanism can also trigger and sustain long icehouse
intervals by increasing planetary albedo and enhancing continental
weathering and organic carbon burial (Lee and Dee, 2019; Soreghan,
2005; Yang et al., 2020; Lu et al., 2021a; Lu et al., 2021b; Shen et al.,
2022). Mercury is emitted as a volcanic trace gas in the modern
10
Global and Planetary Change 216 (2022) 103919
environment (Pyle and Mather, 2003), and has an atmospheric residence
time of 0.5–2 years, allowing global distribution through the atmo­
sphere (Selin, 2009). The near-synchronous onset of Hg enrichment and
negative CIEs implies a common source in the heating of organic-rich
sediments, probably at the onset of the sill-intrusion stage of LIP
development (Shen et al., 2019c). In the study area, the three intervals
with high kaolinite content co-occur with C-value peaks, negative
δ13Corg shifts, and Hg/TOC ratio peaks (Lu et al., 2020; Fig. 7g, h), and
are associated with enhanced continental weathering and organic mat­
ter burial (Lu et al., 2020; Fig. 7d). This may imply that Pliensbachian
paleoclimate change in the Qaidam Basin has a close relationship with
volcanism (Lu et al., 2020). Evaluation of Hg/TOC ratios in the sedi­
mentary succession reveals three peaks in ascending order named HP-1,
HP-2, and HP-3 (Fig. 8). HP-1 has a good correlation with Hg and
δ18Ocarb anomalies in the Wessex Basin (United Kingdom) (Schöllhorn
et al., 2020b; Fig. 8), which may indicate the global elevated tempera­
ture induced by volcanism. HP-2 not only corresponds to Hg and
δ18Ocarb anomalies in the Wessex Basin but also correlates favorably
with Hg/TOC and 187Os/188Os peaks in the Izee-Suplee Basin (United
States of America) (De Lena et al., 2019; Schöllhorn et al., 2020b; Fig. 8),
suggesting a global intensified weathering during this interval. HP-3 is
also recorded in Cardigan Bay (United Kingdom) with Hg/TOC and
187
Os/188Os peaks, representing the synchrony of weathering strength­
ening (Percival et al., 2016; Fig. 8). The intensification of continental
weathering evidenced by the increase of Hg in terrestrial sediments also
indicates its volcanic origin (Shen et al., 2022). Generally, the above
analysis and evidence suggest that these episodes of Pliensbachian
volcanism may have had global influence in driving paleoclimate and
paleoenvironment changes.
During the Early Jurassic, global volcanism was associated with the
break-up of the super-continent Pangaea and the opening of the Central
Atlantic Ocean, and also included late phase CAMP magmatism with
flood-basalt, dyke, and sill emplacement (~188.7 ± 1.9 Ma) that may
have continued into the early-middle Pliensbachian (Ruhl et al., 2016).
Other large-scale Early Jurassic volcanism includes the V1 event of the
Chon Aike Silicic LIP comprising rhyolitic sills and dyke emplacement
(~188–178 Ma; Navarrete et al., 2021), the Ferrar and Karoo LIP
(~183.0 ± 0.5 to 182.3 ± 0.6 Ma; Svensen et al., 2012; Burgess et al.,
2015), and volcanic activity associated with subduction of the Mon­
gol–Okhotsk Ocean plate beneath the Erguna Massif (~193–181 Ma)
and the Paleo-Pacific Oceanic Plate beneath the Eurasian continent
(~187–174 Ma) (Wang et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2017). However, due to
the widespread volcanic activity in the Early Jurassic and the global
distribution of volcanic mercury, it is hard to distinguish the source of
individual volcanic events.
Based on the widespread development of volcanism and the corre­
lation between paleoclimate changes and Hg/TOC ratios (Fig. 8), we
infer that volcanism was a significant driving mechanism behind climate
and environmental perturbations in the Qaidam Basin during the
Pliensbachian (Fig. 9). During the initial stage (Stage I, Fig. 9a), the
climate and environment were relatively stable, with no anomalies in
the geochemical records. Subsequently, the climate and environment
began to fluctuate under the effect of volcanism which left geochemical
anomalies in the sedimentary succession as markers. We divided these
fluctuations into two stages comprising the onset of volcanism (Stage II,
Fig. 9b) and the subsequent post-volcanism recovery stage (Stage III,
Fig. 9c). During the onset stage (Stage II, Fig. 9b), volcanism released
large quantities of greenhouse gases and volcanic Hg directly into the
atmosphere, leading to an increase in atmospheric pCO2 and mercury
anomalies recorded in sedimentary strata. Global climatic warming
could have increased evaporation from the oceans and enhanced the
hydrological cycle with high amounts of runoff in terrestrial environ­
ments on continental margins. A warmer and more humid climate pre­
vailed during Stage II, leading to increased terrestrial weathering and
organic matter burial (Lu et al., 2020) and widespread expansion of lake
areas following increased rainfall. Humid climate and increased
 K. Zhou et al.
11

Fig. 8. Pliensbachian Hg/TOC ratio, δ13Corg and climate records and correlation. Hg/TOC ratio data was collected from the Dameigou section in the Qaidam Basin (China; Lu et al., 2020), Wessex Basin (United

Global and Planetary Change 216 (2022) 103919

Kingdom; Schöllhorn et al., 2020a, 2020b), Izee-Suplee Basin (United States of American; De Lena et al., 2019), Cardigan Bay Basin (United Kingdom; Percival et al., 2018). Abbreviations: F. = Formation; S. = Stage;
Xmg = Xiaomeigou; Hss = Huoshaoshan; Ymg = Yinmagou; Sine = Sinemurian; Toa. = Toarcian.
K. Zhou et al.
Fig. 9. Schematic reconstructions to show the volcanism-driven climate-environment changes in the late Pliensbachian in the Qaidam Basin. Abbreviation: condi. =
conditions; Paleoproduc. = Paleoproductivity; Con. = Continental; weath. = weathering; tr. = trends.
terrestrial weathering also intensified nutrient input in the study area,
leading to the development of dysoxic/anoxic conditions indicated by
V/Cr ratio peaks and high paleoproductivity levels implied by P/Al ratio
peaks (Stage II, Fig. 9b). Volcanism including eruptions and intrusions
into organic-rich sedimentary deposits are likely to have released large
amounts of isotopically light CO2 (− 6 ‰ and − 22 ‰) and CH4 (− 60 ‰)
(Kump and Arthur, 1999; Svensen et al., 2004), resulting in a negative
δ13C excursion throughout the exogenic carbon reservoir, as recorded in
terrestrial organic matter.
Following the termination of volcanism, the climate and environ­
ment in the study area gradually entered the recovery stage (Stage III,
Fig. 9c). Without volcanic inputs, atmospheric pCO2 decreased from
organic matter burial and consumption of continental weathering over
an interval of ~1 to 3 million years (Shen et al., 2022), leading to the
recovery of δ13C values. Lower atmospheric pCO2 levels also decreased
evaporation from the oceans and weakened the hydrological cycle,
reducing runoff and nutrient inputs into the study area as evidenced by
the decrease of V/Cr and P/Al ratios, with a semi-humid and cold
climate prevailing. Such changes in paleoclimate would have negative
feedback on continental weathering and organic matter burial.
12
Global and Planetary Change 216 (2022) 103919
However, considering the time scale differences between volcanism vs.
continental weathering and organic matter burial, the amount of CO2
input by volcanism is also different from that consumed by continental
weathering and organic matter burial. This may reasonably explain the
interval of high illite content during the late Pliensbachian.
6. Conclusions
1) We establish a high-resolution history of climatic and environmental
changes from the terrestrial Dameigou section in the Qaidam Basin
using mineralogical and geochemical analyses and suggest volca­
nism as a driving mechanism for climate and environment pertur­
bations during the Pliensbachian.
2) Clay mineral assemblages in the study area are predominantly
composed of kaolinite, random illite-smectite mixed layers, and
minor proportions of illite. Three significant intervals with high
kaolinite contents are recognized during the Pliensbachian, with
each accompanied by peaks in C-values, V/Cr ratios, and P/Al ratios
that indicate warmer and more humid climates prevailed and were
K. Zhou et al.
accompanied by the intensification of terrestrial weathering, lake
expansion, high productivity, and anoxic conditions.
3) A possible relationship between climate and environment perturba­
tions and volcanism during the Pliensbachian is suggested. Intensi­
fied greenhouse conditions induced by volcanism may have
accelerated the hydrological cycle resulting in increased continental
weathering and organic matter burial, which consequently increased
CO2 consumption in lacustrine settings and led to climates and
environment restoration in the study area during the late
Pliensbachian.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
We thank Maoyan Zhu (Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palae­
ontology) and two anonymous reviewers for feedback on the manu­
script. We are grateful to Suping Peng and Shifeng Dai (China University
of Mining and Technology Beijing) for comments on earlier versions of
the manuscript. This research was supported by the National Key
Research and Development Program of China (Award
2021YFC2902000), the Natural Environment Research Council’s
Biosphere Evolution, Transition and Resilience (BETR) Program (Grant
NE/P0137224/1), National Natural Science Foundation of China
(Grants 41772161, 42172196, and 41472131), and the National Science
and Technology Major Project (Award 2017ZX05009-002).
References
Algeo, T.J., Ingall, E., 2007. Sedimentary Corg: P ratios, paleocean ventilation, and
Phanerozoic atmospheric pO2. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 256,
130–155.
Algeo, T.J., Maynard, J.B., 2004. Trace-element behavior and redox facies in core shales
of Upper Pennsylvanian Kansas-type cyclothems. Chem. Geol. 206, 289–318.
Armendáriz, M., Rosales, I., Bádenas, B., Aurell, M., García-Ramos, J.C., Piñuela, L.,
2012. High-resolution chemostratigraphic records from Lower Pliensbachian
belemnites: Palaeoclimatic perturbations, organic facies and water mass exchange
(Asturian basin, northern Spain). Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 333,
178–191.
Bailey, T.R., Rosenthal, Y., McArthur, J.M., van de Schootbrugge, B., Thirlwall, M.F.,
2003. Paleoceanographic changes of the Late Pliensbachian-Early Toarcian interval:
a possible link to the genesis of an oceanic anoxic event. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 212,
307–320.
Bhatia, M.R., Taylor, S.R., 1981. Trace-element geochemistry and sedimentary
provinces: a study from the Tasman Geosyncline, Australia. Chem. Geol. 33,
115–125.
Bond, D.P., Grasby, S.E., 2017. On the causes of mass extinctions. Palaeogeogr.
Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 478, 3–29.
Bougeault, C., Pellenard, P., Deconinck, J.F., Hesselbo, S.P., Dommergues, J.L.,
Bruneau, L., Cocquerez, T., Laffont, R., Huret, E., Thibault, N., 2017. Climatic and
palaeoceanographic changes during the Pliensbachian (Early Jurassic) inferred from
clay mineralogy and stable isotope (CO) geochemistry (NW Europe). Glob. Planet.
Chang. 149, 139–152.
Burgess, S.D., Bowring, S.A., Fleming, T.H., Elliot, D.H., 2015. High-precision
geochronology links the Ferrar large igneous province with early-Jurassic Ocean
anoxia and biotic crisis. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 415, 90–99.
Calvert, S.E., Pedersen, T.F., 1993. Geochemistry of recent oxic and anoxic marine
sediments: implications for the geological record. Mar. Geol. 113, 67–88.
Chamley, H., 1989. Clay Sedimentology. Springer, Berlin, 623 pp.
Cheng, C., Li, S., Xie, X., Cao, T., Manger, W.L., Busbey, A.B., 2019. Permian carbon
isotope and clay mineral records from the Xikou section, Zhen’an, Shaanxi Province,
Central China: climatological implications for the easternmost Paleo-Tethys.
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 514, 407–422.
Close, R.A., Friedman, M., Lloyd, G.T., Benson, R.B., 2015. Evidence for a mid-Jurassic
adaptive radiation in mammals. Curr. Biol. 25, 2137–2142.
13
Global and Planetary Change 216 (2022) 103919
Cohen, A.S., Coe, A.L., 2002. New geochemical evidence for the onset of volcanism in the
Central Atlantic magmatic province and environmental change at the Triassic-
Jurassic boundary. Geology 30, 267–270.
Cohen, A.S., Coe, A.L., Bartlett, J.M., Hawkesworth, C.J., 1999. Precise Re-Os ages of
organic-rich mud rocks and the Os isotope composition of Jurassic seawater. Earth
Planet. Sci. Lett. 167, 159–173.
Cohen, A.S., Coe, A.L., Harding, S.M., Schwark, L., 2004. Osmium isotope evidence for
the regulation of atmospheric CO2 by continental weathering. Geology 32, 157–160.
Dal Corso, J., Bernardi, M., Sun, Y., Song, H., Seyfullah, L.J., Preto, N., Gianolla, P.,
Ruffell, A., Kustatscher, E., Roghi, G., Merico, A., Hohn, S., Schmidt, A.R.,
Marzoli, A., Newton, E.J., Wignall, P.B., Benton, M.J., 2020. Extinction and dawn of
the modern world in the Carnian (Late Triassic). Sci. Adv. 6 (38), eaba0099.
De Lena, L.F., Taylor, D., Guex, J., Bartolini, A., Adatte, T., van Acken, D.,
Spangenberg, J.E., Samankassou, E., Vennemann, T., Schaltegger, U., 2019. The
driving mechanisms of the carbon cycle perturbations in the late Pliensbachian
(Early Jurassic). Sci. Rep. 9 (1), 1–12.
Deconinck, J.F., Amédro, F., Baudin, F., Godet, A., Pellenard, P., Robaszynski, F.,
Zimmerlin, I., 2005. Late Cretaceous palaeoenvironments expressed by the clay
mineralogy of Cenomanian-Campanian chalks from the east of the Paris Basin.
Cretac. Res. 26, 171–179.
Deconinck, J.F., Hesselbo, S.P., Pellenard, P., 2019. Climatic and sea-level control of
Jurassic (Pliensbachian) clay mineral sedimentation in the Cardigan Bay Basin,
Llanbedr (Mochras Farm) borehole, Wales. Sedimentology 66, 2769–2783.
Delaney, M.L., Boyle, E.A., 1987. Cd/Ca in late Miocene benthic foraminifera and
changes in the global organic carbon budget. Nature 330, 156–159.
Deng, S.H., Lu, Y.Z., Zhao, Y., Fan, R., Wang, Y.D., Yang, X.J., Li, X., Sun, B.N., 2017. The
Jurassic palaeoclimate regionalization and evolution China. Earth Sci. Fron. 24,
106–142.
Dera, G., Pellenard, P., Neige, P., Deconinck, J.F., Pucéat, E., Dommergues, J.L., 2009.
Distribution of clay minerals in early Jurassic Peritethyan seas: palaeoclimatic
significance inferred from multiproxy comparisons. Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol.
Palaeoecol. 271, 39–51.
Ehrmann, W., Setti, M., Marinoni, L., 2005. Clay minerals in Cenozoic sediments off Cape
Roberts (McMurdo Sound, Antarctica) reveal palaeoclimatic history. Palaeogeogr.
Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 229, 187–211.
Emerson, S.R., Huested, S.S., 1991. Ocean anoxia and the concentrations of molybdenum
and vanadium in seawater. Mar. Chem. 34, 177–196.
Ernst, T.W., 1970. Geochemical Facies Analysis. Elsevier, Amsterdam, p. 152.
Fang, D.J., Jin, G.H., Jiang, L.P., Wang, P.Y., Wang, Z.L., 1996. Paleozoic paleomagnetic
results and the tectonic significance of Tarim Plate. Acta Geograph. Sin. 39,
532–542.
Fathy, D., Wagreich, M., Ntaflos, T., Sami, M., 2021. Paleoclimatic variability in the
southern Tethys, Egypt: insights from the mineralogy and geochemistry of Upper
Cretaceous lacustrine organic-rich deposits. Cretac. Res. 126, 104880.
Filippelli, G.M., 1997. Intensification of the Asian monsoon and a chemical weathering
event in the late Miocene-early Pliocene: Implications for late Neogene climate
change. Geology 25, 27–30.
Fu, H., Jian, X., Liang, H., Zhang, W., Shen, X., Wang, L., 2022. Tectonic and climatic
forcing of chemical weathering intensity in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau since
the middle Miocene. CATENA 208, 105785.
Gao, Y., Wang, C., Liu, Z., Zhao, B., Zhang, X., 2013. Clay mineralogy of the middle
Mingshui Formation (upper Campanian to lower Maastrichtian) from the SKIn
borehole in the Songliao Basin, NE China: implications for palaeoclimate and
provenance. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 385, 162–170.
Gómez, J.J., Comas-Rengifo, M.J., Goy, A., 2016. Palaeoclimatic oscillations in the
Pliensbachian (Early Jurassic) of the Asturian Basin (Northern Spain). Clim. Past 12,
1199–1214.
Guo, B., Eley, Y., Hilton, J., Zou, M., Wang, Q., 2020. Carbon-isotope, petrological and
floral record in coals: implication for Bajocian (Middle Jurassic) climate change. Int.
J. Coal Geol. 220, 103417.
Hesselbo, S.P., Gröcke, D.R., Jenkyns, H.C., Bjerrum, C.J., Farrimond, P., Bell, H.S.M.,
Green, O.R., 2000. Massive dissociation of gas hydrate during a Jurassic oceanic
anoxic event. Nature 406 (6794), 392–395.
Hesselbo, S.P., Robinson, S.A., Surlyk, F., Piasecki, S., 2002. Terrestrial and marine
extinction at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary synchronized with major carbon-cycle
perturbation: a link to initiation of massive volcanism? Geology 30 (3), 251–254.
Jenkyns, H.C., 2010. Geochemistry of oceanic anoxic events. Geochem. Geophys.
Geosyst. 11 (3), Q03004.
Jenkyns, H.C., Weedon, G.P., 2013. Chemostratigraphy (CaCO3, TOC, δ13Corg) of
Sinemurian (Lower Jurassic) black shales from the Wessex Basin, Dorset and
palaeoenvironmental implications. Newsl. Stratigr. 46 (1), 1–21.
Jenkyns, H.C., Jones, C.E., Gröcke, D.R., Hesselbo, S.P., Parkinson, D.N., 2002.
Chemostratigraphy of the Jurassic System: applications, limitations and implications
for palaeoceanography. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 159, 351–378.
Kimura, H., Watanabe, Y., 2001. Oceanic anoxia at the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary.
Geology 29 (11), 995–998.
Korte, C., Hesselbo, S.P., 2011. Shallow marine carbon and oxygen isotope and elemental
records indicate icehouse-greenhouse cycles during the Early Jurassic. Paleoceanogr.
Paleoclimatol. 26 (4), PA4219.
Korte, C., Hesselbo, S.P., Jenkyns, H.C., Rickaby, R.E., Spötl, C., 2009.
Palaeoenvironmental significance of carbon-and oxygen-isotope stratigraphy of
marine Triassic–Jurassic boundary sections in SW Britain. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 166,
431–445.
Korte, C., Hesselbo, S.P., Ullmann, C.V., Dietl, G., Ruhl, M., Schweigert, G., Thibault, N.,
2015. Jurassic climate mode governed by ocean gateway. Nat. Commun. 6, 10015.
K. Zhou et al.
Kübler, B., 1968. Evaluation quantitative du métamorphisme par la cristallinité de
l’illite. Bull. Cent. Rech., Pau, S.N.P.A. 2, 385–397.
Kump, L.R., Arthur, M.A., 1999. Interpreting carbon-isotope excursions: carbonates and
organic matter. Chem. Geol. 161 (1–3), 181–198.
Lee, C.T., Dee, S., 2019. Does volcanism cause warming or cooling? Geology 47,
687–688.
Li, J., Jiang, H., 2013. Global Paleoplate Reconstruction,Lithofacies Paleogeography and
Paleoenvironment Atlas. Geological Publishing House, Beijing, pp. 23–36.
Li, Q., McArthur, J.M., Atkinson, T.C., 2012. Lower Jurassic belemnites as indicators of
palaeo-temperature. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 315–316, 38–45.
Li, M., Sun, S., Fang, X., Wang, C., Wang, Z., Wang, H., 2018. Clay minerals and isotopes
of Pleistocene lacustrine sediments from the western Qaidam Basin, NE Tibetan
Plateau. Appl. Clay Sci. 162, 382–390.
Li, X., Wang, J., Rasbury, T., Zhou, M., Wei, Z., Zhang, C., 2020. Early Jurassic climate
and atmospheric CO2 concentration in the Sichuan paleobasin, southwestern China.
Clim. Past 16 (6), 2055–2074.
Liu, Y., Song, C., Meng, Q., He, P., Yang, R., Huang, R., Chen, S., Wang, D., Xing, Z.,
2020. Paleoclimate change since the Miocene inferred from clay-mineral records of
the Jiuquan Basin, NW China. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 550,
109730.
Lu, J., Zhou, K., Yang, M., Eley, Y., Shao, L., Hilton, J., 2020. Terrestrial organic carbon
isotopic composition (δ13Corg) and environmental perturbations linked to Early
Jurassic volcanism: evidence from the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau of China. Glob. Planet.
Chang. 195, 103331.
Lu, J., Zhang, P., Dal Corso, J., Yang, M., Wignall, P.B., Greene, S.E., Shao, L.Y., Lyu, D.,
Hilton, J., 2021a. Volcanically driven lacustrine ecosystem changes during the
Carnian Pluvial Episode (Late Triassic). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 118 (40),
e2109895118.
Lu, J., Zhou, K., Yang, M., Zhang, P., Shao, L., Hilton, J., 2021b. Records of organic
carbon isotopic composition (δ13Corg) and volcanism linked to changes in
atmospheric pCO2 and climate during the Late Paleozoic Icehouse. Glob. Planet.
Chang. 207, 103654.
Lu, J., Wang, Y., Yang, M., Zhang, P., Bond, D.P., Shao, L., Hilton, J., 2022. Diachronous
end-Permian terrestrial ecosystem collapse with its origin in wildfires. Palaeogeogr.
Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 594, 110960.
Ma, P.F., Wang, L.C., Wang, C.S., Wu, X.H., Wei, Y.S., 2015. Organic-matter
accumulation of the lacustrine Lunpola oil shale, central Tibetan plateau: controlled
by the paleoclimate, provenance, and drainage system. Int. J. Coal Geol. 147, 58–70.
McArthur, J.M.Y., Donovan, D.T., Thirlwall, M.F., Fouke, B.W., 2000. Strontium isotope
profile of the early Toarcian (Jurassic) oceanic anoxic event, the duration of
ammonite biozones, and belemnite palaeotemperatures. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 179,
269–285.
McLennan, S.M., 1993. Weathering and global denudation. J. Geol. 101, 295–303.
McLennan, S.M., Taylor, S.R., 1980. Th and U in sedimentary rocks: crustal evolution and
sedimentary recycling. Nature 285 (5767), 621–624.
Navarrete, C., Hurley, M., Butler, K., Liendo, I., Litvak, V., Folguera, A., 2021. Jurassic
volcanism of the Chon Aike Silicic LIP in the northeastern Deseado Massif. J. South
Am. Earth Sci. 107, 102886.
Nesbitt, H.W., Young, G.M., 1982. Early Proterozoic climates and plate motions inferred
from major element chemistry of lutites. Nature 299 (5885), 715–717.
Nesbitt, H.W., Young, G.M., 1984. Prediction of some weathering trends of plutonic and
volcanic rocks based on thermodynamic and kinetic considerations. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta 48 (7), 1523–1534.
Parker, A., 1970. An index of weathering for silicate rocks. Geol. Mag. 107 (6), 501–504.
Percival, L.M.E., Witt, M.L.I., Mather, T.A., Hermoso, M., Jenkyns, H.C., Hesselbo, S.P.,
Al-Suwaidi, A.H., Storm, M.S., Xu, W., Ruhl, M., 2015. Globally enhanced mercury
deposition during the end-Pliensbachian extinction and Toarcian OAE: a link to the
Karoo–Ferrar Large Igneous Province. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 428, 267–280.
Percival, L.M., Cohen, A.S., Davies, M.K., Dickson, A.J., Hesselbo, S.P., Jenkyns, H.C.,
Leng, M.J., Mather, T.A., Storm, M.S., Xu, W., 2016. Osmium isotope evidence for
two pulses of increased continental weathering linked to Early Jurassic volcanism
and climate change. Geology 44, 759–762.
Percival, L.M., Ruhl, M., Hesselbo, S.P., Jenkyns, H.C., Mather, T.A., Whiteside, J.H.,
2017. Mercury evidence for pulsed volcanism during the end-Triassic mass
extinction. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 114 (30), 7929–7934.
Percival, L.M., Jenkyns, H.C., Mather, T.A., Dickson, A.J., Batenburg, S.J., Ruhl, M.,
Hesselbo, S.P., Barclay, R., Jarvis, I., Robinson, S.A., Woelders, L., 2018. Does large
igneous province volcanism always perturb the mercury cycle? Comparing the
records of Oceanic Anoxic Event 2 and the end-Cretaceous to other Mesozoic events.
Am. J. Sci. 318 (8), 799–860.
Peti, L., Thibault, N., Clémence, M.E., Korte, C., Dommergues, J.L., Bougeault, C.,
Pellenard, P., Jelby, M.E., Ullmann, C.V., 2017. Sinemurian–Pliensbachian
calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy and organic carbon isotope stratigraphy in
the Paris Basin: calibration to the ammonite biozonation of NW Europe.
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 468, 142–161.
Price, G.D., Baker, S.J., VanDeVelde, J., Clémence, M.E., 2016. High-resolution carbon
cycle and seawater temperature evolution during the Early Jurassic (Sinemurian-
Early Pliensbachian). Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 17 (10), 3917–3928.
Pyle, D.M., Mather, T.A., 2003. The importance of volcanic emissions for the global
atmospheric mercury cycle. Atmos. Environ. 37 (36), 5115–5124.
Qiu, X., Liu, C., Mao, G., Deng, Y., Wang, F., Wang, J., 2015. Major, trace and platinum-
group element geochemistry of the Upper Triassic nonmarine hot shales in the Ordos
basin, Central China. Appl. Geochem. 53, 42–52.
Riding, J.B., Leng, M.J., Kender, S., Hesselbo, S.P., Feist-Burkhardt, S., 2013. Isotopic and
palynological evidence for a new early Jurassic environmental perturbation.
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 374, 16–27.
14
Global and Planetary Change 216 (2022) 103919
Ritts, B.D., Hanson, A.D., Zinniker, D., Moldowan, J.M., 1999. Lower-Middle Jurassic
nonmarine source rocks and petroleum systems of the northern Qaidam Basin,
Northwest China. AAPG Bull. 83 (12), 1980–2005.
Ruhl, M., Hesselbo, S.P., Hinnov, L., Jenkyns, H.C., Xu, W., Riding, J.B., Storm, M.,
Minisini, D., Ullmann, C.V., Leng, M.J., 2016. Astronomical constraints on the
duration of the Early Jurassic Pliensbachian Stage and global climatic fluctuations.
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 455, 149–165.
Schenau, S.J., Reichart, G.J., De Lange, G.J., 2005. Phosphorus burial as a function of
paleoproductivity and redox conditions in Arabian Sea sediments. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta 69, 919–931.
Schöllhorn, I., Adatte, T., Charbonnier, G., Mattioli, E., Spangenberg, J.E., Föllmi, K.B.,
2020a. Pliensbachian environmental perturbations and their potential link with
volcanic activity: Swiss and British geochemical records. Sediment. Geol. 406,
105665.
Schöllhorn, I., Adatte, T., Van de Schootbrugge, B., Houben, A., Charbonnier, G.,
Janssen, N., Föllmi, K.B., 2020b. Climate and environmental response to the break-
up of Pangea during the Early Jurassic (Hettangian-Pliensbachian); the Dorset coast
(UK) revisited. Glob. Planet. Chang. 185, 103096.
Selin, N.E., 2009. Global biogeochemical cycling of mercury: a review. Annu. Rev.
Environ. Resour. 34, 43–63.
Shaw, T.J., Gieskes, J.M., Jahnke, R.A., 1990. Early diagenesis in differing depositional
environments: the response of transition metals in pore water. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta 54, 1233–1246.
Shen, J., Zhou, L., Feng, Q., Zhang, M., Lei, Y., Zhang, N., Yu, J.X., Gu, S., 2014. Paleo-
productivity evolution across the Permian-Triassic boundary and quantitative
calculation of primary productivity of black rock series from the Dalong Formation,
South China. Sci. China Earth Sci. 57 (7), 1583–1594.
Shen, J., Schoepfer, S.D., Feng, Q., Zhou, L., Yu, J., Song, H., Wei, H., Algeo, T.J., 2015.
Marine productivity changes during the end-Permian crisis and Early Triassic
recovery. Earth Sci. Rev. 149, 136–162.
Shen, J., Algeo, T.J., Planavsky, N.J., Yu, J., Feng, Q., Song, H., Song, H., Rowe, H.,
Zhou, L., Chen, J., 2019a. Mercury enrichments provide evidence of Early Triassic
volcanism following the end-Permian mass extinction. Earth Sci. Rev. 195, 191–212.
Shen, J., Chen, J.B., Algeo, T.J., Yuan, S.L., Feng, Q.L., Yu, J.X., Zhou, L., O’Connell, B.,
Planavsky, N.J., 2019b. Evidence for a prolonged Permian-Triassic extinction
interval from global marine mercury records. Nat. Commun. 10, 1563.
Shen, J., Yu, J., Chen, J., Algeo, T.J., Xu, G., Feng, Q., Shi, X., Planavsky, N.J., Shu, W.,
Xie, S., 2019c. Mercury evidence of intense volcanic effects on land during the
Permian-Triassic transition. Geology 47 (12), 1117–1121.
Shen, J., Yin, R., Algeo, T.J., Svensen, H.H., Schoepfer, S.D., 2022. Mercury evidence for
combustion of organic-rich sediments during the end-Triassic crisis. Nat. Commun.
13 (1), 1–8.
Silva, R.L., Duarte, L.V., Wach, G.D., Ruhl, M., Sadki, D., Gómez, J.J., Hesselbo, S.P.,
Xu, W.M., O’Connor, D., Rodrigues, B., Mendonça Filho, J.G., 2021. An Early
Jurassic (Sinemurian–Toarcian) stratigraphic framework for the occurrence of
Organic Matter Preservation Intervals (OMPIs). Earth-Sci. Rev. 221, 103780.
Singer, A., 1984. The paleoclimatic interpretation of clay minerals in sediments – a
review. Earth Sci. Rev. 21, 10–293.
Soreghan, G.S., 2005. GeoSystems: Probing Earth’s Deep-Time Climate and Linked
Systems. University of Oklahoma Printing Service.
Storm, M.S., Hesselbo, S.P., Jenkyns, H.C., Ruhl, M., Ullmann, C.V., Xu, W.M., Leng, M.
J., Riding, J.B., Gorbanenko, O., 2020. Orbital pacing and secular evolution of the
Early Jurassic carbon cycle. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 117 (8), 3974–3982.
Suan, G., Pittet, B., Bour, I., Mattioli, E., Duarte, L.V., Mailliot, S., 2008. Duration of the
Early Toarcian carbon isotope excursion deduced from spectral analysis:
consequence for its possible causes. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 267, 666–679.
Svensen, H., Planke, S., Malthe-Sørenssen, A., Jamtveit, B., Myklebust, R., Eidem, T.R.,
Rey, S.S., 2004. Release of methane from a volcanic basin as a mechanism for initial
Eocene global warming. Nature 429 (6991), 542–545.
Svensen, H., Corfu, F., Polteau, S., Hammer, Ø., Planke, S., 2012. Rapid magma
emplacement in the Karoo Large Igneous Province. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 325–326,
1–9.
Tang, L.J., Jin, Z.J., Zhang, M.L., You, F.B., Zhang, B.S., Luo, J., 2000. Structural
evolution and hydrocarbon accumulation stage in the northern margin of Qaidam
Basin. Pet. Explor. Dev. 27 (2), 36–39.
Them, T.R., Gill, B.C., Caruthers, A.H., Gerhardt, A.M., Gröcke, D.R., Lyons, T.W.,
Marroquín, S.M., Nielsen, S.G., Trabucho Alexandre, J.P., Owens, J.D., 2018.
Thallium isotopes reveal protracted anoxia during the Toarcian (Early Jurassic)
associated with volcanism, carbon burial, and mass extinction. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
115 (26), 6596–6601.
Thiry, M., 2000. Palaeoclimatic interpretation of clay minerals in marine deposits: an
outlook from the continental origin. Earth Sci. Rev. 49, 201–221.
Tribovillard, N., Algeo, T.J., Lyons, T., Riboulleau, A., 2006. Trace metals as paleoredox
and paleoproductivity proxies: an update. Chem. Geol. 232 (1–2), 12–32.
Wan, T.F., 2004. Rotation of the Jurassic crust and transformation of the lithosphere in
eastern China. Regional Geol. China Z 2, 966–972.
Wang, Y., Mosbrugger, V., Zhang, H., 2005. Early to Middle Jurassic vegetation and
climatic events in the Qaidam Basin, Northwest China. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol.
Palaeoecol. 224 (1–3), 200–216.
Wang, W., Tang, J., Xu, W.L., Wang, F., 2015. Geochronology and geochemistry of Early
Jurassic volcanic rocks in the Erguna Massif, northeast China: petrogenesis and
implications for the tectonic evolution of the Mongol–Okhotsk suture belt. Lithos
218, 73–86.
Wang, Z.H., Ge, W.C., Yang, H., Bi, J.H., Ji, Z., Dong, Y., Xu, W.L., 2017. Petrogenesis
and tectonic implications of Early Jurassic volcanic rocks of the Raohe accretionary
complex, NE China. J. Asian Earth Sci. 134, 262–280.
K. Zhou et al.
Whiteside, J.H., Olsen, P.E., Kent, D.V., Fowell, S.J., Et-Touhami, M., 2007. Synchrony
between the Central Atlantic magmatic province and the Triassic–Jurassic mass-
extinction event? Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 244 (1–4), 345–367.
Wignall, P.B., Twitchett, R.J., 1996. Oceanic anoxia and the end Permian mass
extinction. Science 272 (5265), 1155–1158.
Wu, Y., Fan, T.L., Jiang, S., Yang, X.Q., 2017. Lithofacies and sedimentary sequence of
the lower Cambrian Niutitang shale in the upper Yangtze platform, South China.
J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 43, 124–136.
Xu, W., Mac Niocaill, C., Ruhl, M., Jenkyns, H.C., Riding, J.B., Hesselbo, S.P., 2018.
Magnetostratigraphy of the Toarcian Stage (Lower Jurassic) of the Llanbedr
(Mochras Farm) Borehole, Wales: basis for a global standard and implications for
volcanic forcing of palaeoenvironmental change. J. Geol. Soc. 175 (4), 594–604.
Yang, J., Cawood, P.A., Du, Y., Condon, D.J., Yan, J., Liu, J., Huang, Y., Yuan, D., 2018.
Early Wuchiapingian cooling linked to Emeishan basaltic weathering? Earth Planet.
Sci. Lett. 492, 102–111.
Yang, J., Cawood, P.A., Montañez, I.P., Condon, D.J., Du, Y., Yan, J., Yan, S., Yuan, D.,
2020. Enhanced continental weathering and large igneous province induced climate
warming at the Permo-Carboniferous transition. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 534, 116074.
Yu, L., Xiao, A., Wu, L., Tian, Y., Rittner, M., Lou, Q., Pan, X., 2017. Provenance
evolution of the Jurassic northern Qaidam Basin (West China) and its geological
implications: evidence from detrital zircon geochronology. Int. J. Earth Sci. 106,
2713–2726.
15
Global and Planetary Change 216 (2022) 103919
Zhang, H., 1998. Jurassic Coal-Bearing Strata and Coal Accumulation Pattern in
Northwestern China. Geological Publishing House, Beijing, pp. 1–417 (in Chinese).
Zhang, P., Lu, J., Yang, M., Bond, D.P., Greene, S.E., Liu, L., Zhang, Y., Wang, Y.,
Wang, Z., Li, S., Shao, L., Hilton, J., 2022. Volcanically-Induced Environmental and
Floral Changes Across the Triassic-Jurassic (T-J) Transition. Front. Ecol. Evol. 10,
853404.
Zhao, W.Z., Jin, J.Q., Xue, L.Q., Meng, Q.R., Zhao, C.Y., 2000. Formation and Evolution
of Jurassic Prototype Basin in Northwest. Geological Publishing House, China.
Beijing, pp. 1–305 (in Chinese).
Zhao, Z.Y., Zhao, J.H., Wang, H.J., Liao, J.D., Liu, C.M., 2007. Distribution
characteristics and applications of trace elements in Junggar Basin. Nat. Gas Explor.
Dev. 30, 30–33 (in Chinese).
Zhao, X., Zhao, J., Zeng, X., Tian, J., Guo, Z., Wang, C., Wang, D., Hu, C., 2020.
Early–Middle Jurassic paleogeography reconstruction in the Western Qaidam Basin:
insights from sedimentology and detrital zircon geochronology. Mar. Pet. Geol. 118,
104445.
Zhou, C., Jiang, S.Y., 2009. Palaeoceanographic redox environments for the lower
Cambrian Hetang Formation in South China: evidence from pyrite framboids, redox
sensitive trace elements, and sponge biota occurrence. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol.
Palaeoecol. 271, 279–286.